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SuTRASAMUCCAYA (no. 1635)
Sutrasamuccaya
Sutrasamuccaya. (T. Mdo kun las btus pa; C. Dasheng baoyaoyi lun; J. Daijo hoyogiron; K. Taesŭng poyoŭi non 大乘寶要義論). In Sanskrit, "Compendium of Sutras," a work attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA, an anthology of passages from sixty-eight mainly MAHĀYĀNA sutras (or collections of sutras), organized under thirteen topics. These topics extol the bodhisattva and the Mahāyāna path, noting the rarity and hence precious nature of such things as faith in the Buddha, great compassion, and laymen who are able to follow the bodhisattva path. The text is of historical interest because it provides evidence of the Mahāyāna sutras that were extant at the time of Nāgārjuna. These include, in addition to various PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, such famous works as the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. The Chinese translation was made by Dharmaraksa (c. 1018-1058) during the Northern Song dynasty and was among the last stratum of Indian materials to be entered into the Chinese Buddhist canon (C. DAZANGJING).
Sutras: The second part of the Buddhist Tripitaka (q.v.), containing the teachings of Gautama Buddha. They consist of 250 chapters, divided in five nikayas.
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10. Miscellaneous sutras, DHĀRAnĪ scriptures and dhāranī anthologies (K 1087-1242)
10. Miscellaneous sutras, DHĀRAnĪ scriptures, and dhāranī anthologies (K 1087-1242)
11. Other miscellaneous sutras (K 1243-1496)
12. Commentaries to Sutras (vols. 24-26, nos. 1505-1535), e.g.,
1. Major Mahāyāna scriptures (K 1-548), beginning with the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, followed by the MAHĀRATNAKutASuTRA, and continuing through all the major Mahāyāna sutras and sutra collections, from the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, to the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, and LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA
1. Major Mahāyāna scriptures (K 1-548), beginning with the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, followed by the RATNAKutASuTRA, and continuing through all the major Mahāyāna sutras and sutra collections, from the AVATAMSAKA to the PARINIRVĀnA, SAMDHINIRMOCANA, and LAnKĀVATĀRA
3. ĀGAMA collections and HĪNAYĀNA sutras (K 647-888)
3. ĀGAMA collections and "hīnayāna" sutras (K 647-888)
4. perfect/consummate [Lotus and Nirvāna sutras] (C. yuanjiao 圓教)
9. Miscellaneous sutras (vols. 14-17, nos. 425-847), e.g.,
abhidharma. (P. abhidhamma; T. chos mngon pa; C. apidamo/duifa; J. abidatsuma/taiho; K. abidalma/taebop 阿毘達磨/對法). In Sanskrit, abhidharma is a prepositional compound composed of abhi- + dharma. The compound is typically glossed with abhi being interpreted as equivalent to uttama and meaning "highest" or "advanced" DHARMA (viz., doctrines or teachings), or abhi meaning "pertaining to" the dharma. The SARVASTIVADA Sanskrit tradition typically follows the latter etymology, while the THERAVADA PAli tradition prefers the former, as in BUDDHAGHOSA's gloss of the term meaning either "special dharma" or "supplementary dharma." These definitions suggest that abhidharma was conceived as a precise (P. nippariyAya), definitive (PARAMARTHA) assessment of the dharma that was presented in its discursive (P. sappariyAya), conventional (SAMVṚTI) form in the SuTRAS. Where the sutras offered more subjective presentations of the dharma, drawing on worldly parlance, simile, metaphor, and personal anecdote in order to appeal to their specific audiences, the abhidharma provided an objective, impersonal, and highly technical description of the specific characteristics of reality and the causal processes governing production and cessation. There are two divergent theories for the emergence of the abhidharma as a separate genre of Buddhist literature. In one theory, accepted by most Western scholars, the abhidharma is thought to have evolved out of the "matrices" (S. MATṚKA; P. mAtikA), or numerical lists of dharmas, that were used as mnemonic devices for organizing the teachings of the Buddha systematically. Such treatments of dharma are found even in the sutra literature and are probably an inevitable by-product of the oral quality of early Buddhist textual transmission. A second theory, favored by Japanese scholars, is that abhidharma evolved from catechistic discussions (abhidharmakathA) in which a dialogic format was used to clarify problematic issues in doctrine. The dialogic style also appears prominently in the sutras where, for example, the Buddha might give a brief statement of doctrine (uddesa; P. uddesa) whose meaning had to be drawn out through exegesis (NIRDEsA; P. niddesa); indeed, MAHAKATYAYANA, one of the ten major disciples of the Buddha, was noted for his skill in such explications. This same style was prominent enough in the sutras even to be listed as one of the nine or twelve genres of Buddhist literature (specifically, VYAKARAnA; P. veyyAkarana). According to tradition, the Buddha first taught the abhidharma to his mother MAHAMAYA, who had died shortly after his birth and been reborn as a god in TUsITA heaven. He met her in the heaven of the thirty-three (TRAYASTRIMsA), where he expounded the abhidharma to her and the other divinities there, repeating those teachings to sARIPUTRA when he descended each day to go on his alms-round. sAriputra was renowned as a master of the abhidharma. Abhidharma primarily sets forth the training in higher wisdom (ADHIPRAJNAsIKsA) and involves both analytical and synthetic modes of doctrinal exegesis. The body of scholastic literature that developed from this exegetical style was compiled into the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA, one of the three principal sections of the Buddhist canon, or TRIPItAKA, along with sutra and VINAYA, and is concerned primarily with scholastic discussions on epistemology, cosmology, psychology, KARMAN, rebirth, and the constituents of the process of enlightenment and the path (MARGA) to salvation. (In the MAHAYANA tradition, this abhidharmapitaka is sometimes redefined as a broader "treatise basket," or *sASTRAPItAKA.)
abhidharmapitaka. (P. abhidhammapitaka; T. chos mngon pa'i sde snod; C. lunzang; J. ronzo; K. nonjang 論藏). The third of the three "baskets" (PItAKA) of the Buddhist canon (TRIPItAKA). The abhidharmapitaka derives from attempts in the early Buddhist community to elucidate the definitive significance of the teachings of the Buddha, as compiled in the SuTRAs. Since the Buddha was well known to have adapted his message to fit the predilections and needs of his audience (cf. UPAYAKAUsALYA), there inevitably appeared inconsistencies in his teachings that needed to be resolved. The attempts to ferret out the definitive meaning of the BUDDHADHARMA through scholastic interpretation and exegesis eventually led to a new body of texts that ultimately were granted canonical status in their own right. These are the texts of the abhidharmapitaka. The earliest of these texts, such as the PAli VIBHAnGA and PUGGALAPANNATTI and the SARVASTIVADA SAMGĪTIPARYAYA and DHARMASKANDHA, are structured as commentaries to specific sutras or portions of sutras. These materials typically organized the teachings around elaborate doctrinal taxonomies, which were used as mnemonic devices or catechisms. Later texts move beyond individual sutras to systematize a wide range of doctrinal material, offering ever more complex analytical categorizations and discursive elaborations of the DHARMA. Ultimately, abhidharma texts emerge as a new genre of Buddhist literature in their own right, employing sophisticated philosophical speculation and sometimes even involving polemical attacks on the positions of rival factions within the SAMGHA. ¶ At least seven schools of Indian Buddhism transmitted their own recensions of abhidharma texts, but only two of these canons are extant in their entirety. The PAli abhidhammapitaka of the THERAVADA school, the only recension that survives in an Indian language, includes seven texts (the order of which often differs): (1) DHAMMASAnGAnI ("Enumeration of Dharmas") examines factors of mentality and materiality (NAMARuPA), arranged according to ethical quality; (2) VIBHAnGA ("Analysis") analyzes the aggregates (SKANDHA), conditioned origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA), and meditative development, each treatment culminating in a catechistic series of inquiries; (3) DHATUKATHA ("Discourse on Elements") categorizes all dharmas in terms of the skandhas and sense-fields (AYATANA); (4) PUGGALAPANNATTI ("Description of Human Types") analyzes different character types in terms of the three afflictions of greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA) and various related subcategories; (5) KATHAVATTHU ("Points of Controversy") scrutinizes the views of rival schools of mainstream Buddhism and how they differ from the TheravAda; (6) YAMAKA ("Pairs") provides specific denotations of problematic terms through paired comparisons; (7) PAttHANA ("Conditions") treats extensively the full implications of conditioned origination. ¶ The abhidharmapitaka of the SARVASTIVADA school is extant only in Chinese translation, the definitive versions of which were prepared by XUANZANG's translation team in the seventh century. It also includes seven texts: (1) SAMGĪTIPARYAYA[PADAsASTRA] ("Discourse on Pronouncements") attributed to either MAHAKAUstHILA or sARIPUTRA, a commentary on the SaMgītisutra (see SAnGĪTISUTTA), where sAriputra sets out a series of dharma lists (MATṚKA), ordered from ones to elevens, to organize the Buddha's teachings systematically; (2) DHARMASKANDHA[PADAsASTRA] ("Aggregation of Dharmas"), attributed to sAriputra or MAHAMAUDGALYAYANA, discusses Buddhist soteriological practices, as well as the afflictions that hinder spiritual progress, drawn primarily from the AGAMAs; (3) PRAJNAPTIBHAsYA[PADAsASTRA] ("Treatise on Designations"), attributed to MaudgalyAyana, treats Buddhist cosmology (lokaprajNapti), causes (kArana), and action (KARMAN); (4) DHATUKAYA[PADAsASTRA] ("Collection on the Elements"), attributed to either PuRnA or VASUMITRA, discusses the mental concomitants (the meaning of DHATU in this treatise) and sets out specific sets of mental factors that are present in all moments of consciousness (viz., the ten MAHABHuMIKA) or all defiled states of mind (viz., the ten KLEsAMAHABHuMIKA); (5) VIJNANAKAYA[PADAsASTRA] ("Collection on Consciousness"), attributed to Devasarman, seeks to prove the veracity of the eponymous SarvAstivAda position that dharmas exist in all three time periods (TRIKALA) of past, present, and future, and the falsity of notions of the person (PUDGALA); it also provides the first listing of the four types of conditions (PRATYAYA); (6) PRAKARAnA[PADAsASTRA] ("Exposition"), attributed to VASUMITRA, first introduces the categorization of dharmas according to the more developed SarvAstivAda rubric of RuPA, CITTA, CAITTA, CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKARA, and ASAMSKṚTA dharmas; it also adds a new listing of KUsALAMAHABHuMIKA, or factors always associated with wholesome states of mind; (7) JNANAPRASTHANA ("Foundations of Knowledge"), attributed to KATYAYANĪPUTRA, an exhaustive survey of SarvAstivAda dharma theory and the school's exposition of psychological states, which forms the basis of the massive encyclopedia of SarvAstivAda-VaibhAsika abhidharma, the ABHIDHARMAMAHAVIBHAsA. In the traditional organization of the seven canonical books of the SarvAstivAda abhidharmapitaka, the JNANAPRASTHANA is treated as the "body" (sARĪRA), or central treatise of the canon, with its six "feet" (pAda), or ancillary treatises (pAdasAstra), listed in the following order: (1) PrakaranapAda, (2) VijNAnakAya, (3) Dharmaskandha, (4) PrajNaptibhAsya, (5) DhAtukAya, and (6) SaMgītiparyAya. Abhidharma exegetes later turned their attention to these canonical abhidharma materials and subjected them to the kind of rigorous scholarly analysis previously directed to the sutras. These led to the writing of innovative syntheses and synopses of abhidharma doctrine, in such texts as BUDDHAGHOSA's VISUDDHIMAGGA and ANURUDDHA's ABHIDHAMMATTHASAnGAHA, VASUBANDHU's ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA, and SAMGHABHADRA's *NYAYANUSARA. In East Asia, this third "basket" was eventually expanded to include the burgeoning scholastic literature of the MAHAYANA, transforming it from a strictly abhidharmapitaka into a broader "treatise basket" or *sASTRAPItAKA (C. lunzang).
abhiprAya. (T. dgongs pa; C. yiqu; J. ishu; K. ŭich'wi 意趣). In Sanskrit, "hidden intention" or "purpose"; a term used in hermeneutics to refer to the concealed intent the Buddha had in mind when he made a statement that was not literally true (see also ABHISAMDHI). In the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA, there are four abhiprAyas. (1) The Buddha may say that two things are the same when in fact they are similar in only one, albeit important, feature. Thus, sAKYAMUNI Buddha says that he is the past buddha VIPAsYIN, thinking of the fact that there is not the slightest difference in their DHARMAKAYAs. This is called the intention of sameness (samatAbhiprAya). (2) The Buddha may say one thing while intending something else (arthAntarAbhiprAya). This category is often invoked in YOGACARA exegesis to explain why the Buddha proclaimed the nonexistence of all phenomena in the PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras when he in fact did not intend this statement to be taken literally, thinking instead of the three natures (TRILAKsAnA) of all phenomena propounded by the YogAcAra. (3) The buddha may make a statement intending another time (kAlAntarAbhiprAya) than that suggested by his words. For example, he may assure lazy persons who are incapable of any virtuous practice whatsoever that they will be reborn in SUKHAVATĪ, the paradise of AMITABHA, if they will simply call on that buddha. He does this in order to encourage them to accumulate a modest amount of merit, although he knows that they will not be reborn there immediately or even in their next lifetime, but at some other time in the future. (4) The Buddha adjusts his teaching to the capacities of his students based on their dispositions (pudgalAntarAbhiprAya). For example, the Buddha will extol the benefits of the practice of charity (DANA) to a person who is disposed toward the accumulation of merit (PUnYA) but will underplay the importance of charity to a person who becomes complacently attached to that practice. See ABHISAMDHI; SANDHYABHAsA.
AbhisamayAlaMkAra. (T. Mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan). In Sanskrit, "Ornament of Realization"; a major scholastic treatise of the MAHAYANA, attributed to MAITREYANATHA (c. 350CE). Its full title is AbhisamayAlaMkAranAmaprajNApAramitopadesasAstra (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan) or "Treatise Setting Forth the Perfection of Wisdom called 'Ornament for Realization.'" In the Tibetan tradition, the AbhisamayAlaMkAra is counted among the five treatises of Maitreya (BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA). The 273 verses of the AbhisamayAlaMkAra provide a schematic outline of the perfection of wisdom, or PRAJNAPARAMITA, approach to enlightenment, specifically as delineated in the PANCAVIMsATISAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines"). This detailed delineation of the path is regarded as the "hidden teaching" of the prajNApAramitA sutras. Although hardly known in East Asian Buddhism (until the modern Chinese translation by FAZUN), the work was widely studied in Tibet, where it continues to hold a central place in the monastic curricula of all the major sects. It is especially important for the DGE LUGS sect, which takes it as the definitive description of the stages of realization achieved through the Buddhist path. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra treats the principal topics of the prajNApAramitA sutras by presenting them in terms of the stages of realizations achieved via the five paths (PANCAMARGA). The eight chapters of the text divide these realizations into eight types. The first three are types of knowledge that are essential to any type of practice and are generic to both the mainstream and MahAyAna schools. (1) The wisdom of knowing all modes (SARVAKARAJNATA), for the bodhisattva-adepts who are the putative target audience of the commentary, explains all the characteristics of the myriad dharmas, so that they will have comprehensive knowledge of what the attainment of enlightenment will bring. (2) The wisdom of knowing the paths (MARGAJNATA), viz., the paths perfected by the sRAVAKAs, is a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing all modes. (3) The wisdom of knowing all phenomena (SARVAJNATA) is, in turn, a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing the paths. With (4) the topic of the manifestly perfect realization of all aspects (sarvAkArAbhisambodha) starts the text's coverage of the path itself, here focused on gaining insight into all aspects, viz., characteristics of dharmas, paths, and types of beings. By reaching (5) the summit of realization (murdhAbhisamaya; see MuRDHAN), one arrives at the entrance to ultimate realization. All the realizations achieved up to this point are secured and commingled through (6) gradual realization (anupurvAbhisamaya). The perfection of this gradual realization and the consolidation of all previous realizations catalyze the (7) instantaneous realization (ekaksanAbhisamaya). The fruition of this instantaneous realization brings (8) realization of the dharma body, or DHARMAKAYA (dharmakAyAbhisambodha). The first three chapters thus describe the three wisdoms incumbent on the buddhas; the middle four chapters cover the four paths that take these wisdoms as their object; and the last chapter describes the resultant dharma body of the buddhas and their special attainments. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra provides a synopsis of the massive prajNApAramitA scriptures and a systematic outline of the comprehensive path of MahAyAna. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra spurred a long tradition of Indian commentaries and other exegetical works, twenty-one of which are preserved in the Tibetan canon. Notable among this literature are Arya VIMUKTISEnA's Vṛtti and the ABHISAMAYALAMKARALOKA and Vivṛti (called Don gsal in Tibetan) by HARIBHADRA. Later Tibetan commentaries include BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB's Lung gi snye ma and TSONG KHA PA's LEGS BSHAD GSER PHRENG.
Aksobhya. (T. Mi bskyod pa; C. Achu fo; J. Ashuku butsu; K. Ach'ok pul 阿閦佛). In Sanskrit, "Immovable" or "Imperturbable"; the name given to the buddha of the East because he is imperturbable in following his vow to proceed to buddhahood, particularly through mastering the practice of morality (sĪLA). Aksobhya is one of the PANCATATHAGATA (five tathAgatas), the buddha of the vajra family (VAJRAKULA). There are references to Aksobhya in the PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras and the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), suggesting that his cult dates back to the first or second century of the Common Era, and that he was popular in India and Java as well as in the HimAlayan regions. The cult of Aksobhya may have been the first to emerge after the cult of sAKYAMUNI, and before that of AMITABHA. In the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, Aksobhya is listed as the first son of the buddha MahAbhijNA JNAnAbhibhu, and his bodhisattva name is given as JNAnAkara. His cult entered China during the Han dynasty, and an early text on his worship, the AKsOBHYATATHAGATASYAVYuHA, was translated into Chinese during the second half of the second century. Although his cult was subsequently introduced into Japan, he never became as popular in East Asia as the buddhas AMITABHA or VAIROCANA, and images of Aksobhya are largely confined to MAndALAs and other depictions of the paNcatathAgata. Furthermore, because Aksobhya's buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) or PURE LAND of ABHIRATI is located in the East, he is sometimes replaced in mandalas by BHAIsAJYAGURU, who also resides in that same direction. Aksobhya's most common MUDRA is the BHuMISPARsAMUDRA, and he often holds a VAJRA. His consort is either MAmakī or LocanA.
Alagaddupamasutta. (C. Alizha jing; J. Aritakyo; K. Arit'a kyong 阿梨經). In PAli, "Discourse on the Simile of the Snake," the twenty-second sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SarvAstivAda recension appears as the 200th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA, and the similes of the snake and of the raft are the subjects of independent sutras in an unidentified recension in the EKOTTARAGAMA). The discourse was preached by the Buddha at SAvatthi (sRAVASTĪ), in response to the wrong view (MITHYADṚstI) of the monk Arittha. Arittha maintained that the Buddha taught that one could enjoy sensual pleasures without obstructing one's progress along the path to liberation, and remained recalcitrant even after the Buddha admonished him. The Buddha then spoke to the assembly of monks on the wrong way and the right way of learning the dharma. In his discourse, he uses several similes to enhance his audience's understanding, including the eponymous "simile of the snake": just as one could be bitten and die by grasping a poisonous snake by the tail instead of the head, so too will using the dharma merely for disputation or polemics lead to one's peril because of one's wrong grasp of the dharma. This sutta also contains the famous "simile of the raft," where the Buddha compares his dispensation or teaching (sASANA) to a makeshift raft that will help one get across a raging river to the opposite shore: after one has successfully crossed that river by paddling furiously and reached solid ground, it would be inappropriate to put the raft on one's head and carry it; similarly, once one has used the dharma to get across the "raging river" of birth and death (SAMSARA) to the "other shore" of NIRVAnA, the teachings have served their purpose and should not be clung to.
alaksanadharmacakra. (T. mtshan nyid med pa'i chos 'khor; C. wuxiang falun; J. muso horin; K. musang pomnyun 無相法輪). In Sanskrit, lit. "the dharma wheel of signlessness"; the second of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA) described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA. The sutra, an important source for YOGACARA doctrine, explains that the Buddha turned the wheel of the dharma three times. According to the commentators on the sutra, in the first turning of the wheel, called "the dharma wheel of the four noble truths" (CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA), the Buddha taught that dharmas exist in reality. This wheel is described as provisional (NEYARTHA). The second turning of the wheel, delivered on Vulture's Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA) near RAJAGṚHA, is called "the dharma wheel of signlessness" (alaksanadharmacakra). Here, the Buddha taught that no dharmas exist. The sutra also identifies this wheel as a provisional teaching (NEYARTHA). The third turning of the wheel is described as "well-differentiated" (suvibhakta), with the Buddha explaining that some dharmas exist and some do not. This wheel is described as definitive (NĪTARTHA). The description of the third wheel is an important scriptural source for the YogAcAra doctrine of the three natures (TRISVABHAVA). Commentators identify this second turning of the wheel, the alaksanadharmacakra, with the MahAyAna doctrine set forth in the PRAJNAPARAMITASuTRAs (perfection of wisdom sutras) that all dharmas, even buddhahood and NIRVAnA, are without any intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHAVA). In Tibet, the schools of interpretation of the sutra divided evenly into two camps: some (like TSONG KHA PA) assert that the SaMdhinirmocanasutra's second turning of the wheel is the definitive teaching of the Buddha and that the third turning is an inferior YOGACARA teaching;, others (like DOL PO PA) assert that the third turning of the wheel is a definitive teaching and the second turning of the wheel is provisional. See also *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA.
Also a materialistic philosopher whose doctrines are said to be imbodied in the Barhaspatya-sutras; a “denier of all but matter, who if he could come back to life, would put shame to all the ‘Free thinkers’ and ‘Agnostics’ of the day. He lived before the Ramayanic period, but his teachings and school have survived to this day, and he has even now followers, who are mostly to be found in Bengal” (ibid.).
AmisadAna. (P. AmisadAna; T. zang zing gi sbyin pa; C. caishi; J. zaise; K. chaesi 財施). In Sanskrit, "the gift of material goods"; one of the two (or sometimes three) forms of giving (DANA) praised in the sutras. The Sanskrit term Amisa connotes the venal world of the flesh-i.e., material goods, physical pleasures, and sensual enjoyment-as contrasted to the spiritual world of the dharma. Therefore, giving material goods, while certainly a salutary and meritorious act, is thought to be inferior to the "gift of dharma" (DHARMADANA), which is believed to bring greater merit (PUnYA). Sometimes, a third form of giving, the "gift of fearlessness" (ABHAYADANA), viz., helping others to overcome their fear, is added to the list. The gift of material goods typically takes the form of laypeople providing material or monetary support to religious renunciants or institutions, or to the needy and indigent. See also WUJINZANG YUAN.
AmitAbha. (T. 'Od dpag med/Snang ba mtha' yas; C. Amituo fo/Wuliangguang fo; J. Amida butsu/Muryoko butsu; K. Amit'a pul/Muryanggwang pul 阿彌陀佛/無量光佛). In Sanskrit, "Limitless Light," the buddha of the western PURE LAND of SUKHAVATĪ, one of the most widely worshipped buddhas in the MAHAYANA traditions. As recounted in the longer SUKHAVATĪVYuHASuTRA, numerous eons ago, a monk named DHARMAKARA vowed before the buddha LOKEsVARARAJA to follow the BODHISATTVA path to buddhahood, asking him to set forth the qualities of buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA). DharmAkara then spent five KALPAS in meditation, concentrating all of the qualities of all buddha-fields into a single buddha field that he would create upon his enlightenment. He then reappeared before LokesvararAja and made forty-eight specific vows (PRAnIDHANA). Among the most famous were his vow that those who, for as few as ten times over the course of their life, resolved to be reborn in his buddha-field would be reborn there; and his vow that he would appear at the deathbed of anyone who heard his name and remembered it with trust. DharmakAra then completed the bodhisattva path, thus fulfilling all the vows he had made, and became the buddha AmitAbha in the buddha-field called sukhAvatī. Based on the larger and shorter versions of the SukhAvatīvyuhasutra as well as the apocryphal GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING (*AmitAyurdhyAnasutra), rebirth in AmitAbha's buddha-field became the goal of widespread Buddhist practice in India, East Asia, and Tibet, with the phrase "Homage to AmitAbha Buddha" (C. namo Amituo fo; J. NAMU AMIDABUTSU; K. namu Amit'a pul) being a central element of East Asian Buddhist practice. AmitAbha's Indian origins are obscure, and it has been suggested that his antecedents lie in Persian Zoroastrianism, where symbolism of light and darkness abounds. His worship dates back at least as far as the early centuries of the Common Era, as attested by the fact that the initial Chinese translation of the SukhAvatīvyuhasutra is made in the mid-second century CE, and he is listed in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") as the ninth son of the buddha MahAbhijNA JNAnAbhibhu. The Chinese pilgrims FAXIAN and XUANZANG make no mention of him by name in their accounts of their travels to India in the fifth and seventh centuries CE, respectively, though they do include descriptions of deities who seem certain to have been AmitAbha. Scriptures relating to AmitAbha reached Japan in the seventh century, but he did not become a popular religious figure until some three hundred years later, when his worship played a major role in finally transforming what had been previously seen as an elite and foreign tradition into a populist religion. In East Asia, the cult of AmitAbha eventually became so widespread that it transcended sectarian distinction, and AmitAbha became the most popular buddha in the region. In Tibet, AmitAbha worship dates to the early propagation of Buddhism in that country in the eighth century, although it never became as prevalent as in East Asia. In the sixteenth century, the fifth DALAI LAMA gave the title PAn CHEN LAMA to his teacher, BLO BZANG CHOS KYI RGYAL MTSHAN, and declared him to be an incarnation of AmitAbha (the Dalai Lama himself having been declared the incarnation of Avalokitesvara, AmitAbha's emanation). ¶ The names "AmitAbha" and "AmitAyus" are often interchangeable, both deriving from the Sanskrit word "amita," meaning "limitless," "boundless," or "infinite"; there are some intimations that Amita may actually have been the original name of this buddha, as evidenced, for example, by the fact that the Chinese transcription Amituo [alt. Emituo] transcribes the root word amita, not the two longer forms of the name. The distinction between the two names is preserved in the Chinese translations "Wuliangguang" ("Infinite Light") for AmitAbha and Wuliangshou ("Infinite Life") for AmitAyus, neither of which is used as often as the transcription Amituo. Both AmitAbha and AmitAyus serve as epithets of the same buddha in the longer SukhAvatīvyuhasutra and the Guan Wuliangshou jing, two of the earliest and most important of the sutras relating to his cult. In Tibet, his two alternate names were simply translated: 'Od dpag med ("Infinite Light") and Tshe dpag med ("Infinite Life"). Despite the fact that the two names originally refer to the same deity, they have developed distinctions in ritual function and iconography, and AmitAyus is now considered a separate form of AmitAbha rather than just a synonym for him. ¶ AmitAbha is almost universally shown in DHYANASANA, his hands at his lap in DHYANAMUDRA, though there are many variations, such as standing or displaying the VITARKAMUDRA or VARADAMUDRA. As one of the PANCATATHAGATA, AmitAbha is the buddha of the padma family and is situated in the west. In tantric depictions he is usually red in color and is shown in union with his consort PAndarA, and in East Asia he is commonly accompanied by his attendants AVALOKITEsVARA (Ch. GUANYIN) and MAHASTHAMAPRAPTA. See also JINGTU SANSHENG; WANGSHENG.
Ananda. (T. Kun dga' bo; C. Anan[tuo]; J. Anan[da]; K. Anan[da] 阿難[陀]). In Sanskrit and PAli, literally "Bliss," the name of the Buddha's cousin, longtime attendant, and one of his chief disciples. According to tradition, in his previous life, he was a god in the TUsITA heaven, who was born on the same day and into the same sAKYA clan as the BODHISATTVA and future buddha who was born as prince SIDDHARTHA. Ananda was born as the son of Amṛtodana, the brother of king sUDDHODANA. He was thus the Buddha's cousin and the brother of DEVADATTA. When the Buddha returned to his home town of KAPILAVASTU in the second year after his enlightenment, many of the sAkyan men, such as Ananda and Devadatta, wished to renounce the householder life and become the Buddha's disciples as monks. Not long after his ordination, Ananda became a SROTAAPANNA upon hearing a sermon by PuRnA. The Buddha did not have a personal attendant for the first twenty years after his enlightenment, with various monks occasionally offering various services to him. But after two decades of these ad hoc arrangements, the Buddha finally asked for someone to volunteer to be his personal attendant; all the monks volunteered except Ananda, who said that he did not do so because the Buddha would choose the correct person regardless of who volunteered. The Buddha selected Ananda, who accepted on the following conditions: the Buddha was never to give him any special food or robes that he had received as gifts; the Buddha was not to provide him with a special monk's cell; and the Buddha was not to include him in dining invitations he received from the laity. Ananda made these conditions in order to prevent anyone from claiming that he received special treatment because of serving as the Buddha's attendant. In addition, he asked to be allowed to accept invitations on behalf of the Buddha; he asked to be allowed to bring to the Buddha those who came from great distances to see him; he asked to be able to bring any questions he had to the Buddha; and he asked that the Buddha repeat to him any doctrine that had been taught in his absence. Ananda saw these latter conditions as the true advantages of serving the Buddha. For the next twenty-five years, Ananda served the Buddha with great devotion, bringing him water, sweeping his cell, washing his feet, rubbing his body, sewing his robes, and accompanying him wherever he went. He guarded the Buddha's cell at night, carrying a staff and a torch, in order to make sure that his sleep was not disturbed and to be ready should the Buddha need him. As the Buddha grew older and more infirm, Ananda provided devoted care, despite the fact that the two were exactly the same age. Because Ananda was constantly in the Buddha's presence, he played a key role in many famous events of the early dispensation. For example, it was Ananda who, on behalf of MAHAPRAJAPATI, requested that women be allowed to enter the SAMGHA as nuns, persisting in his request despite the Buddha's initial refusal. He is therefore remembered especially fondly by the order of BHIKsUnĪs, and it is said that he often preached to nuns. In a famous tale reproduced in various sources, the daughter of a woman named MAtangī attempted to seduce Ananda with the help of her mother's magical powers, only to come to realize her wrongdoing with the intervention of the Buddha. Toward the end of his life, the Buddha mentioned to Ananda that a buddha could live for a KALPA or until the end of the kalpa if he were asked to do so. (See CAPALACAITYA.) Ananda, distracted by MARA, failed to request the Buddha to do so, despite the Buddha mentioning this three times. Ananda was chastised for this blunder at the first council (see infra). Ananda figures prominently in the account of the Buddha's last days in the MAHAPARINIBBANASUTTA, weeping at the knowledge that the Buddha was about to die and being consoled by him. Ananda was known for his extraordinary powers of memory; he is said to have heard all 84,000 sermon topics (82,000 taught by the Buddha and 2,000 taught by other disciples) and was able to memorize 15,000 stanzas without omitting a syllable. He therefore played a key role in the recitation of the Buddha's teachings at the first council (SAMGĪTI; see COUNCIL, FIRST) held at RAJAGṚHA shortly after the Buddha's death. However, MAHAKAsYAPA, who convened the council, specified that all five hundred monks in attendance must be ARHATs, and Ananda was not. On the night before the opening of the council, Ananda achieved the enlightenment of an arhat as he was lying down to sleep, as his head fell to the pillow and his feet rose from the ground. He is therefore famous for achieving enlightenment in none of the four traditional postures (ĪRYAPATHA): walking, standing, sitting, or lying down. As an arhat, Ananda was welcomed to the council, where he recounted all the words of the Buddha (except those concerning the VINAYA, or monastic rules, which were recited by UPALI). For this reason, most SuTRAs open with the words, "Thus have I heard" (EVAM MAYA sRUTAM); the "I" is usually Ananda. (For this reason, Ananda is also known in China as Duowen Diyi, "First in Vast Hearing" or "He Who Heard the Most.") After the Buddha's death, the order of monks brought five charges against Ananda: (1) the Buddha had said that after his passing, the monks could disregard the minor precepts, but Ananda failed to ask him which those were; thus, all the precepts had to be followed; (2) Ananda had once stepped on the Buddha's robe when sewing it; (3) Ananda had allowed women to honor the Buddha's naked body after his death and their tears had fallen on his feet; (4) Ananda failed to ask the Buddha to live on for the rest of the kalpa; and (5) Ananda urged the Buddha to admit women to the order. Ananda replied that he saw no fault in any of these deeds but agreed to confess them. According to FAXIAN, when Ananda was 120 years old, he set out from MAGADHA to VAIsALĪ in order to die. Seeking his relics (sARĪRA), AJATAsATRU followed him to the Rohīni River, while a group from VaisAlī awaited him on the other bank. Not wishing to disappoint either group, Ananda levitated to the middle of the river in the meditative posture, preached the dharma, and then meditated on the TEJOKASInA, which prompted his body to burst into flames, with the relics dividing into two parts, one landing on each bank of the river. Ananda has long been one of the most beloved figures in the history of Buddhism, in part because he was not the wisest of the Buddha's disciples but showed unstinting devotion to the Buddha, always seeking to understand him correctly and to bring his teachings to as many people as possible.
AnguttaranikAya. (S. EkottarAgama; T. Gcig las 'phros pa'i lung; C. Zengyi ahan jing; J. Zoichiagongyo; K. Chŭngil aham kyong 增壹阿含經). In PAli, "Collection of Numerically Arranged Discourses"; the fourth division of the PAli SUTTAPItAKA (S. SuTRAPItAKA). This collection, which may date from as early as the first century BCE, is composed of 2,198 suttas organized into nine nipAtas, or sections. It corresponds in general structure to the EKOTTARAGAMA, extant only in Chinese translation (and of unidentified affiliation), which is much smaller at only 471 sutras. The suttas in the PAli collection are arranged sequentially in numbered lists according to their subject matter, beginning with discussions of singularities, such as nibbAna (NIRVAnA), and progressing up to sets of eleven. Its PAli commentary, the MANORATHAPuRAnĪ, was probably composed during the fifth century CE. The AnguttaranikAya appears in the Pali Text Society's English translation series as The Book of Gradual Sayings.
Animitta. (P. animitta; T. mtshan ma med pa; C. wuxiang; J. muso; K. musang 無相). In Sanskrit, "signless"; one of three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), along with emptiness (suNYATA) and wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). A sign or characteristic (NIMITTA) refers to the generic appearance of an object, in distinction to its secondary characteristics or ANUVYANJANA. Advertence toward the generic sign and secondary characteristics of an object produces a recognition or perception (SAMJNA) of that object, which may in turn lead to clinging or rejection and ultimately suffering. Hence, signlessness is crucial in the process of sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA), a process in which one does not actively react to the generic signs of an object (i.e., treating it in terms of the effect it has on oneself), but instead seeks to halt the perceptual process at the level of simple recognition. By not seizing on these signs, perception is maintained at a pure level prior to an object's conceptualization and the resulting proliferation of concepts (PRAPANCA) throughout the full range of sensory experience. As the frequent refrain in the SuTRAs states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions (cf. SAMAROPA) created by the intrusion of ego (ATMAN) into the perceptual process. Mastery of this technique of sensory restraint provides access to the signless gate to deliverance. Signlessness is produced through insight into impermanence (ANITYA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to attachments to anything experienced through the senses; once the meditator has abandoned all such attachments to the senses, he is then able to advert toward NIRVAnA, which ipso facto has no sensory signs of its own by which it can be recognized. In the PRAJNAPARAMITA literature, signlessness, emptiness, and wishlessness are equally the absence of the marks or signs of intrinsic existence (SVABHAVA). The YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA says when signlessness, emptiness, and wishlessness are spoken of without differentiation, the knowledge of them is that which arises from hearing or learning (sRUTAMAYĪPRAJNA), thinking (CINTAMAYĪPRAJNA), and meditation (BHAVANAMAYĪPRAJNA), respectively.
aniruddha. (T. ma 'gags pa; C. bumie; J. fumetsu; K. pulmyol 不滅). In Sanskrit, "unextinguished"; a term used to describe uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) phenomena, especially NIRVAnA, which are not subject either to production or extinction. In some MAHAYANA SuTRAs, all phenomena, including compounded (SAMSKṚTA) phenomena, are described as being aniruddha, which is interpreted to mean that from the standpoint of absolute truth (PARAMARTHASATYA), they are not produced and therefore are not extinguished or do not cease. See NIRODHA.
antarAbhava. (T. bar do'i srid pa/bar do; C. zhongyin/zhongyou; J. chuin/chuu; K. chungŭm/chungyu 中陰/中有). In Sanskrit, "intermediate state" or "transitional existence," a transitional state between death (maranabhava) and rebirth (upapattibhava), distinct from the five or six destinies of SAMSARA (see GATI), during which time the transitional being (GANDHARVA) prepares for rebirth. The antarAbhava is considered one of sentient beings' "four modes of existence" (catvAro bhavAḥ), along with birth/rebirth (upapattibhava), life (purvakAlabhava), and death (maranabhava). The notion of an intermediate state was controversial. Schools that accepted it, including the SARVASTIVADA and most MAHAYANA traditions, resorted to scriptural authority to justify its existence, citing, for example, SuTRAs that refer to seven states of existence (bhava), including an antarAbhava. A type of nonreturner (ANAGAMIN), the third stage of sanctity in the mainstream Buddhist schools, was also called "one who achieved NIRVAnA while in the intermediate state" (ANTARAPARINIRVAYIN), again suggesting the scriptural legitimacy of the antarAbhava. There were several views concerning the maximum duration of the ANTARABHAVA. The ABHIDHARMAMAHAVIBHAsA, for example, lists such variations as instantaneous rebirth, rebirth after a week, indeterminate duration, and forty-nine days. Of these different durations, forty-nine days became dominant, and this duration is found in the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA and the YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA. Ceremonies to help guide the transitional being toward a more salutary rebirth, if not toward enlightenment itself, take place once weekly (see QIQI JI); these observances culminate in a "forty-ninth day ceremony" (SISHIJIU [RI] ZHAI), which is thought to mark the end of the process of transition, when rebirth actually occurs. The transitional being in the intermediate state is termed either a gandharva (lit. "fragrance eater"), because it does not take solid food but is said to subsist only on scent (gandha), or sometimes a "mind-made body" (MANOMAYAKAYA). During the transitional period, the gandharva is searching for the appropriate place and parents for its next existence and takes the form of the beings in the realm where it is destined to be reborn. In the Tibetan tradition, the antarAbhava is termed the BAR DO, and the guidance given to the transitional being through the process of rebirth is systematized in such works as the BAR DO THOS GROL CHEN MO, commonly known in the West as The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Like several of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, the THERAVADA scholastic tradition rejects the notion of an intermediate state, positing instead that an instantaneous "connecting" or "linking" consciousness (P. patisandhiviNNAna; S. *pratisaMdhivijNAna) directly links the final moment of consciousness in the present life to the first moment of consciousness in the next.
anutpAda. [alt. anutpanna] (T. skye med; C. wusheng; J. musho; K. musaeng 無生). In Sanskrit, "unproduced" or "nonproduction"; a term used to describe unconditioned phenomena, especially NIRVAnA, which are not subject to either production or cessation. In some MAHAYANA sutras, all phenomena, including impermanent phenomena, are described as anutpAda; this is interpreted to mean that they ultimately are neither produced nor extinguished.
anuyoga. (T. a nu yo ga). In Sanskrit, "subsequent yoga" or "further yoga," the eighth of the nine vehicles (THEG PA DGU) of Buddhism according to the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Here, the system of practice described elsewhere as ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA is divided into three: MAHAYOGA, anuyoga, and ATIYOGA, with anuyoga corresponding to the practices of the "stage of completion" (NIsPANNAKRAMA), mahAyoga to the stage of generation (UTPATTIKRAMA) and atiyoga to the great completion (RDZOGS CHEN) and the spontaneous achievement of buddhahood. Thus, such stage of completion practices as causing the winds (PRAnA) to move through the channels (NAdĪ) to the CAKRAs are set forth in anuyoga. In Rnying ma, anuyoga is also a category of texts in the RNYING MA'I RGYUD 'BUM, divided under the following headings: the four root sutras (rtsa ba'i mdo bzhi), the six tantras clarifying the six limits (mtha' drug gsal bar byed pa'i rgyud drug), the twelve rare tantras (dkon rgyud bcu gnyis), and the seventy written scriptures (lung gi yi ge bdun bcu).
Anzhai shenzhou jing. (J. Antaku jinshukyo; K. Ant'aek sinju kyong 安宅神呪經). In Chinese, the "Spirit-Spell Scripture for Pacifying Homes"; together with the Anzhai tuolunizhou jing ("DHARAnĪ-Spell Scripture for Pacifying Homes"), both SuTRAs detail the ritual known as anzhai zhai ("feast for pacifying homes"). According to this scripture, a merchant's sons were anguished by the unending travails that befell their household and asked the Buddha for help. The Buddha went to the merchant's house, reprimanded the spirits who were supposed to be protecting the home (anzhai jingshen), and expounded the means of preparing the feast for pacifying homes. This ritual, which had to be supervised by a BHIKsU, entailed burning incense, lighting lamps, and chanting the Anzhai shenzhou jing. The scripture is claimed to have been translated during the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 CE) by an unidentified translator, but no Indian or Tibetan recension is known, and it is suspected to be an indigenous Chinese composition (see APOCRYPHA).
apocrypha. (C. yijing/weijing; J. gikyo/gikyo; K. ŭigyong/wigyong 疑經/僞經). Buddhist scholars have appropriated (though not without some controversy) the Judeo-Christian religious term "apocrypha" to refer to indigenous sutras composed outside the Indian cultural sphere, but on the model of translated Indian or Serindian scriptures. Such scriptures were sometimes composed in conjunction with a revelatory experience, but many were intentionally forged using their false ascription to the Buddha or other enlightened figures as a literary device to enhance both their authority and their prospects of being accepted as authentic scriptures. Many of the literary genres that characterize Judeo-Christian apocrypha are found also in Buddhist apocrypha, including the historical, didactic, devotional, and apocalyptic. Both were also often composed in milieus of social upheaval or messianic revivalism. As Buddhism moved outside of its Indian homeland, its scriptures had to be translated into various foreign languages, creating openings for indigenous scriptures to be composed in imitation of these translated texts. Ferreting out such inauthentic indigenous scripture from authentic imported scripture occupied Buddhist bibliographical cataloguers (see JINGLU), who were charged with confirming the authenticity of the Buddhist textual transmission. For the Chinese, the main criterion governing scriptural authenticity was clear evidence that the text had been brought from the "Outer Regions" (C. waiyu), meaning India or Central Asia; this concern with authenticating a text partially accounts for why Chinese translations of Buddhist scriptures typically included a colophon immediately following the title, giving the name of the translator (who was also sometimes the importer of the scripture), along with the place where, and often the imperial reign era during which the translation was made. Scriptures for which there was no such proof were in danger of being labeled as texts of "suspect" or "suspicious" authenticity (yijing) or condemned as blatantly "spurious" or "counterfeit" scriptures (weijing). The presence of indigenous cultural elements, such as yin-yang cosmology, local spirits, or rituals and liturgies associated with folk religion could also be enough to condemn a scripture as "spurious." In Tibet, "treasure texts" (GTER MA) were scriptures or esoteric teachings attributed to enlightened beings or lineage holders that purported to have been buried or hidden away until they could be rediscovered by qualified individuals. Because of their association with a revelatory experience, such "treasure texts" carried authority similar to that of translated scripture. Different classifications of apocryphal scriptures have been proposed, based on genre and style, social history, and doctrinal filiations. In one of the ironies of the Buddhist textual transmission, however, many of the scriptures most influential in East Asian Buddhism have been discovered to be indigenous "apocrypha," not translated scriptures. Such indigenous scriptures were able to appeal to a native audience in ways that translated Indian materials could not, and the sustained popularity of many such "suspect" texts eventually led cataloguers to include them in the canon, despite continuing qualms about their authenticity. Such "canonical apocrypha" include such seminal scriptures as the FANWANG JING ("BrahmA's Net Sutra"), RENWANG JING ("Humane Kings Sutra"), and the YUANJUE JING ("Perfect Enlightenment Sutra"), as well as treatises like the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith"). Similar questions of authenticity can be raised regarding scriptures of Indian provenance, since it is virtually impossible to trace with certainty which of the teachings ascribed to the Buddha in mainstream canonical collections (TRIPItAKA) such as the PAli canon can be historically attributed to him. Similarly, the MAHAYANA sutras, which are also attributed to the Buddha even though they were composed centuries after his death, are considered apocryphal by many of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, including the modern THERAVADA tradition; however, modern scholars do not use the term "Buddhist apocrypha" to describe MahAyAna texts.
arapacana. (T. a ra pa dza na). The arapacana is a syllabary of Indic or Central Asian origin typically consisting of forty-two or forty-three letters, named after its five initial constituents a, ra, pa, ca, and na. The syllabary appears in many works of the MAHAYANA tradition, including the PRAJNAPARAMITA, GAndAVYuHA, LALITAVISTARA, and AVATAMSAKA SuTRAs, as well as in texts of the DHARMAGUPTAKA VINAYA (SIFEN LÜ) and MuLASARVASTIVADA VINAYA. It occurs in both original Sanskrit works and Chinese and Tibetan translations. In most cases, each syllable in the list is presumed to correspond to a key doctrinal term beginning with, or containing, that syllable. A, for example, is associated with the concept of ANUTPADA (nonarising), ra with rajo'pagata (free from impurity), and so forth. Recitation of the syllabary, therefore, functioned as a mystical representation of, or mnemonic device (DHARAnĪ) for recalling, important MahAyAna doctrinal concepts, somewhat akin to the MATṚKA lists of the ABHIDHARMA. Other interpretations posit that the syllables themselves are the primal sources whence the corresponding terms later developed. The syllabary includes: a, ra, pa, ca, na, la, da, ba, da, sa, va, ta, ya, sta, ka, sa, ma, ga, stha, tha, ja, sva, dha, sa, kha, ksa, sta, jNa, rta, ha, bha, cha, sma, hva, tsa, gha, tha, na, pha, ska, ysa, sca, ta, dha. The arapacana also constitutes the central part of the root MANTRA of the BODHISATTVA MANJUsRĪ; its short form is oM a ra pa ca na dhi. It is therefore also considered to be an alternate name for MaNjusrī.
arhat. (P. arahant; T. dgra bcom pa; C. aluohan/yinggong; J. arakan/ogu; K. arahan/ŭnggong 阿羅漢/應供). In Sanskrit, "worthy one"; one who has destroyed the afflictions (KLEsA) and all causes for future REBIRTH and who thus will enter NIRVAnA at death; the standard Tibetan translation dgra bcom pa (drachompa) ("foe-destroyer") is based on the paronomastic gloss ari ("enemy") and han ("to destroy"). The arhat is the highest of the four grades of Buddhist saint or "noble person" (ARYAPUDGALA) recognized in the mainstream Buddhist schools; the others are, in ascending order, the SROTAAPANNA or "stream-enterer" (the first and lowest grade), the SAKṚDAGAMIN or "once-returner" (the second grade), and the ANAGAMIN or "nonreturner" (the third and penultimate grade). The arhat is one who has completely put aside all ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: namely, (1) belief in the existence of a perduring self (SATKAYADṚstI); (2) skeptical doubt (about the efficacy of the path) (VICIKITSA); (3) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA); (4) sensual craving (KAMARAGA); (5) malice (VYAPADA); (6) craving for existence as a divinity (DEVA) in the realm of subtle materiality (RuPARAGA); (7) craving for existence as a divinity in the immaterial realm (ARuPYARAGA); (8) pride (MANA); (9) restlessness (AUDDHATYA); and (10) ignorance (AVIDYA). Also described as one who has achieved the extinction of the contaminants (ASRAVAKsAYA), the arhat is one who has attained nirvAna in this life, and at death attains final liberation (PARINIRVAnA) and will never again be subject to rebirth. Although the arhat is regarded as the ideal spiritual type in the mainstream Buddhist traditions, where the Buddha is also described as an arhat, in the MAHAYANA the attainment of an arhat pales before the far-superior achievements of a buddha. Although arhats also achieve enlightenment (BODHI), the MahAyAna tradition presumes that they have overcome only the first of the two kinds of obstructions, the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA), but are still subject to the noetic obstructions (JNEYAVARAnA); only the buddhas have completely overcome both and thus realize complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI). Certain arhats were selected by the Buddha to remain in the world until the coming of MAITREYA. These arhats (called LUOHAN in Chinese, a transcription of arhat), who typically numbered sixteen (see sOdAsASTHAVIRA), were objects of specific devotion in East Asian Buddhism, and East Asian monasteries will often contain a separate shrine to these luohans. Although in the MahAyAna sutras, the bodhisattva is extolled over the arhats, arhats figure prominently in these texts, very often as members of the assembly for the Buddha's discourse and sometimes as key figures. For example, in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), sARIPUTRA is one of the Buddha's chief interlocutors and, with other arhats, receives a prophecy of his future buddhahood; in the VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA, SUBHuTI is the Buddha's chief interlocutor; and in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, sAriputra is made to play the fool in a conversation with a goddess.
Asmita: (Skr. "I am-ness") A kind of egoism repudiated by the Yogasutras (q.v.) in which lower states of mind are presumed to be the self or purusa. -- K.F.L.
AstasAhasrikAprajNApAramitA. (T. Sher phyin brgyad stong pa; C. Xiaopin bore jing; J. Shobon hannyakyo; K. Sop'um panya kyong 小品般若經). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines." This scripture is now generally accepted to be the earliest of the many PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras and thus probably one of the very earliest of the MAHAYANA scriptures. The Asta, as it is often referred to in the literature, seems to have gradually developed over a period of about two hundred years, from the first century BCE to the first century CE. Some of its earliest recensions translated into Chinese during the Han dynasty do not yet display the full panoply of self-referentially MahAyAna terminology that characterize the more elaborate recensions translated later, suggesting that MahAyAna doctrine was still under development during the early centuries of the Common Era. The provenance of the text is obscure, but the consensus view is that it was probably written in central or southern India. The Asta, together with its verse summary, the RATNAGUnASAMCAYAGATHA, probably represents the earliest stratum of the prajNApAramitA literature; scholars believe that this core scripture was subsequently expanded between the second and fourth centuries CE into other massive PrajNApAramitA scriptures in as many as 100,000 lines (the sATASAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA). By about 500 CE, the Asta's basic ideas had been abbreviated into shorter condensed statements, such as the widely read, 300-verse VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA ("Diamond Sutra"). (Some scholars have suggested instead that the "Diamond Sutra" may in fact represent one of the earliest strata of the prajNApAramitA literature.) The MahAyAna tradition's view of its own history, however, is that the longest of the prajNApAramitA scriptures, the 100,000-line satasAhasrikAprajNApAramitA, is the core text from which all the other perfection of wisdom sutras were subsequently excerpted. The main interlocutor of the Asta, as in most of the prajNApAramitA scriptures, is SUBHuTI, an ARHAT foremost among the Buddha's disciples in dwelling at peace in remote places, rather than sARIPUTRA, who much more commonly appears in this role in the mainstream Buddhist scriptures (see AGAMA; NIKAYA). The prominent role accorded to Subhuti suggests that the prajNApAramitA literature may derive from forest-dwelling (Aranyaka) ascetic traditions distinct from the dominant, urban-based monastic elite. The main goal of the Asta and other prajNApAramitA scriptures is rigorously to apply the foundational Buddhist notion of nonself (ANATMAN) to the investigation of all phenomena-from the usual compounded things (SAMSKARA) and conditioned factors (SAMSKṚTADHARMA), but even to such quintessentially Buddhist summa bona as the fruits of sanctity (ARYAMARGAPHALA) and NIRVAnA. The constant refrain of the Asta is that there is nothing that can be grasped or to which one should cling, not PRAJNA, not PARAMITA, not BODHISATTVA, and not BODHI. Even the six perfections (sAdPARAMITA) of the bodhisattva are subjected to this same refutation: for example, only when the bodhisattva realizes that there is no giver, no recipient, and no gift will he have mastered the perfection of giving (DANAPARAMITA). Such radical nonattachment even to the central concepts of Buddhism itself helps to foster a thoroughgoing awareness of the emptiness (suNYATA) of all things and thus the perfection of wisdom (prajNApAramitA). Even if the Asta's area of origin was in the south of India, the prajNApAramitA scriptures seem initially to have found their best reception in the northwest of India during the KUSHAN dynasty (c. first century CE), whence they would have had relatively easy entrée into Central Asia and then East Asia. This geographic proximity perhaps accounts for the early acceptance the Asta and the rest of the prajNApAramitA literature received on the Chinese mainland, helping to make China the first predominantly MahAyAna tradition.
*astasenA. (T. lha srin sde brgyad; C. tianlong babu; J. tenryu hachibu; K. ch'onnyong p'albu 天龍八部). Sanskrit term for a grouping of eight nonhuman beings associated with the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU); they are often listed as being in attendance when the Buddha speaks the MAHAYANA sutras. There are various lists, but a standard grouping includes divinities (DEVA), dragons (NAGA), demons (YAKsA), demigods or titans (ASURA), demigod musicians (GANDHARVA), mythical birds (GARUdA), half-horse/half-men (KIMNARA), and great snakes (MAHORAGA).
Attavada (Pali) Attavāda [from attā self (Sanskrit ātman) + vāda theory, disputation from the verbal root vad to speak] Atmavada (Sanskrit) The theory of a persistent soul. A study of Buddhist sutras or suttas shows that Gautama Buddha intended the term to convey the meaning of the heresy of separateness, the belief that one’s self or soul is different and apart from the one universal self, Brahman. Its importance in philosophy and mystical thought, and its genuine Buddhist significance, lies in the fact that Buddhism does not deny the existence of a soul, but strongly emphasizes the fact that no such soul is either a special creation or in its essence different from and other than the cosmic self. Hence the meaning of the heresy of separateness, because those who hold this view are under the constant false impression that in themselves they are different from, and other than, the universe in which they live, move, and have all their being.
auddhatya. (P. uddhacca; T. rgod pa; C. diao; J. jo; K. to 掉). In Sanskrit, "restlessness," "agitation," or "distraction"; along with its related "worry" or "regret" (KAUKṚTYA), with which it is often seen in compound, auddhatya constitutes the fourth of the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) to the attainment of meditative absorption (DHYANA). Auddhatya-kaukṛtya is the specific hindrance to joy (SUKHA), the fourth of the five factors of dhyAna (DHYANAnGA). Restlessness and worry are fostered by unwise attention (AYONIsOMANASKARA) to mental unrest and are overcome through learning and reflecting on the SuTRAs and VINAYA and by associating with elders of calm demeanor. Restlessness and worry are countered by SAMADHI, the fourth of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA) and the sixth of the factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA), together with development of the factors of tranquillity (PRAsRABDHI), and equanimity (UPEKsA).
avadAna. (P. apadAna; T. rtogs par brjod pa; C. apotuona/piyu; J. ahadana or apadana/hiyu; K. ap'adana/piyu 阿波陀那/譬喩). In Sanskrit, "tales" or "narrative"; a term used to denote a type of story found in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist literature. The precise meaning of the word has been the subject of much discussion. In the Indian BrAhmanas and srauta literature, the term denotes either something that is sacrificed or a portion of a sacrifice. The term avadAna was originally thought to mean "something cut off; something selected" and was presumed to derive from the prefix ava- + the Sanskrit root √dA. Feer, who published a French translation of the AVADANAsATAKA in 1891, tentatively translated it as "légende, action héroïque," while noting that the Tibetans, the Chinese, and the Mongols all employed differing translations of the word as well. (The Chinese use a transcription, apotuona, as well as a translation, piyu, meaning "simile." The Tibetan rtogs brjod has been rendered as "judgment" or "moral legend"; literally, it means the presentation or expression of the realizations [of an adept]. The Mongolian equivalent is domok.) Feer's rendering of avadAna is closer to its meaning of "heroic action" in classical Indian works such as the RaghuvaMsa and the KumArasambhava. AvadAnas are listed as the tenth of the twelvefold (DVADAsAnGA) division of the traditional genres of Buddhist literature, as classified by compositional style and content. The total corpus of the genre is quite extensive, ranging from individual avadAnas embedded in VINAYA texts, or separate sutras in the SuTRAPItAKA, to avadAnas that circulated either individually or in avadAna collections. These stories typically illustrate the results of both good and bad KARMAN, i.e., past events that led to present circumstances; in certain cases, however, they also depict present events that lead to a prediction (VYAKARAnA) of high spiritual attainment in the future. AvadAnas are closely related to JATAKAs, or birth stories of the Buddha; indeed, some scholars have considered jAtakas to be a subset of the avadAna genre, and some jAtaka tales are also included in the AVADANAsATAKA, an early avadAna collection. AvadAnas typically exhibit a three-part narrative structure, with a story of the present, followed by a story of past action (karman), which is then connected by identifying the past actor as a prior incarnation of the main character in the narrative present. In contrast to the jAtakas, however, the main character in an avadAna is generally not the Buddha (an exception is Ksemendra's eleventh-century BodhisattvAvadAnakalpalatA) but rather someone who is or becomes his follower. Moreover, some avadAnas are related by narrators other than the Buddha, such as those of the AsOKAVADANA, which are narrated by UPAGUPTA. Although the avadAna genre was once dismissed as "edifying stories" for the masses, the frequent references to monks as listeners and the directives to monks on how to practice that are embedded in these tales make it clear that the primary audience was monastics. Some of the notations appended to the stories in sura's [alt. Aryasura; c. second century CE] JATAKAMALA suggest that such stories were also used secondarily for lay audiences. On the Indian mainland, both mainstream and MAHAYANA monks compiled avadAna collections. Some of the avadAnas from northwestern India have been traced from kernel stories in the MuLASARVASTIVADA VINAYA via other mainstream Buddhist versions. In his French translation of the AvadAnasataka, Feer documented a number of tales from earlier mainstream collections, such as the AvadAnasataka, which were reworked and expanded in later MahAyAna collections, such as the RatnAvadAnamAlA and the KalpadrumAvadAnamAlA, which attests to the durability and popularity of the genre. Generally speaking, the earlier mainstream avadAnas were prose works, while the later MahAyAna collections were composed largely in verse.
Avalokitesvara. (T. Spyan ras gzigs; C. Guanshiyin/Guanyin; J. Kanzeon/Kannon; K. Kwanseŭm/Kwanŭm 觀世音/觀音). In Sanskrit, "Lord who Looks Down [in Empathy]"; the BODHISATTVA of compassion, the most widely worshipped of the MAHAYANA bodhisattvas and one of the earliest to appear in Buddhist literature. According to legend, Avalokitesvara was produced from a beam of light that radiated from the forehead of AMITABHA while that buddha was deep in meditation. For this reason, Buddhist iconography often depicts AmitAbha as embedded in Avalokitesvara's crown. His name dates back to the beginning of the Common Era, when he replaced the Vedic god BRAHMA as the attendant to sAKYAMUNI Buddha, inheriting in turn BrahmA's attribute of the lotus (PADMA). Images of Avalokitesvara as PADMAPAnI LOKEsVARA ("Lord with a Lotus in his Hand"), an early name, are numerous. Avalokitesvara is the interlocutor or main figure in numerous important MahAyAna sutras, including the PRAJNAPARAMITAHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). His cult was introduced to China in the first century CE, where his name was translated as Guanshiyin ("Perceiver of the Sounds of the World") or GUANYIN ("Perceiver of Sounds"); his cult entered Korea and Japan with the advent of Buddhism in those countries. Avalokitesvara was once worshipped widely in Southeast Asia as well, beginning at the end of the first millennium CE. Although the MahAyAna tradition eventually faded from the region, images of Avalokitesvara remain. Avalokitesvara is also the patron deity of Tibet, where he is said to have taken the form of a monkey and mated with TARA in the form of a local demoness to produce the Tibetan race. Tibetan political and religious leaders have been identified as incarnations of him, such as the seventh-century king SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO (although that attribution was most likely a later addition to the king's legacy) and, notably, the DALAI LAMAs. The PO TA LA Palace, the residence of the Dalai Lamas, in the Tibetan capital of LHA SA is named for Avalokitesvara's abode on Mount POTALAKA in India. In China, Avalokitesvara as Guanyin underwent a transformation in gender into a popular female bodhisattva, although the male iconographic form also persists throughout East Asia. PUTUOSHAN, located off the east coast of China south of Shanghai, is said to be Potalaka. Avalokitesvara is generally depicted in the full raiments of a bodhisattva, often with an image of AmitAbha in his crown. He appears in numerous forms, among them the two-armed PadmapAni who stands and holds a lotus flower; the four-armed seated Avalokitesvara, known either as Caturbhuja Avalokitesvara [CaturbhujAvalokitesvara] or CintAmani Avalokitesvara [CintAmanyavalokitesvara], who holds the wish-fulfilling jewel (CINTAMAnI) with his central hands in ANJALIMUDRA, and a lotus and crystal rosary in his left and right hands, respectively; the eleven-armed, eleven-faced EKADAsAMUKHA; and the thousand-armed and thousand-headed SAHASRABHUJASAHASRANETRAVALOKITEsVARA (q.v. MAHAKARUnIKA). Tradition holds that his head split into multiple skulls when he beheld the suffering of the world. Numerous other forms also exist in which the god has three or more heads, and any number of arms. In his wrathful form as AstabhayatrAnAvalokitesvara (T. Spyan ras gzigs 'jigs pa brgyad skyob), "Avalokitesvara who Protects against the Eight Fears," the bodhisattva stands in ARDHAPARYAnKA ("half cross-legged posture") and has one face and eight hands, each of which holds a symbol of one of the eight fears. This name is also given to eight separate forms of Avalokitesvara that are each dedicated to protecting from one of the eight fears, namely: AgnibhayatrAnAvalokitesvara ("Avalokitesvara Who Protects from Fear of Fire") and so on, replacing fire with Jala (water), SiMha (lion), Hasti (elephant), Danda (cudgel), NAga (snake), dAkinī (witch) [alt. PisAcī]; and Cora (thief). In addition to his common iconographic characteristic, the lotus flower, Avalokitesvara also frequently holds, among other accoutrements, a jeweled rosary (JAPAMALA) given to him by Aksamati (as related in chapter twenty-five of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA), or a vase. In East Asia, Avalokitesvara often appears in a triad: the buddha AmitAbha in the center, flanked to his left and right by his two bodhisattva attendants, Avalokitesvara and MAHASTHAMAPRAPTA, respectively. In Tibet, Avalokitesvara is part of a popular triad with VAJRAPAnI and MANJUsRĪ. As one of the AstAMAHOPAPUTRA, Avalokitesvara also appears with the other bodhisattvas in group representation. The tantric deity AMOGHAPAsA is also a form of Avalokitesvara. The famous mantra of Avalokitesvara, OM MAnI PADME HuM, is widely recited in the MahAyAna traditions and nearly universally in Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to the twenty-fifth chapter of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, the KARAndAVYuHA is also devoted to him. See also BAIYI GUANYIN; GUANYIN; MIAOSHAN; MAnI BKA' 'BUM.
avavAda. (P. ovAda; T. gdams ngag; C. jiaodaolun; J. kyodoron; K. kyodoron 教導論). In Sanskrit, "admonitions" or "instructions"; oral instructions that provide practical advice to a student. These may include instructions given to a monk or nun, or instructions on how to put into practice a particular doctrine or teaching. The term carries the connotation of advice drawn from experience in contrast to learning derived from books, although a true practitioner is said to be someone who can see all of the SuTRAs and sASTRAs as avavAda. The term often appears in compound with its near-synonym anusAsanī as "admonition and instruction" (avavAdAnusAsanī). The compound OVADAPAtIMOKKHA (S. *avavAdaprAtimoksa) is also used to refer to a foundational disciplinary code (PRATIMOKsA) handed down by the past buddha VIPAsYIN (P. Vipassī), which is believed to summarize the teachings fundamental to all the buddhas; it is found in the MAHAPADANASUTTANTA [DĪGHANIKAYA no. 14] and DHAMMAPADA v. 183: "Not doing anything evil,/Undertaking what is wholesome,/Purifying one's mind:/This is the teaching of the buddhas" (P. sabbapApassa akaranaM/kusalassupasampadA/sacittapariyodapanaM/etaM buddhAna sAsanaM). This verse has been widely incorporated into THERAVADA Buddhist rituals and ceremonies. According to the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, in the PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras, there are distinct avavAda for each stage of the bodhisattva path (MARGA) corresponding to the twenty-two stages of BODHICITTA.
Avirodha: Without contradiction; the non-opposition of other means of right knowledge and other systems of philosophy to the same principle; the business of reasoning; the second chapter of the Brahma Sutras is called Avirodha-adhyaya.
Ayatana. (T. skye mched; C. chu; J. sho; K. ch'o 處). In Sanskirt and PAli, "sense-fields" or "bases of cognition." In epistemology, these twelve sense-fields, which serve as the bases for the production of consciousness, are the six internal sense bases, or sense organs (the "faculties" or INDRIYA, i.e., eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind) and the six external sense objects (the "objective supports" or ALAMBANA, i.e., forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, and mental phenomena). The contact (SPARsA) between a sense base and its corresponding sense object would lead to specific sensory consciousnesses (VIJNANA); hence, the Ayatanas are considered to be the "access" (Aya) of the mind and mental states. In the context of the twelvefold chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA), the Ayatanas are usually described as comprising only the six sense bases. The twelve Ayatana are subsumed as the first twelve of the eighteen elements (DHATU). The Ayatanas are one of the three major taxonomies of factors (along with SKANDHA and dhAtu) found in the SuTRAs, and represent a more primitive stage of DHARMA classification than the elaborate analyses found in the later ABHIDHARMA literature. In compound words like AKAsANANTYAYATANA, ABHIBHAVAYATANA, and so on, Ayatana means simply "stage" or "level."
bahirdhA. (P. bahiddhA; T. phyi; C. wai; J. ge; K. oe 外). In Sanskrit, "outer" (also written bAhya); usually paired with "inner" (adhyAtma) and sometimes with a third "both" (ubhaya), particularly in lists of the types of emptiness (suNYATA) in the PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs. Outer refers to the first six external sense-fields (AYATANA, the objects of eye, ear, nose, and so on); inner to the six internal sense-fields (from the eye-to mind-faculties); and both to the inner and outer sense-fields of other persons. The emptiness of these three categories completes the presentation of the emptiness of a person (PUDGALA); it is followed by the demonstration of the emptiness of emptiness itself. See also BAHYARTHA.
beidou qixing. (J. hokuto shichisho; K. puktu ch'ilsong 北斗七星). In Chinese, "seven stars of the Northern Dipper" (viz., the Big Dipper, or Ursa Major); Daoist divinities that are also prominent in Korean Buddhism, where they are typically known as the ch'ilsong. The cult of the seven stars of the Big Dipper developed within Chinese Buddhist circles through influence from indigenous Daoist schools, who worshipped these seven deities to guard against plague and other misfortunes. The apocryphal Beidou qixing yanming jing ("Book of the Prolongation of Life through Worshipping the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper"), suggests a correlation between the healing buddha BHAIsAJYAGURU and the Big Dipper cult by addressing the seven-star TATHAGATAs (qixing rulai) with names that are very similar to Bhaisajyaguru's seven emanations. This indigenous Chinese scripture (see APOCRYPHA), which derives from an early Daoist text on Big Dipper worship, is certainly dated no later than the late thirteenth or early fourteenth centuries but may have been composed as early as the middle of the eighth century; it later was translated into Uighur, Mongolian, and Tibetan, as part of the Mongol Yuan dynasty's extension of power throughout the Central Asian region. Thanks to this scripture, the seven-star cult became associated in Buddhism with the prolongation of life. We know that seven-star worship had already been introduced into esoteric Buddhist ritual by at least the eighth century because of two contemporary manuals that discuss HOMA fire offerings to the seven stars: VAJRABODHI's (671-741) Beidou qixing niansong yigui ("Ritual Procedures for Invoking the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper") and his disciple AMOGHAVAJRA's (705-774) Beidou qixing humo miyao yigui ("Esoteric Ritual Procedure for the Homa Offering to the Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper"). Renderings of DHARAnĪ sutras dedicated to the tathAgata TEJAPRABHA (Qixingguang Rulai), who is said to be master of the planets and the twenty-eight asterisms, are also attributed to Amoghavajra's translation bureau. Worship of the seven stars within esoteric Buddhist circles was therefore certainly well established in China by the eighth century during the Tang dynasty and probably soon afterward in Korean Buddhism. ¶ The worship of the Big Dipper in Korea may date as far back as the Megalithic period, as evidenced by the engraving of the Big Dipper and other asterisms on dolmens or menhirs. In the fourth-century Ji'an tombs of the Koguryo kingdom (37 BCE-668 CE), one of the traditional Three Kingdoms of early Korea, a mural of the Big Dipper is found on the north wall of tomb no. 1, along with an accompanying asterism of the six stars of Sagittarius (sometimes called the Southern Dipper) on the south wall; this juxtaposition is presumed to reflect the influence of the Shangqing school of contemporary Chinese Daoism. Court rituals to the seven stars and the tathAgata Tejaprabha date from the twelfth century during the Koryo dynasty. By at least the thirteen century, the full range of texts and ritual practices associated with the seven-star deities were circulating in Korea. At the popular level in Korea, the divinities of the Big Dipper were thought to control longevity, especially for children, and the ch'ilsong cult gained widespread popularity during the Choson dynasty (1392-1910). This popularization is in turn reflected in the ubiquity in Korean monasteries of "seven-stars shrines" (ch'ilsonggak), which were typically located in less-conspicuous locations along the outer perimeter of the monasteries and were worshipped primarily by the nonelite. Inside these shrines were hung seven-star paintings (T'AENGHWA), which typically depict the tathAgatas of the seven stars, with the tathAgata Tejaprabha presiding at the center. There are also several comprehensive ritual and liturgical manuals compiled during the Choson dynasty and Japanese colonial period in Korea that include rituals and invocations to the seven stars and Tejaprabha, most dedicated to the prolongation of life. Along with the mountain god (sansin), who also often has his own shrine in the monasteries of Korea, the role of the ch'ilsong in Korean Buddhism is often raised in the scholarship as an example of Buddhism's penchant to adapt beliefs and practices from rival religions. Although ch'ilsong worship has declined markedly in contemporary Korea, the ch'ilsokche, a worship ceremony dedicated to the tathAgata Tejaprabha, is occasionally held at some Buddhist monasteries on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, with lay believers praying for good fortune and the prevention of calamity.
Bhagavad Gita&
Bhashya (Sanskrit) Bhāṣya [from the verbal root bhāṣ to speak] Speaking, talking; an explanatory work or commentary, especially on technical Sutras; particularly Patanjali’s Commentary of the Sutras of Panini, also called the Mahabhashya (great commentary).
bhAsya. (T. bshad pa; C. lun; J. ron; K. non 論). In Sanskrit, "commentary," or "exposition"; especially an exegesis on a set of aphoristic statements (SuTRAS) or kArikAs (the same in verse form): e.g., ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA. In East Asia, the term lun was reserved for the commentaries of the eminent bodhisattva-exegetes of Indian MAHAYANA Buddhism, such as VASUBANDHU, ASAnGA, and MAITREYA/MAITREYANATHA; commentaries by indigenous East Asian exegetes are usually termed shu. One of the very few exceptions is the "Exposition of the *VajrasamAdhisutra (KŬMGANG SAMMAE KYoNG)" (KŬMGANG SAMMAEGYoNG NON), by the Korean exegete WoNHYO, which was so highly regarded that it was given this special designation.
bhAvanA. (T. sgom pa; C. xiuxi; J. shuju; K. susŭp 修習). In Sanskrit and PAli, "cultivation" (lit. "bringing into being"); a Sanskrit term commonly translated into English as "meditation." It is derived from the root √bhu, "to be" or "to become," and has a wide range of meanings including cultivating, producing, manifesting, imagining, suffusing, and reflecting. It is in the first sense, that of cultivation, that the term is used to mean the sustained development of particular states of mind. However, bhAvanA in Buddhism can include studying doctrine, memorizing sutras, and chanting verses to ward off evil spirits. The term thus refers broadly to the full range of Buddhist spiritual culture, embracing the "bringing into being" (viz., cultivating) of such generic aspects of training as the path (MARGA), specific spiritual exercises (e.g., loving-kindness, or MAITRĪ), or even a general mental attitude, such as virtuous (KUsALA) states of mind. The term is also used in the specific sense of a "path of cultivation" (BHAVANAMARGA), which "brings into being" the insights of the preceding path of vision (DARsANAMARGA). Hence, bhAvanA entails all the various sorts of cultivation that an adept must undertake in order to enhance meditation, improve its efficacy, and "bring it into being." More specifically as "meditation," two general types of meditation are sometimes distinguished in the commentarial literature: stabilizing meditation (sAMATHA) in which the mind focuses with one-pointedness on an object in an effort to expand the powers of concentration; and analytical meditation (VIPAsYANA), in which the meditator conceptually investigates a topic in order to develop insight into it.
BhAvaviveka. (T. Legs ldan 'byed; C. Qingbian; J. Shoben; K. Ch'ongbyon 清辯) (c. 500-570). Also known as BhAviveka and Bhavya, an important Indian master of the MADHYAMAKA school, identified in Tibet as a proponent of SVATANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA and, within that, of SAUTRANTIKA-SVATANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. He is best known for two works. The first is the PRAJNAPRADĪPA, his commentary on NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA; this work has an extensive subcommentary by AVALOKITAVRATA. Although important in its own right as one of the major commentaries on the central text of the Madhyamaka school, the work is most often mentioned for its criticism of the commentary of BUDDHAPALITA on the first chapter of NAgArjuna's text, where BhAvaviveka argues that it is insufficient for the Madhyamaka only to state the absurd consequences (PRASAnGA) that follow from the position of the opponent. According to BhAvaviveka, the Madhyamaka must eventually state his own position in the form of what is called an autonomous inference (svatantrAnumAna) or an autonomous syllogism (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA). In his own commentary on the first chapter of NAgArjuna's text, CANDRAKĪRTI came to the defense of BuddhapAlita and criticized BhAvaviveka, stating that it is inappropriate for the Madhyamaka to use autonomous syllogisms. It is on the basis of this exchange that Tibetan exegetes identified two schools within Madhyamaka: the SvAtantrika, which includes BhAvaviveka, and the PrAsangika, which includes BuddhapAlita and Candrakīrti. ¶ The other major work of BhAvaviveka is his MADHYAMAKAHṚDAYA, written in verse, and its prose autocommentary, the TARKAJVALA. The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan, the TarkajvAlA only in Tibetan. It is a work of eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in BhAvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNAna), and omniscience (SARVAJNATA). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and BhAvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRAVAKA, YOGACARA, SAMkhya, Vaisesika, VedAnta, and MīmAMsA. These chapters (along with sANTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are an invaluable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and other contemporary Indian philosophical schools, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist. The chapter on the srAvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the sRAVAKAYANA schools of mainstream Buddhism as to why the MahAyAna sutras are not the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). BhAvaviveka's response to these charges, as well as his refutation of YOGACARA in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited, arguing that reality (TATHATA) cannot be substantially existent (dravyasat), as those rival schools claim. However, BhAvaviveka made extensive use of both the logic and epistemology of DIGNĂGA, at least at the level of conventional analysis. BhAvaviveka appears to have been the first Madhyamaka author to declare that the negations set forth by the Madhyamaka school are nonaffirming (or simple) negations (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA) rather than affirming (or implicative) negations (PARYUDASAPRATIsEDHA). Also attributed to BhAvaviveka is the Karatalaratna ("Jewel in Hand Treatise"; Zhangzhen lun), a work preserved only in the Chinese translation of XUANZANG. BhAvaviveka's MADHYAMAKARTHASAMGRAHA is a brief text in verse. As the title suggests, it provides an outline of the basic topics of MADHYAMAKA philosophy, such as the middle way (S. MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the extremes of existence and nonexistence, Madhyamaka reasoning, and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). The MADHYAMAKARATNAPRADĪPA is likely the work of another author of the same name, since it makes reference to such later figures as Candrakīrti and DHARMAKĪRTI.
bianxiang. (變相) In Chinese, "transformation tableaux"; pictorial representations of Buddhist narratives, which seem to have been the antecedent for later vernacular narratives of the same themes known as BIANWEN. As is the case with the compound bianwen, the logograph bian here refers to the "transformations" or "manifestations" of spiritual adepts. Bianxiang deal almost entirely with religious topics and involve especially pictorial representations of AMITABHA's PURE LAND (JINGTU) of SUKHAVATĪ, famous episodes in the lives and activities of the Buddha and BODHISATTVAs (especially AVALOKITEsVARA), and synopses of important sutras (such as the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA). A great number of bianxiang were discovered at DUNHUANG and provide a window on the popular practices in medieval Chinese Buddhism. See also AMITUO JINGTU BIAN; DIYU BIAN[XIANG]; JINGTU BIAN.
bīja. (T. sa bon; C. zhongzi; J. shuji; K. chongja 種子). In Sanskrit, "seed," a term used metaphorically in two important contexts: (1) in the theory of KARMAN, an action is said to plant a "seed" or "potentiality" in the mind, where it will reside until it fructifies as a future experience or is destroyed by wisdom; (2) in tantric literature, many deities are said to have a "seed syllable" or seed MANTRA that is visualized and recited in liturgy and meditation in order to invoke the deity. In the Chinese FAXIANG (YOGACARA) school, based on similar lists found in Indian Buddhist texts like the MAHAYANASAMGRAHA, a supplement to the YOGACARABHuMI, various lists of two different types of seeds are mentioned. (1) The primordial seeds (BENYOU ZHONGZI) and the continuously (lit. newly) acquired seeds (XINXUN ZHONGZI). The former are present in the eighth "storehouse consciousness" (ALAYAVIJNANA) since time immemorial, and are responsible for giving rise to a sentient being's basic faculties, such as the sensory organs (INDRIYA) and the aggregates (SKANDHA). The latter are acquired through the activities and sense impressions of the other seven consciousnesses (VIJNANA), and are stored within the eighth storehouse consciousness as pure, impure, or indeterminate seeds that may become activated again once the right conditions are in place for it to fructify. (2) Tainted seeds (youlou zhongzi) and untainted seeds (wulou zhongzi). The former are sowed whenever unenlightened activities of body, speech, and mind and the contaminants (ASRAVA) of mental defilements take place. The latter are associated with enlightened activities that do not generate such contaminants. In all cases, "full emergence" (SAMUDACARA, C. xiangxing) refers to the sprouting of those seeds as fully realized action. ¶ In tantric Buddhism the buddha field (BUDDHAKsETRA) is represented as a MAndALA with its inhabitant deities (DEVATA). The sonic source of the mandala and the deities that inhabit it is a "seed syllable" (bīja). In tantric practices (VIDHI; SADHANA) the meditator imagines the seed syllable emerging from the expanse of reality, usually on a lotus flower. The seed syllable is then visualized as transforming into the mandala and its divine inhabitants, each of which often has its own seed syllable. At the end of the ritual, the process is reversed and collapsed back into the seed syllable that then dissolves back into the nondual original expanse. Seed syllables in tantric Buddhism are connected with DHARAnĪ, mnemonic codes widespread in MahAyAna sutras that consist of strings of letters, often the first letter of profound terms or topics. These strings of letters in the dhAranĪ anticipate the MANTRAs found in tantric ritual practices. The tantric "seed syllable" is thought to contain the essence of the mantra, the letters of which are visualized as standing upright in a circle around the seed syllable from which the letters emerge and to which they return.
bka' 'gyur. (kangyur). In Tibetan, "translation of the word [of the Buddha]," one of the two traditional divisions of the Tibetan Buddhist canon, along with the BSTAN 'GYUR, the translation of the treatises (sASTRA). The bka' 'gyur comprises those SuTRAs and TANTRAs that were accepted by the tradition as spoken or directly inspired by the Buddha. The collection was redacted, primarily by the fourteenth-century polymath BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB, based upon earlier catalogues, lists, and collections of texts, particularly a major collection at SNAR THANG monastery. The four major editions of the bka' 'gyur presently in circulation (called the Co ne, SNAR THANG, SDE DGE, and Beijing editions after the places they were printed) go back to two earlier branches of the textual tradition, called Them spangs ma and 'Tshal pa in modern scholarship. The first xylographic print of the bka' 'gyur was produced in China in 1410; the Sde dge bka' 'gyur, edited by Si tu Gstug lag chos kyi 'byung gnas (1700-1774) was printed in the Tibetan kingdom of Sde dge (in present-day Sichuan province) in 1733. While the collection is traditionally said to include 108 volumes (an auspicious number), most versions contain somewhat fewer. The Snar thang edition holds ninety-two volumes, divided as follows: thirteen volumes of VINAYA, twenty-one volumes of PRAJNAPARAMITA, six volumes of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, six volumes of the RATNAKutASuTRA, thirty volumes of other sutras, and twenty-two volumes of tantras. The BON tradition formulated its own bka' 'gyur, based on the Buddhist model, in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century.
Bodhiruci. (C. Putiliuzhi; J. Bodairushi; K. Poriryuji 菩提流支) (fl. sixth century). A renowned Indian translator and monk (to be distinguished from a subsequent Bodhiruci [s.v.] who was active in China two centuries later during the Tang dynasty). Bodhiruci left north India for Luoyang, the Northern Wei capital, in 508. He is said to have been well versed in the TRIPItAKA and talented at incantations. Bodhiruci stayed at the monastery of YONGNINGSI in Luoyang from 508 to 512 and with the help of BuddhasAnta (d.u.) and others translated over thirty MAHAYANA sutras and treatises, most of which reflect the latest developments in Indian MahAyAna, and especially YOGACARA. His translations include the DHARMASAMGĪTI, SHIDIJING LUN, LAnKAVATARASuTRA, VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA, and the WULIANGSHOU JING YOUPOTISHE YUANSHENG JI, attributed to VASUBANDHU. Bodhiruci's translation of the Shidijing lun, otherwise known more simply as the Di lun, fostered the formation of a group of YOGACARA specialists in China that later historians retroactively call the DI LUN ZONG. According to a story in the LIDAI FABAO JI, a jealous Bodhiruci, assisted by a monk from SHAOLINSI on SONGSHAN named Guangtong (also known as Huiguang, 468-537), is said to have attempted on numerous occasions to poison the founder of the CHAN school, BODHIDHARMA, and eventually succeeded. Bodhiruci is also said to have played an instrumental role in converting the Chinese monk TANLUAN from Daoist longevity practices to the PURE LAND teachings of the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING.
bodhisaMbhAra. (T. byang chub kyi tshogs; C. puti ju/puti ziliang; J. bodaigu/bodaishiryo; K. pori ku/pori charyang 菩提具/菩提資糧). In Sanskrit, "collection" of, or "equipment" (SAMBHARA) for, "enlightenment" (BODHI); the term refers to specific sets of spiritual requisites (also called "accumulations") necessary for the attainment of awakening. The BODHISATTVA becomes equipped with these factors during his progress along the path (MARGA) leading to the attainment of buddhahood. In a buddha, the amount of this "enlightenment-collection" is understood to be infinite. These factors are often divided into two major groups: the collection of merit (PUnYASAMBHARA) and the collection of knowledge (JNANASAMBHARA). The collection of merit (PUnYA) entails the strengthening of four perfections (PARAMITA): generosity (DANA), morality (sĪLA), patience (KsANTI), and energy (VĪRYA). The collection of knowledge entails the cultivation of meditative states leading to the realization that emptiness (suNYATA) is the ultimate nature of all things. The bodhisaMbhAra were expounded in the *BodhisaMbhAraka, attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NAGARJUNA, which is now extant only in Dharmagupta's 609 CE Chinese translation, titled the Puti ziliang lun. In this treatise, NAgArjuna explains that the acquisition, development, and fruition of these factors is an essentially interminable process: enlightenment will be achieved when these factors have been developed for as many eons as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River (see GAnGANADĪVALUKA). The text also emphasizes the importance of compassion (KARUnA), calling it the mother of perfect wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA). The perfection of wisdom sutras stress that PARInAMANA (turning over [merit]) and ANUMODANA (rejoicing [in the good deeds of others]) are necessary to amass the collection necessary to reach the final goal.
bodhisattvabhumi. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i sa; C. pusa di; J. bosatsuji; K. posal chi 菩薩地). In Sanskrit, lit. "ground" or "stage" (BHuMI) of a BODHISATTVA, referring to the systematic stages along the path (MARGA) of a bodhisattva's maturation into a buddha. A normative list of ten bhumis, which becomes standard in many MAHAYANA accounts of the bodhisattva path, appears in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, a sutra that was later incorporated into the AVATAMSAKASuTRA compilation. These ten stages (DAsABHuMI) of the Dasabhumikasutra correspond to the forty-first to fiftieth stages among the fifty-two bodhisattva stages, the comprehensive outline of the entire bodhisattva path taught in such scriptures as the AvataMsakasutra, the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING, and the RENWANG JING. The first bhumi begins on the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), and the other nine bhumis occur on the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). (For detailed explication of each stage, see DAsABHuMI s.v.) The PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs, and the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA and ABHISAMAYALAMKARA in their exegesis of these stages, explain that bodhisattvas reach each higher level along the path after completing the preparations (parikarman) for it; they set forth the same ten levels as the Dasabhumikasutra with the same names. Arya VIMUKTISENA, in his exegesis of the AbhisamayAlaMkAra, says bodhisattvas on the tenth bhumi are like TATHAGATAs who have passed beyond all stages, and lists eight other stages corresponding roughly to the stages of the eight noble persons (ARYAPUDGALA), with the first through ninth bodhisattva bhumis described as a transcendent ninth level. In contrast to the normative ten bhumis described in the Dasabhumikasutra, MAITREYANATHA/ASAnGA in the BODHISATTVABHuMI instead outlines a system of seven stages (bhumi), which are then correlated with the thirteen abodes (VIHARA). (See the following entry on the treatise for further explication.) The seven-bhumi schema of the Bodhisattvabhumi and the ten-bhumi schema of the Dasabhumikasutra are independent systematizations.
bodhisattva. (P. bodhisatta; T. byang chub sems dpa'; C. pusa; J. bosatsu; K. posal 菩薩). In Sanskrit, lit. "enlightenment being." The etymology is uncertain, but the term is typically glossed to mean a "being (SATTVA) intent on achieving enlightenment (BODHI)," viz., a being who has resolved to become a buddha. In the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, the Buddha refers to himself in his many past lifetimes prior to his enlightenment as a bodhisattva; the word is thus generally reserved for the historical Buddha prior to his own enlightenment. In the MAHAYANA traditions, by contrast, a bodhisattva can designate any being who resolves to generate BODHICITTA and follow the vehicle of the bodhisattvas (BODHISATTVAYANA) toward the achievement of buddhahood. The MahAyAna denotation of the term first appears in the AstASAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA, considered one of the earliest MahAyAna sutras, suggesting that it was already in use in this sense by at least the first century BCE. Schools differ on the precise length and constituent stages of the bodhisattva path (MARGA), but generally agree that it encompasses a huge number of lifetimes-according to many presentations, three incalculable eons of time (ASAMKHYEYAKALPA)-during which the bodhisattva develops specific virtues known as perfections (PARAMITA) and proceeds through a series of stages (BHuMI). Although all traditions agree that the bodhisattva is motivated by "great compassion" (MAHAKARUnA) to achieve buddhahood as quickly as possible, Western literature often describes the bodhisattva as someone who postpones his enlightenment in order to save all beings from suffering. This description is primarily relevant to the mainstream schools, where an adherent is said to recognize his ability to achieve the enlightenment of an ARHAT more quickly by following the teachings of a buddha, but chooses instead to become a bodhisattva; by choosing this longer course, he perfects himself over many lifetimes in order to achieve the superior enlightenment of a buddha at a point in the far-distant future when the teachings of the preceding buddha have completely disappeared. In the MahAyAna, the nirvAna of the arhat is disparaged and is regarded as far inferior to buddhahood. Thus, the bodhisattva postpones nothing, instead striving to achieve buddhahood as quickly as possible. In both the mainstream and MahAyana traditions, the bodhisattva, spending his penultimate lifetime in the TUsITA heaven, takes his final rebirth in order to become a buddha and restore the dharma to the world. MAITREYA is the bodhisattva who will succeed the dispensation (sASANA) of the current buddha, GAUTAMA or sAKYAMUNI; he is said to be waiting in the tusita heaven, until the conditions are right for him to take his final rebirth and become the next buddha in the lineage. In the MahAyAna tradition, many bodhisattvas are described as having powers that rival or even surpass those of the buddhas themselves, and come to symbolize specific spiritual qualities, such as AVALOKITEsVARA (the bodhisattva of compassion), MANJUsRĪ (the bodhisattva of wisdom), VAJRAPAnI (the bodhisattva of power), and SAMANTABHADRA (the bodhisattva of extensive practice). In Western literature, these figures are sometimes referred to as "celestial bodhisattvas." ¶ In Korea, the term posal also designates laywomen residents of monasteries, who assist with the menial chores of cooking, preserving food, doing laundry, etc. These posal are often widows or divorcées, who work for the monastery in exchange for room and board for themselves and their children. The posal will often serve the monastery permanently and end up retiring there as well.
Bodhisattvapitaka. (T. Byang chub sems dpa'i sde snod; C. Pusazang jing; J. Bosatsuzokyo; K. Posalchang kyong 菩薩藏經). In Sanskrit, "The Bodhisattva Basket," one of the earliest MAHAYANA scriptures, written by at least the first century CE and perhaps even as early as the first century BCE. The text is no longer extant, but its antiquity is attested by its quotation in some of the earliest MahAyAna sutras translated into Chinese, including *LOKAKsEMA's translation of the KAsYAPAPARIVARTA made in 179 CE and in DHARMARAKsA's 289 CE rendering of the VimaladattAparipṛcchA. The content of the anthology is unknown, but based on much later compilations bearing the same title (and which therefore might have been derived from the original Bodhisattvapitaka), the text must have been substantial in size (one later Chinese translation is twenty rolls in length) and have offered coverage of at least the six perfections (PARAMITA). Sections of the Bodhisattvapitaka may also have been subsumed in later collections of MahAyAna materials, such as the RATNAKutASuTRA.
bodhisattvapranidhAna. (T. byang chub sems pa'i smon lam; C. pusa yuan; J. bosatsugan; K. posal won 菩薩願). In Sanskrit, "bodhisattva vow"; the vow to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from suffering. Following the BODHICARYAVATARA, the MAHAYANA commentarial tradition considers this vow to be the point at which one makes a public pronouncement of one's aspiration to achieve buddhahood (PRAnIDHICITTOTPADA), which is distinguished from the subsequent practice of this aspiration (PRASTHANACITTOTPADA), i.e., cultivating specific bodhisattva precepts (see BODHISATTVASAMVARA) and mastering the six perfections (PARAMITA). In MahAyAna sutras, which tend to be less systematized, this vow is typically made before a buddha, who then offers a prediction (VYAKARAnA) that the aspirant will succeed in his quest; the person is then called one who will not turn back, or "irreversible" (AVAIVARTIKA). The recitation of the bodhisattva vow is a central component in many MahAyAna liturgies. See also BODHICITTOTPADA.
bodhisattvasaMvara. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa; C. pusa jie; J. bosatsukai; K. posal kye 菩薩戒). In Sanskrit, lit. "restraints for the BODHISATTVA"; the "restraints," "precepts," or code of conduct (SAMVARA) for someone who has made the bodhisattva vow (BODHISATTVAPRAnIDHANA; PRAnIDHANA) to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from suffering. The mainstream moral codes for monastics that are recognized across all forms of Buddhism are listed in the PRATIMOKsA, which refers to rules of discipline that help adepts restrain themselves from all types of unwholesome conduct. With the rise of various groups that came to call themselves the MAHAYANA, different sets of moral codes developed. These are formulated, for example, in the BODHISATTVABHuMI and Candragomin's BodhisattvasaMvaraviMsaka, and in later Chinese apocrypha, such as the FANWANG JING. The mainstream prAtimoksa codes are set forth in the Bodhisattvabhumi as saMvarasīla, or "restraining precepts." These are the first of three types of bodhisattva morality, called the "three sets of restraints" (TRISAMVARA), which are systematized fully in Tibet in works like TSONG KHA PA's Byang chub gzhung lam. It seems that in the early MahAyAna, people publicly took the famous bodhisattva vow, promising to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings. A more formal code of conduct developed later, derived from a number of sources, with categories of root infractions and secondary infractions. The bodhisattva precepts, however, could be taken equally by laypeople and monastics, men and women, and formal ceremonies for conferring the precepts are set forth in a number of MahAyAna treatises. In addition, there appear to have been ceremonies for the confession of infractions, modeled on the UPOsADHA rituals. Some of the precepts have to do with interpersonal relations, prescribing the kind of altruistic behavior that one might expect from a bodhisattva. Others are grander, such as the precept not to destroy cities, and appear to presuppose a code of conduct for kings or other important figures in society. There is also the suggestion that the bodhisattva precepts supersede the prAtimoksa precepts: one of the secondary infractions of the bodhisattva code is not to engage in killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, or senseless speech when in fact it would be beneficial to do so. The great weight given to the precept not to reject the MahAyAna as being the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) suggests that, throughout the history of the MahAyAna in India, there were concerns raised about the questionable origin of the MahAyAna sutras. With the rise of TANTRA, the "three restraints" (trisaMvara) of bodhisattva morality were refigured as the second of a new set of precepts, preceded by the prAtimoksa precepts and followed by the tantric vows. There was much discussion, especially in Tibetan SDOM GSUM (dom sum) literature, of the relationships among the three sets of restraints and of their compatibility with each other. ¶ Although there is much variation in the listings of bodhisattva precepts, according to one common list, the eighteen root infractions are: (1) to praise oneself and slander others out of attachment to profit or fame; (2) not to give one's wealth or the doctrine, out of miserliness, to those who suffer without protection; (3) to become enraged and condemn another, without listening to his or her apology; (4) to abandon the MahAyAna and teach a poor facsimile of its excellent doctrine; (5) to steal the wealth of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA); (6) to abandon the excellent doctrine; (7) to steal the saffron robes of a monk and beat, imprison, and or expel him from his life of renunciation, even if he has broken the moral code; (8) to commit the five deeds of immediate retribution (ANANTARYAKARMAN) i.e., patricide, matricide, killing an arhat, wounding a buddha, or causing dissent in the saMgha; (9) to hold wrong views; (10) to destroy cities and so forth; (11) to discuss emptiness (suNYATA) with sentient beings whose minds have not been trained; (12) to turn someone away from buddhahood and full enlightenment; (13) to cause someone to abandon completely the prAtimoksa precepts in order to practice the MahAyAna; (14) to believe that desire and so forth cannot be abandoned by the vehicle of the sRAVAKAs and to cause others to believe that view; (15) to claim falsely, "I have withstood the profound emptiness (sunyatA)"; (16) to impose fines on renunciates; to take donors and gifts away from the three jewels; (17) to cause meditators to give up the practice of sAMATHA; to take the resources of those on retreat and give them to reciters of texts; (18) to abandon the two types of BODHICITTA (the conventional and the ultimate). See also BODHISATTVAsĪLA.
bodhisattvasīla. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i tshul khrims; C. pusa jie; J. bosatsukai; K. posal kye 菩薩戒). In Sanskrit, "BODHISATTVA morality" or "bodhisattva precepts"; the rules of conduct prescribed by MAHAYANA literature for bodhisattvas, or beings intent on achieving buddhahood. These precepts appear in a variety of texts, including the chapter on morality (sīlapatala) in the BODHISATTVABHuMI and the Chinese FANWANG JING (*BrahmajAlasutra). Although there is not a single universally recognized series of precepts for bodhisattvas across all traditions of Buddhism, all lists include items such as refraining from taking life, refraining from boasting, refraining from slandering the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), etc. In the Bodhisattvabhumi, for example, the MahAyAna precepts are classified into the "three sets of pure precepts" (trividhAni sīlAni; C. sanju jingjie): (1) the saMvarasīla, or "restraining precepts," which refers to the so-called HĪNAYANA rules of discipline (PRATIMOKsA) that help adepts restrain themselves from all types of unsalutary conduct; (2) practicing all virtuous deeds (kusaladharmasaMgrAhakasīla), which accumulates all types of salutary conduct; and (3) sattvArthakriyAsīla, which involve giving aid and comfort to sentient beings. Here, the first group corresponds to the preliminary hīnayAna precepts, while the second and third groups reflect a uniquely MahAyAna position on morality. Thus, the three sets of pure precepts are conceived as a comprehensive description of Buddhist views on precepts (sarvasīla), which incorporates both hīnayAna and MahAyAna perspectives into an overarching system. A similar treatment of the three sets of pure precepts is also found in such Chinese indigenous sutras as Fanwang jing ("Sutra of BrahmA's Net") and PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING (see APOCRYPHA), thus providing a scriptural foundation in East Asia for an innovation originally appearing in an Indian treatise. The Fanwang jing provides a detailed list of a list of ten major and forty-eight minor MahAyAna precepts that came to be known as the "Fanwang Precepts"; its listing is the definitive roster of bodhisattva precepts in the East Asian traditions. As in other VINAYA ordination ceremonies, the bodhisattva precepts are often taken in a formal ritual along with the bodhisattva vows (BODHISATTVAPRAnIDHANA; PRAnIDHANA). However, unlike the majority of rules found in the mainstream vinaya codes (prAtimoksa), the bodhisattva precepts are directed not only at ordained monks and nuns, but also may be taken by laypeople. Also, in contrast to the mainstream vinaya, there is some dispensation for violating the bodhisattvasīla, provided that such violations are done for the welfare and weal of other beings. See also BODHISATTVASAMVARA.
bodhisattvayAna. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i theg pa; C. pusa sheng; J. bosatsujo; K. posal sŭng 菩薩乘). In Sanskrit, lit. "BODHISATTVA vehicle," the path (MARGA) that begins with the initial activation of the aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPADA) and culminates in the achievement of buddhahood; one of the early terms used for what eventually comes to be called the "Great Vehicle" (MAHAYANA). The bodhisattvayAna focuses on the development of the six perfections (PARAMITA) over a period as long as three incalculable eons of time (ASAMKHYEYAKALPA). At the culmination of this essentially interminable process, the bodhisattva becomes a buddha, with the full range of unique qualities (AVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA) that are developed only as a result of mastering the perfections. The bodhisattvayAna is distinguished from the sRAVAKAYANA, in which teachings were learned from a buddha or an enlightened disciple (sRAVAKA) of the Buddha and which culminates in becoming a "worthy one" (ARHAT); and the PRATYEKABUDDHAYANA, the vehicle of those who reach their goal in solitude. The bodhisattvayAna, by contrast, is modeled on the accounts of the current buddha sAKYAMUNI's extensive series of past lives, during which he was motivated by the altruistic aspiration to save all beings from suffering by becoming a buddha himself, not simply settling for arhatship. The srAvakayAna, pratyekabuddhayAna, and bodhisattvayAna together constitute the TRIYANA, or "three vehicles," mentioned in many MahAyAna sutras, most famously in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA.
bodhi. (T. byang chub; C. puti/jue; J. bodai/kaku; K. pori/kak 菩提/覺). In Sanskrit and PAli, "awakening," "enlightenment"; the consummate knowledge that catalyzes the experience of liberation (VIMOKsA) from the cycle rebirth. Bodhi is of three discrete kinds: that of perfect buddhas (SAMYAKSAMBODHI); that of PRATYEKABUDDHAs or "solitary enlightened ones" (pratyekabodhi); and that of sRAVAKAs or disciples (srAvakabodhi). The content of the enlightenment experience is in essence the understanding of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvAry AryasatyAni): namely, the truth of suffering (DUḤKHA), the truth of the cause of suffering (SAMUDAYA), the truth of the cessation of suffering (NIRODHA), and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (MARGA). Bodhi is also elaborated in terms of its thirty-seven constituent factors (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA) that are mastered in the course of perfecting one's understanding, or the seven limbs of awakening (BODHYAnGA) that lead to the attainment of the "threefold knowledge" (TRIVIDYA; P. tevijjA): "recollection of former lives" (S. PuRVANIVASANUSMṚTI; P. pubbenivAsAnussati), the "divine eye" (DIVYACAKsUS; P. dibbacakkhu), which perceives that the death and rebirth of beings occurs according to their actions (KARMAN), and the "knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants" (ASRAVAKsAYA; P. AsavakkayaNAna). Perfect buddhas and solitary buddhas (pratyekabuddha) become enlightened through their own independent efforts, for they discover the four noble truths on their own, without the aid of a teacher in their final lifetime (although pratyekabuddhas may rely on the teachings of a buddha in previous lifetimes). Of these two types of buddhas, perfect buddhas are then capable of teaching these truths to others, while solitary buddhas are not. srAvakas, by contrast, do not become enlightened on their own but are exposed to the teachings of perfect buddhas and through the guidance of those teachings gain the understanding they need to attain awakening. Bodhi also occupies a central place in MAHAYANA religious conceptions. The MahAyAna ideal of the BODHISATTVA means literally a "being" (SATTVA) intent on awakening (bodhi) who has aroused the aspiration to achieve buddhahood or the "thought of enlightenment" (BODHICITTA; BODHICITTOTPADA). The MahAyAna, especially in its East Asian manifestations, also explores in great detail the prospect that enlightenment is something that is innate to the mind (see BENJUE; HONGAKU) rather than inculcated, and therefore need not be developed gradually but can instead be realized suddenly (see DUNWU). The MahAyAna also differentiates between the enlightenment (bodhi) of srAvakas and pratyekabuddhas and the full enlightenment (samyaksaMbodhi) of a buddha. According to Indian and Tibetan commentaries on the PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras, buddhas achieve full enlightenment not beneath the BODHI TREE in BODHGAYA, but in the AKANIstHA heaven in the form of a SAMBHOGAKAYA, or enjoyment body remaining for eternity to work for the welfare of sentient beings. The bodhisattva who strives for enlightenment and achieves buddhahood beneath the Bodhi tree is a NIRMAnAKAYA, a conjured body meant to inspire the world. See also WU; JIANWU.
brahma sutras. ::: a treatise by Vyasa on vedanta philosophy in the form of aphorisms
Brahmasutras (Sanskrit) Brahmasūtra-s Aphorisms on the Vedanta philosophy, ascribed to Vyasa, treating of the knowledge of Brahman.
Brahmasutras: (Skr.) An aphoristic compilation of Badarayana's, systematizing the philosophy of the Upanishads (q.v.). -- K.F.L.
Brahmasutra (Brahma Sutras) ::: [a well-known aphoristic work treating of the brahman; it is one of the main texts of the vedanta philosophy; also called Vedanta-sutra].
buddhadhAtu. (T. sangs rgyas kyi khams; C. foxing; J. bussho; K. pulsong 佛性). In Sanskrit, "buddha-element," or "buddha-nature"; the inherent potential of all sentient beings to achieve buddhahood. The term is also widely used in Buddhist Sanskrit with the sense of "buddha relic," and the term DHATU alone is used to mean "buddha-element" (see also GOTRA, KULA). The term first appears in the MAHAYANA recension of the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA, now available only in Chinese translation, which states that all sentient beings have the "buddha-element" (FOXING). (The Chinese translation foxing literally means "buddha-nature" and the Chinese has often been mistakenly back-translated as the Sanskrit buddhatA; buddhadhAtu is the accepted Sanskrit form.) The origin of the term may, however, be traced back as far as the AstASAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA, one of the earliest MahAyAna SuTRAs, where the fundamental substance of the mind is said to be luminous (prakṛtis cittasya prabhAsvarA), drawing on a strand of Buddhism that has its antecedents in such statements as the PAli AnGUTTARANIKAYA: "The mind, O monks, is luminous but defiled by adventitious defilements" (pabhassaraM idaM bhikkhave cittaM, taN ca kho Agantukehi upakkilesehi upakkilitthaM). Because the BODHISATTVA realizes that the buddha-element is inherent in him at the moment that he arouses the aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPADA) and enters the BODHISATTVAYANA, he achieves the profound endurance (KsANTI) that enables him to undertake the arduous training, over not one, but three, incalculable eons of time (ASAMKHYEYAKALPA), that will lead to buddhahood. The buddhadhAtu is a seminal concept of the MahAyAna and leads to the development of such related doctrines as the "matrix of the tathAgatas" (TATHAGATAGARBHA) and the "immaculate consciousness" (AMALAVIJNANA). The term is also crucial in the development of the teachings of such indigenous East Asian schools of Buddhism as CHAN, which telescope the arduous path of the bodhisattva into a single moment of sudden awakening (DUNWU) to the inherency of the "buddha-nature" (foxing), as in the Chan teaching that merely "seeing the nature" is sufficient to "attain buddhahood" (JIANXING CHENGFO).
buddha. (T. sangs rgyas; C. fo; J. butsu/hotoke; K. pul 佛). In Sanskrit and PAli, "awakened one" or "enlightened one"; an epithet derived from the Sanskrit root √budh, meaning "to awaken" or "to open up" (as does a flower) and thus traditionally etymologized as one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encompass all objects of knowledge. The term was used in ancient India by a number of different religious groups, but came to be most strongly associated with followers of the teacher GAUTAMA, the "Sage of the sAKYA Clan" (sAKYAMUNI), who claimed to be only the most recent of a succession of buddhas who had appeared in the world over many eons of time (KALPA). In addition to sAkyamuni, there are many other buddhas named in Buddhist literature, from various lists of buddhas of the past, present, and future, to "buddhas of the ten directions" (dasadigbuddha), viz., everywhere. Although the precise nature of buddhahood is debated by the various schools, a buddha is a person who, in the far distant past, made a previous vow (PuRVAPRAnIDHANA) to become a buddha in order to reestablish the dispensation or teaching (sASANA) at a time when it was lost to the world. The path to buddhahood is much longer than that of the ARHAT-as many as three incalculable eons of time (ASAMKHYEYAKALPA) in some computations-because of the long process of training over the BODHISATTVA path (MARGA), involving mastery of the six or ten "perfections" (PARAMITA). Buddhas can remember both their past lives and the past lives of all sentient beings, and relate events from those past lives in the JATAKA and AVADANA literature. Although there is great interest in the West in the "biography" of Gautama or sAkyamuni Buddha, the early tradition seemed intent on demonstrating his similarity to the buddhas of the past rather than his uniqueness. Such a concern was motivated in part by the need to demonstrate that what the Buddha taught was not the innovation of an individual, but rather the rediscovery of a timeless truth (what the Buddha himself called "an ancient path" [S. purAnamArga, P. purAnamagga]) that had been discovered in precisely the same way, since time immemorial, by a person who undertook the same type of extended preparation. In this sense, the doctrine of the existence of past buddhas allowed the early Buddhist community to claim an authority similar to that of the Vedas of their Hindu rivals and of the JAINA tradition of previous tīrthankaras. Thus, in their biographies, all of the buddhas of the past and future are portrayed as doing many of the same things. They all sit cross-legged in their mother's womb; they are all born in the "middle country" (madhyadesa) of the continent of JAMBUDVĪPA; immediately after their birth they all take seven steps to the north; they all renounce the world after seeing the four sights (CATURNIMITTA; an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a mendicant) and after the birth of a son; they all achieve enlightenment seated on a bed of grass; they stride first with their right foot when they walk; they never stoop to pass through a door; they all establish a SAMGHA; they all can live for an eon if requested to do so; they never die before their teaching is complete; they all die after eating meat. Four sites on the earth are identical for all buddhas: the place of enlightenment, the place of the first sermon that "turns the wheel of the dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), the place of descending from TRAYASTRIMsA (heaven of the thirty-three), and the place of their bed in JETAVANA monastery. Buddhas can differ from each other in only eight ways: life span, height, caste (either brAhmana or KsATRIYA), the conveyance by which they go forth from the world, the period of time spent in the practice of asceticism prior to their enlightenment, the kind of tree they sit under on the night of their enlightenment, the size of their seat there, and the extent of their aura. In addition, there are twelve deeds that all buddhas (dvAdasabuddhakArya) perform. (1) They descend from TUsITA heaven for their final birth; (2) they enter their mother's womb; (3) they take birth in LUMBINĪ Garden; (4) they are proficient in the worldly arts; (5) they enjoy the company of consorts; (6) they renounce the world; (7) they practice asceticism on the banks of the NAIRANJANA River; (8) they go to the BODHIMAndA; (9) they subjugate MARA; (10) they attain enlightenment; (11) they turn the wheel of the dharma; and (12) they pass into PARINIRVAnA. They all have a body adorned with the thirty-two major marks (LAKsAnA; MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA) and the eighty secondary marks (ANUVYANJANA) of a great man (MAHAPURUsA). They all have two bodies: a physical body (RuPAKAYA) and a body of qualities (DHARMAKAYA; see BUDDHAKAYA). These qualities of a buddha are accepted by the major schools of Buddhism. It is not the case, as is sometimes suggested, that the buddha of the mainstream traditions is somehow more "human" and the buddha in the MAHAYANA somehow more "superhuman"; all Buddhist traditions relate stories of buddhas performing miraculous feats, such as the sRAVASTĪ MIRACLES described in mainstream materials. Among the many extraordinary powers of the buddhas are a list of "unshared factors" (AVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA) that are unique to them, including their perfect mindfulness and their inability ever to make a mistake. The buddhas have ten powers specific to them that derive from their unique range of knowledge (for the list, see BALA). The buddhas also are claimed to have an uncanny ability to apply "skill in means" (UPAYAKAUsALYA), that is, to adapt their teachings to the specific needs of their audience. This teaching role is what distinguishes a "complete and perfect buddha" (SAMYAKSAMBUDDHA) from a "solitary buddha" (PRATYEKABUDDHA) who does not teach: a solitary buddha may be enlightened but he neglects to develop the great compassion (MAHAKARUnA) that ultimately prompts a samyaksaMbuddha to seek to lead others to liberation. The MahAyAna develops an innovative perspective on the person of a buddha, which it conceived as having three bodies (TRIKAYA): the DHARMAKAYA, a transcendent principle that is sometimes translated as "truth body"; an enjoyment body (SAMBHOGAKAYA) that is visible only to advanced bodhisattvas in exalted realms; and an emanation body (NIRMAnAKAYA) that displays the deeds of a buddha to the world. Also in the MahAyAna is the notion of a universe filled with innumerable buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA), the most famous of these being SUKHAVATĪ of AmitAbha. Whereas the mainstream traditions claim that the profundity of a buddha is so great that a single universe can only sustain one buddha at any one time, MahAyAna SuTRAs often include scenes of multiple buddhas appearing together. See also names of specific buddhas, including AKsOBHYA, AMITABHA, AMOGHASIDDHI, RATNASAMBHAVA, VAIROCANA. For indigenous language terms for buddha, see FO (C); HOTOKE (J); PHRA PHUTTHA JAO (Thai); PUCH'o(NIM) (K); SANGS RGYAS (T).
buddhavacana. (T. sangs rgyas kyi bka'; C. foyu; J. butsugo; K. puro 佛語). In Sanskrit and PAli, "word of the Buddha"; those teachings accepted as having been either spoken by the Buddha or spoken with his sanction. Much traditional scholastic literature is devoted to the question of what does and does not qualify as the word of the Buddha. The SuTRAPItAKA and the VINAYAPItAKA of the Buddhist canon (TRIPItAKA), which are claimed to have been initially redacted at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST), held in RAJAGṚHA soon after the Buddha's death, is considered by the tradition-along with the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA, which was added later-to be the authentic word of the Buddha; this judgment is made despite the fact that the canon included texts that were spoken, or elaborated upon, by his direct disciples (e.g., separate versions of the BHADDEKARATTASUTTA, which offer exegeses by various disciples of an enigmatic verse the Buddha had taught) or that included material that clearly postdated the Buddha's death (such as the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA, which tells of the events leading up to, and immediately following, the Buddha's demise, or the NAradasutta, which refers to kings who lived long after the Buddha's time). Such material could still be considered buddhavacana, however, by resort to the four references to authority (MAHAPADEsA; CATURMAHAPADEsA). These four types of authority are found listed in various SuTRAs, including the eponymous PAli MahApadesasutta, and provide an explicit set of criteria through which to evaluate whether a teaching is the authentic buddhavacana. Teachings could be accepted as authentic if they were heard from four authorities: (1) the mouth of the Buddha himself; (2) a SAMGHA of wise elders; (3) a group of monks who were specialists in either the dharma (dharmadhara), vinaya (vinayadhara), or the proto-abhidharma (mAtṛkAdhara); or (4) a single monk who was widely learned in such specializations. The teaching should then be compared side by side with the authentic SuTRA and VINAYA; if found to be compatible with these two strata of the canon and not in contradiction with reality (DHARMATA), it would then be accepted as the buddhavacana and thus marked by the characteristics of the Buddha's words (buddhavacanalaksana). Because of this dispensation, the canons of all schools of Buddhism were never really closed, but could continue to be reinvigorated with new expressions of the Buddha's insights. In addition, completely new texts that purported to be from the mouths of the buddha(s) and/or BODHISATTVAs, such as found in the MAHAYANA or VAJRAYANA traditions, could also begin to circulate and be accepted as the authentic buddhavacana since they too conformed with the reality (dharmatA) that is great enlightenment (MAHABODHI). For example, a MahAyAna sutra, the AdhyAsayasaNcodanasutra, declares, "All which is well-spoken, Maitreya, is spoken by the Buddha." The sutra qualifies the meaning of "well spoken" (subhAsita), explaining that all inspired speech should be known to be the word of the Buddha if it is meaningful and not meaningless, if it is principled and not unprincipled, if it brings about the extinction and not the increase of the afflictions (KLEsA), and if it sets forth the qualities and benefits of NIRVAnA and not the qualities and benefits of SAMSARA. However, the authenticity of the MahAyAna sutras (and later the tantras) was a topic of great contention between the proponents of the MahAyAna and mainstream schools throughout the history of Indian Buddhism and beyond. Defenses of the MahAyAna as buddhavacana appear in the MahAyAna sutras themselves, with predictions of the terrible fates that will befall those who deny their authenticity; and arguments for the authenticity of the MahAyAna sutras were a stock element in writings by MahAyAna authors as early as NAGARJUNA and extending over the next millennium. Related, and probably earlier, terms for buddhavacana are the "teaching of the master" (S. sAstuḥ sAsanam) and the "dispensation of the Buddha" (buddhAnusAsanam). See also APOCRYPHA, DAZANGJING, GTER MA.
buli wenzi. (J. furyumonji; K. pullip muncha 不立文字). In Chinese, lit. "not establishing words and letters"; a line summarizing the CHAN school's unique sense of its own pedigree, as a school of Buddhism that does not rely on the scriptural teachings of Buddhism but has a direct connection through the "buddhas and patriarchs" (FOZU) to the mind of the Buddha himself. The saying is later attributed to the school's traditional founder, BODHIDHARMA. According to GUIFENG ZONGMI's CHANYUAN ZHUQUANJI DUXU, the Indian monk Bodhidharma taught that the mind was the DHARMA and he transmitted this teaching from mind to mind (YIXIN CHUANXIN) without establishing words or letters. This phrase also often appears together with three other phrases: JIAOWAI BIECHUAN ("a special transmission outside the teachings"), ZHIZHI RENXIN ("directly pointing to the human mind"), and JIANXING CHENGFO ("seeing one's own nature and becoming a buddha"). They appear together for the first time in the ZUTING SHIYUAN compiled in 1108 and soon became a normative teaching in the subsequent CHAN, SoN, THIỀN, and ZEN traditions. As a radical interpretation of the notion of UPAYA, the phrase buli wenzi remains to this day a controversial and frequently debated topic. Song-dynasty exponents of "lettered Chan" (WENZI CHAN), such as JUEFAN HUIHONG (1071-1128), decried the bibliophobic tendencies epitomized in this line and advocated instead that Chan insights were made manifest in both Buddhist SuTRAs as well as in the uniquely Chan genres of discourse records (YULU), lineage histories (see CHUANDENG LU), and public-case anthologies (GONG'AN).
Bu ston chos 'byung. (Buton Chojung). A history of Buddhism in India and Tibet composed in 1322 by the Tibetan polymath BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB. The full name of the work is Bde bar gshegs pa'i bstan pa'i gsal byed chos kyi 'byung gnas gsung rab rin po che'i mdzod; it is available in English in the 1931-1932 translation of major parts by EUGÈNE OBERMILLER, done in collaboration with Mongolian monks educated in Tibetan monasteries. The text is in two parts: a history and an important general catalogue of Tibetan Buddhist canonical literature, one of the first of its kind. The first chapter of the Chos 'byung draws on the VYAKHYAYUKTI and is a general discussion of the exposition and study of Buddhist doctrine. The second chapter is a traditional history dealing with the spread of the doctrine in the human world, the three turnings of the wheel of DHARMA (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), the councils (SAMGĪTI), the collection of the Buddhist doctrine into authoritative scriptures, the date of the Buddha, the followers who came after him, and the decline of the doctrine in India. The history of Buddhism in Tibet is divided into a section on the earlier (SNGA DAR) and later spread (PHYI DAR) of the doctrine. The third section is the general catalogue of Buddhist canonical literature in Tibetan translation. It is divided into SuTRAs and TANTRAs, then again into the words of the Buddha (bka') and authoritative treatises (bstan bcos). The words of the Buddha are subdivided based on the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma with a separate section on MAHAYANA sutras; treatises are divided into treatises explaining specific works of the Buddha (again subdivided based on the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma), general expositions, and miscellaneous treatises. Bu ston similarly divides the tantras into words of the Buddha and authoritative treatises and deals with both under the division into four "sets" (sde) of KRIYA, CARYA, and YOGA, and MAHAYOGA tantras. This latter division is again subdivided into method (UPAYA), wisdom (PRAJNA), and both (ubhaya) tantras. In MKHAS GRUB DGE LEGS DPAL BZANG's explanation (Rgyud sde spyi'i rnam bzhag), a work based on Bu ston's model, but incorporating the influential scheme of TSONG KHA PA, the divisions of mahAyoga are subsumed under the general category of ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA (highest yoga tantra). The tantric commentaries are organized following the same schema.
cakravartin. (P. cakkavattin; T. 'khor lo sgyur ba'i rgyal po; C. zhuanlun wang; J. tenrin'o; K. chollyun wang 轉輪王). In Sanskrit, lit. "wheel-turning emperor" or "universal monarch"; a monarch who rules over the entire universe (CAKRAVAdA), commonly considered in Buddhism to be an ideal monarch who rules his subjects in accordance with the DHARMA. Just as with a buddha, only one cakravartin king can appear in a world system at any one time. Also like a buddha, a cakravartin is endowed with all the thirty-two major marks of a great man (MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA). Hence, when the future buddha GAUTAMA was born with these marks, seers predicted that he had two possible destinies: to become a cakravartin if he remained in the world, or a buddha if he renounced it. A cakravartin's power derives from a wheel or disc of divine attributes (CAKRA) that rolls across different realms of the earth, bringing them under his dominion. The ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA lists four classes of cakravartin, depending on the basic element from which his disc is forged: (1) a suvarnacakravartin (referred to in some texts as a caturdvīpakacakravartin, or "cakravartin of four continents"), whose wheel is gold, who reigns over all the four continents of a world system (see CAKRAVAdA), and who conquers the world through the spontaneous surrender of all rival kings whose lands his wheel enters; (2) a rupyacakravartin, whose wheel is silver, who reigns over three continents (all except UTTARAKURU), and who conquers territory by merely threatening to move against his rivals; (3) a tAmracakravartin, whose wheel is copper, who reigns over two continents (JAMBUDVĪPA and VIDEHA), and who conquers territory after initiating battle with his rivals; (4) an ayascakravartin, whose wheel is iron, who reigns over one continent (Jambudvīpa only), and who conquers territory only after extended warfare with his rivals. Some texts refer to a balacakravartin or "armed cakravartin," who corresponds to the fourth category. The cakravartins discussed in the sutras typically refers to a suvarnacakravartin, who conquers the world through the sheer power of his righteousness and charisma. He possesses the ten royal qualities (rAjadharma) of charity, good conduct, nonattachment, straightforwardness, gentleness, austerity, nonanger, noninjury, patience, and tolerance. A cakravartin is also said to possess seven precious things (RATNA): a wheel (cakra), an elephant (HASTINAGA), a horse (asva), a wish-granting gem (MAnI), a woman (strī), a financial steward or treasurer (GṚHAPATI), and a counselor (parinAyaka). Various kings over the course of Asian history have been declared, or have declared themselves to be, cakravartins. The most famous is the Mauryan emperor AsOKA, whose extensive territorial conquests, coupled with his presumed support for the dharma and the SAMGHA, rendered him the ideal paradigm of Buddhist kingship.
catuḥsatyadharmacakra. (T. bden bzhi'i chos 'khor; C. sidi falun; J. shitai horin; K. saje pomnyun 四諦法輪). In Sanskrit, lit. "the dharma wheel of the four truths"; the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRA) delivered in ṚsIPATANA. In this first turning of the wheel of dharma, the Buddha set in motion a wheel with twelve aspects, by setting forth the four noble truths three separate times. He addressed the original group of five disciples (PANCAVARGIKA), telling them that they should not fall into extremes of asceticism or indulgence, and laid out for them the eightfold noble path (AstAnGIKAMARGA). He set forth the four truths the first time by saying that the five aggregates (SKANDHA) qualified by birth, aging, sickness, and death are the noble truth of suffering, craving is the noble truth of their origination, the elimination of that craving is the noble truth of their cessation, and that the eightfold noble path is the noble truth of the path leading to their cessation. He set forth the four truths a second time when, in the same extended discourse, he said, "I knew well that the truth of suffering was what I had to comprehend; I knew well that the truth of the origin was what I had to eliminate; I knew well that the truth of cessation was what I had to realize; and I knew well that the truth of the path was what I had to cultivate." He then set forth the four truths a third and final time when he said, "I comprehended the truth of suffering, I eliminated the true origin of suffering, I realized the true cessation of suffering, and I cultivated the true path." There are twelve aspects to this triple wheel because for each of the three stages there is (1) a vision that sees reality directly with the wisdom eye that is free from contaminants, (2) a knowledge that is free from doubt, (3) an understanding of the way things are, and (4) an intellectual comprehension of an idea never heard of before. ¶ The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA calls the triple turning of the catuḥsatyadharmacakra with its twelve aspects the "first turning of the wheel." According to its commentaries, it is a demonstration that all dharmas, the skandhas, sense-fields (AYATANA), elements (DHATU), and so forth, exist. This teaching is provisional (NEYARTHA) because it must be interpreted in order to understand what the Buddha really means. A second "middle" dispensation, called "the dharma wheel of signlessness" (ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA), is the teaching of the MahAyAna doctrine, as set forth in the PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs, that all dharmas, even buddhahood and NIRVAnA, are without any intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHAVA). The first turning of the wheel is directed toward the sRAVAKAs and PRATYEKABUDDHAs, who tremble at this doctrine of emptiness (suNYATA). The second turning is also not a final, definitive (NĪTARTHA) teaching. The ultimate teaching is the final turning of the wheel of dharma, called "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation" (*SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA), i.e., the SaMdhinirmocanasutra itself. Here the Buddha, through his amanuensis ParamArthasamudgata, sets forth in clear and plain language what he means: that dharmas are endowed with three natures (TRISVABHAVA) and each of those is, in a distinctive way, free from intrinsic nature (niḥsvabhAva). The doctrine of the first, middle, and final wheels of dharma is not intended to be a historical presentation of the development of Buddhist doctrine, but the first turning does loosely equate to the early teachings of the Buddha, the second to early MahAyAna, and the third to the emergence of the later YOGACARA school of MahAyAna philosophy. In Tibet, there is no argument over this first turning of the wheel of dharma: it is always understood to refer to the basic teachings of the Buddha for those of a HĪNAYANA persuasion. There is, however, substantial argument over the status of the second and third turnings of the wheel.
changzhu. (J. joju; K. sangju 常住). In Chinese, lit. "constantly abiding"; this term refers, first, to the doctrine of the eternality of the Buddha's "three bodies" (TRIKAYA), especially as elaborated in the sRĪMALADEVĪSIMHANADASuTRA and the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA. According to this doctrine, it is not just the "dharma body" (DHARMAKAYA) of the Buddha that is eternal; rather, these sutras explain that even his "enjoyment body" (SAMBHOGAKAYA) and "emanation body" (NIRMAnAKAYA) also perdure and are imperishable. Second, in the East Asian traditions, changzhu refers to the communal, shared property and equipment within the monastic compound. Such communal property was not permitted to be appropriated for private, personal use, but was intended to be the common possession of the entire monastic community and was therefore subjected to the collective oversight of the SAMGHA. The monastic office in charge of overseeing, allocating, maintaining the common monastic property was, by extension, also called the changzhu.
Chengguan. (J. Chokan; K. Chinggwan 澄觀) (738-839). Putative fourth patriarch of the Chinese HUAYAN tradition; also known as Daxiu, Huayan pusa, Huayan shuzhu, and Qingliang GUOSHI. Chengguan is said to have entered the monastery in 746 under the guidance of a monk named Tizhen (d.u.). Although little is known of Chengguan's early training, he is supposed to have studied a broad range of scriptures and commentaries including the PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs, MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA, DASHENG QIXIN LUN, YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA, and others. In 757, he received the full monastic precepts from a certain Tanyi (d.u.) of the NANSHAN LÜ ZONG and studied for several years under Tanyi's prominent disciple JINGXI ZHANRAN. Chengguan is also said to have studied CHAN during this period under various masters. After his training under Fashen (718-778), second-generation disciple of the Huayan master FAZANG, Chengguan left for WUTAISHAN, the earthly abode of the BODHISATTVA MANJUsRĪ, in 776. Chengguan was a prolific exegete, whose writings amount to over four hundred rolls in total. Chengguan is best known for his massive commentary on sIKsANANDA's new translation of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, entitled the [Dafangguang fo] HUAYAN JING SHU, in sixty rolls. This work rivaled and may even have surpassed in influence the most popular commentary on the AvataMsakasutra of his day, viz., Fazang's HUAYAN JING TANXUAN JI. Chengguan also wrote a comprehensive autocommentary to his commentary, entitled the HUAYAN JING SUISHU YANYI CHAO, in a total of ninety rolls. In these works, Chengguan expands upon the Huayan master DUSHUN's work on the notion of the realm of reality (DHARMADHATU), the HUAYAN FAJIE GUANMEN. Chengguan approached the dharmadhAtu from four interrelated perspectives, viz., the dharmadhAtu of phenomena (SHI FAJIE), dharmadhAtu of principle (LI FAJIE), the dharmadhAtu of the mutual nonobstruction between principle and phenomena (LISHI WU'AI FAJIE), and the dharmadhAtu of the mutual nonobstruction between phenomenon and phenomena (SHISHI WU'AI FAJIE). As the premier Huayan exegete of his generation, Chengguan also was summoned to the Tang capital of Chang'an in 796 to collaborate with the northwest Indian monk PRAJNA in preparing a new translation of the GAndAVYuHA, the forty-roll final chapter of the AvataMsakasutra. Among Chengguan's many disciples, the CHAN and Huayan exegete GUIFENG ZONGMI is most famous.
cintAmani. (T. yid bzhin nor bu; C. ruyi baozhu; J. nyoihoju; K. yoŭi poju 如意寶珠). In Sanskrit, "wish-fulfilling gem"; in Indian mythology a magical jewel possessed by DEVAs and NAGAs that has the power to grant wishes. The term is often as a metaphor for various stages of the path, including the initial aspiration to achieve buddhahood (BODHICITTOTPADA), the rarity of rebirth as a human being with access to the dharma, and the merit arising from the teachings of the Buddha. According to the Ruyi baozhu zhuanlun mimi xianshen chengfo jinlunzhouwang jing (also known simply as the Jinlunzhouwang jing), which describes in great detail the inexhaustible merit of this gem, the cintAmani is rough in shape and is comprised of eleven precious materials, including gold and silver, and has thirty-two pieces of the Buddha's relics (sARĪRA) at its core, which give it its special power. In the DAZHIDU LUN, the gem is said to derive from the brain of the dragon king (nAgarAja), the undersea protector of Buddhism, or, alternatively, to be the main jewel ornamenting the top of his head. The text claims that it has the power to protect its carrier from poison and fire; other texts say that the cintAmani has the capacity to drive away evil, clarify muddy water, etc. This gem is also variously said to come from the head of a great makara fish (as in the RATNAKutASuTRAs) or the heart of a GARUdA bird (as in the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING). Other texts suggest that while the king of the gods, INDRA, was fighting with the demigods (ASURA), part of his weapon dropped to the world and became this gem. The bodhisattvas AVALOKITEsVARA and KsITIGARBHA are also depicted holding a cintAmani so that they may grant the wishes of all sentient beings.
Citta: (Skr.) In the philosophy of the Yogasutras (q.v.) the phenomenal form of mind as the first creation of prakrti (q.v.) which is differentiated into mental states (vrttis), such as true and false knowledge, imagination, memory, sleep. These states being of the active, need restraining (citta-vrtti nirodha; cf. Yoga) in order to have the true and abiding nature of self (purusa) come into its own. -- K.F.L.
Daijo hoyogiron 大乘寶要義論. See SuTRASAMUCCAYA
Dasheng baoyaoyi lun 大乘寶要義論. See SuTRASAMUCCAYA
Dasheng qixin lun yi ji. (J. Daijo kisihinron giki; K. Taesŭng kisin non ŭi ki 大乗起信論義). In Chinese, "Notes on the Meaning of the 'Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna'"; composed by the Chinese HUAYAN monk FAZANG. In addition to exegeses by WoNHYO (see TAESŬNG KISIN NON SO) and JINGYING HUIYUAN, this commentary has been traditionally regarded as one of the three great commentaries on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN. Fazang's commentary relies heavily upon that by Wonhyo. Throughout the centuries, numerous other commentaries on the Dasheng qixin lun appeared in China, and most of them are based on Fazang's work. According to this commentary, the Dasheng qixin lun speaks of one mind, two gates, three greats, four faiths, and five practices. Fazang also categorizes the entire history of Buddhism into four traditions: (1) the tradition of grasping at the characteristics of dharmas (i.e., the HĪNAYĀNA), (2) the tradition of no characteristics and only true emptiness (i.e., the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs and the MADHYAMAKA), (3) the tradition of YOGĀCĀRA and consciousness-only (i.e., the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA and YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA), and (4) the tradition of conditioned origination from the TATHĀGATAGARBHA (i.e., the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and Dasheng qixin lun). The notion of "conditioned origination from the tathāgatagarbha" (rulaizang yuanqi) reflects the author's Huayan training deriving from the AVATAMSAKASuTRA and its notion of "nature origination" (XINGQI).
Dazhidu lun. (J. Daichidoron; K. Taejido non 大智度論). In Chinese, "Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom"; an important Chinese text that is regarded as the translation of a Sanskrit work whose title has been reconstructed as *MāhāprājNāpāramitāsāstra or *MahāprajNāpāramitopedesa. The work is attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NĀGĀRJUNA, but no Sanskrit manuscripts or Tibetan translations are known and no references to the text in Indian or Tibetan sources have been identified. The work was translated into Chinese by the KUCHA monk KUMĀRAJĪVA (344-413) between 402 and 406; it was not translated into Chinese again. Some scholars speculate that the work was composed by an unknown Central Asian monk of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school who had "converted" to MADHYAMAKA, perhaps even Kumārajīva himself. The complete text was claimed to have been one hundred thousand slokas or one thousand rolls (zhuan) in length, but the extant text is a mere one hundred rolls. It is divided into two major sections: the first is Kumārajīva's full translation of the first fifty-two chapters of the text; the second is his selective translations from the next eighty-nine chapters of the text. The work is a commentary on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and is veritable compendium of Buddhist doctrine, replete with quotations from a wide range of Indian texts. Throughout the translation, there appear frequent and often substantial interlinear glosses and interpolations, apparently provided by Kumārajīva himself and targeting his Chinese readership; it is the presence of such interpolations that has raised questions about the text's Indian provenance. In the first thirty-four rolls, the Dazhidu lun provides a detailed explanation of the basic concepts, phrases, places, and figures that appear in the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā (e.g., BHAGAVAT, EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM, RĀJAGṚHA, buddha, BODHISATTVA, sRĀVAKA, sĀRIPUTRA, suNYATĀ, NIRVĀnA, the six PĀRAMITĀ, and ten BALA). The scope of the commentary is extremely broad, covering everything from doctrine, legends, and rituals to history and geography. The overall concern of the Dazhidu lun seems to have been the elucidation of the concept of buddhahood, the bodhisattva career, the MAHĀYĀNA path (as opposed to that of the HĪNAYĀNA), PRAJNĀ, and meditation. The Dazhidu lun thus served as an authoritative source for the study of Mahāyāna in China and was favored by many influential writers such as SENGZHAO, TIANTAI ZHIYI, FAZANG, TANLUAN, and SHANDAO. Since the time of the Chinese scriptural catalogue KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU (730), the Dazhidu lun, has headed the roster of sĀSTRA materials collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING; see also KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG); this placement is made because it is a principal commentary to the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras that open the SuTRA section of the canon. Between 1944 and 1980, the Belgian scholar ÉTIENNE LAMOTTE published an annotated French translation of the entire first section and chapter 20 of the second section as Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse, in five volumes.
dbu ma chen po. (uma chenpo) [alt. dbu ma pa chen po]. In Tibetan, "great MADHYAMAKA"; a term central to the "self empty, other empty" (RANG STONG GZHAN STONG) debate in Tibetan Buddhism, on the question of which Indian masters are the true representatives of the Madhyamaka. According to the DGE LUGS view, among the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma as described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, the second wheel, generally identified with the view of emptiness as set forth in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras and propounded by the Madhyamaka, is definitive (NĪTĀRTHA), while the third wheel, generally identified with YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATHAGARBHA teachings, is provisional (NEYĀRTHA). Other sects, most notably the JO NANG PA, as well as certain BKA' BRGYUD and RNYING MA thinkers, especially of the so-called RIS MED movement, disagreed, asserting that the third wheel is the definitive teaching while the second wheel is provisional. (Both agree that the first wheel, setting forth the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS to sRĀVAKAs, is provisional.) For the Dge lugs pas, the highest of all Buddhist doctrines is that all phenomena in the universe are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA); emptiness is the lack of any substantial existence. The Dge lugs pas are therefore proponents of "self-emptiness" (rang stong), arguing that that each object of experience is devoid of intrinsic nature; the unenlightened wrongly believe that such a nature is intrinsic to the object itself. In reality, everything, from physical forms to the omniscient mind of a buddha, is equally empty, and this emptiness is a nonaffirming negation (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA), an absence with nothing else implied in its place. Furthermore, this emptiness of intrinsic nature is the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). The Jo nang pa's look to the third wheel, especially to those statements that describe the nonduality of subject and object to be the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) and the understanding of that nonduality as the highest wisdom, described as eternal, self-arisen, and truly established. This wisdom exists autonomously and is thus not empty in the way that emptiness is understood by the Dge lugs. Instead, this wisdom consciousness is empty in the sense that it is devoid of all defilements and conventional factors, which are extraneous to its true nature. Hence, the Jo nang pas speak of "other emptiness" (gzhan stong) the absence of extrinsic and extraneous qualities. For the Dge lugs pas, the supreme interpreter of the doctrine of emptiness (as they understand it) is CANDRAKĪRTI. The Jo nang pas do not dispute the Dge lugs reading of Candrakīrti but they deny Candrakīrti the rank of premier expositor of NĀGĀRJUNA's thought. For them, Candrakīrti teaches an emptiness that is a mere negation of intrinsic existence, which they equate with nihilism. They also do not deny that such an exposition is found in Nāgārjuna's philosophical treatises (YUKTIKĀYA). However, they claim that those works do not represent Nāgārjuna's final view, which is expressed instead in his devotional corpus (STAVAKĀYA), notably the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA, and, according to some, in the works of VASUBANDHU, the author of two defenses of the prajNāpāramitā sutras. Those who would deny the ultimate existence of wisdom, such as Candrakīrti, are classed as "one-sided Madhyamakas" (phyogs gcig pa'i dbu ma pa) as opposed to the great Madhyamakas among whom they would include the Nāgārjuna of the hymns and ĀRYADEVA as well as thinkers whom the Dge lugs classify as Yogācāra or SVĀTANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA: ASAnGA, Vasubandhu, MAITREYANĀTHA, and sĀNTARAKsITA.
Dhammasangani. [alt. Dhammasanganī]. In Pāli, lit. "Enumeration (sanganī) of Factors (dhamma)"; the first of the seven books of the THERAVĀDA ABHIDHAMMAPItAKA. The text undertakes a systematic analysis of all the elements of reality, or factors (dhamma; S. DHARMA), discussed in the suttapitaka, organizing them into definitive rosters. The elaborate analysis of each and every element of existence provided by the Dhammasangani is considered to be foundational to the full account of the conditional relations pertaining between all those dharmas found in the PAttHĀNA, the last book of the Pāli abhidhamma. ¶ The Dhammasangani consists of an initial "matrix" (mātikā; S. MĀTṚKĀ), followed by four main divisions: (1) mind (CITTA) and mental concomitants (CETASIKA), (2) materiality (RuPA), (3) analytical summaries (nikkhepa; S. NIKsEPA), and (4) exegesis (AttHAKATHĀ). In the opening matrix, the complete list of subjects to be treated in both the Dhammasangani, as well as the entire abhidhammapitaka, is divided into three groups. (1) The triad matrix (tikamātikā) consists of twenty-two categories of factors (dhamma; S. DHARMA), each of which is treated as triads. For example, in the case of the matrix on wholesomeness (kusala; S. KUsALA), the relevant factors are divided into wholesome factors (kusaladhamma; S. kusaladharma), unwholesome factors (akusaladhamma; S. akusaladharma), and neither wholesome nor unwholesome factors (avyākatadhamma; S. AVYĀKṚTA-DHARMA). (2) The dyad matrix (dukamātikā) consists of one hundred categories of factors, treated as dyads. For example, in the matrix on cause (HETU), factors are divided between factors that are root causes (hetudhamma) and factors that are not root causes (na hetudhamma). (3) The dyad matrix from the sutras (suttantikadukamātikā) consists of forty-six categories of factors found in the suttapitaka that are treated as dyads. According to the AttHASĀLINĪ, the commentary to the Dhammasangani, this section was added by Sāriputta (S. sĀRIPUTRA), one of the two main disciples of the Buddha, to facilitate understanding of the suttapitaka. Of the four main divisions of the Dhammasangani that follow this initial matrix, the first two, the division on mind and mental concomitants (cittuppādakanda) and the division on materiality (rupakanda), expound upon the first category in the triad matrix, the matrix on wholesomeness, so as to provide a basis for the analysis of other categories of dharmas. The division on mind and mental concomitants contains the analysis of wholesome factors, unwholesome factors, and the first two of the four categories of factors that are neither wholesome nor unwholesome (avyākata; S. AVYĀKṚTA), namely, resultant (VIPĀKA) and noncausative action (kiriya); the division on materiality (rupakanda) treats the remaining two categories of abyākatadhammas, namely, materiality (rupa) and nibbāna (S. NIRVĀnA), although nibbāna does not receive a detailed explanation. In the first division on wholesomeness in the triad category, each aspect is analyzed in relation to the various realms of existence: wholesome states of mind and mental concomitants: (1) pertaining to the sensuous realm (KĀMĀVACARA) (P. kāmāvacara-atthamahācitta), (2) pertaining to the realm of subtle materiality (rupāvacara) (P. rupāvacarakusala), (3) pertaining to the immaterial realm (arupāvacara) (P. arupāvacarakusala), (4) leading to different levels of existence within the three realms, and (5) leading to liberation from the three realms (lokuttaracitta). The third division, the division on analytical summaries (nikkhepakanda), provides a synopsis of the classifications found in all the triads and dyads, organized in eight categories: roots (mula), aggregates (khandha; S. SKANDHA), doors (dvāra), field of occurrence (BHuMI), meaning (attha; S. ARTHA), doctrinal interpretation (dhamma), nomenclature (nāma), and grammatical gender (linga). The final division on exegesis (atthakathākanda) offers additional detailed enumeration of other triads and dyads.
dharmabhānaka. (P. dhammabhānaka; T. chos smra ba; C. shuofashi; J. sepposhi; K. solbopsa 法師). In Sanskrit, "reciter of the dharma"; a term used to describe a monastic vocation. Before the Buddhist canon was committed to writing, perhaps four hundred years after the Buddha's death, the canon was transmitted orally within monastic families of reciters. In the Pāli tradition, "reciters" were typically assigned to memorize one specific subcategory of the canon, i.e., Mahjjhimabhānaka ("reciters of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA"), Jātakabhānaka ("reciters of the JĀTAKA"), etc. The term also occurs in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras to describe a teacher of the Mahāyāna; indeed, such teachers may have played an important role in the dissemination of the Mahāyāna sutras.
dharmacakrapravartana. (P. dhammacakkappavattana; T. chos 'khor bskor ba; C. zhuan falun; J. tenborin; K. chon pomnyun 轉法輪). In Sanskrit, "turning the wheel of the DHARMA"; a term used generally to describe the Buddha's teaching; specifically, it refers the Buddha's first sermon, delivered at the Deer Park (S. MṚGADĀVA) in ṚsIPATANA, the modern SĀRNĀTH, as described in the Pāli DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA (S. Dharmacakrapravartanasutra), when he first declared the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) and the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). As Buddhist doctrine expanded exponentially in size and complexity, Buddhists were hard put to explain the apparent divergences in the teachings found in various recensions of the sutras. In order to account for the critical differences in these sutra explications of the Buddhist teachings, different traditions began to suggest that the Buddha had actually "turned the wheel of the dharma" more than one time. Certain perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras refer to the Buddha's teaching of the perfection of wisdom as the second turning of the wheel of dharma. The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA posits that the Buddha actually turned the wheel of the dharma three separate times, a description that came to figure prominently in MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature: the first, called CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA, when he taught the four noble truths of the HĪNAYĀNA traditions; the second, called the ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel of signlessness"), when he taught the emptiness (suNYATĀ) doctrine as understood by the MADHYAMAKA school; and a third, the *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel possessed of good differentiation"), when he taught the Yogācāra TRISVABHĀVA doctrine. The SaMdhinirmocanasutra claims that the teachings of the first two dharma-wheels were provisional (NEYĀRTHA), while the third was definitive (NĪTĀRTHA). This threefold taxonomy of the Buddhist teachings was one of the most influential hermeneutical schema (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI) created in the Mahāyāna and elicited extensive commentary in India, Tibet, and East Asia. Proponents of the Madhyamaka, who identified the second wheel with the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRAs, claimed to the contrary that the second wheel was definitive and the first and third were provisional.
dharmacaksus. (P. dhammacakkhu; T. chos kyi mig; C. fayan; J. hogen; K. poban 法眼). In Sanskrit, "eye of dharma"; the enlightened capacity to cognize the inherent truth of impermanence (ANITYA). The term also frequently appears in the sutras in the stock formula of comprehension, where an interlocutor's "eye of dharma" opens as he or she understands the meaning of the Buddha's instruction. As one of the PANCACAKsUS ("five eyes"), it sees all that the noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) see. See also ABHIJNĀ.
dharmadāna. (P. dhammadāna; T. chos kyi sbyin pa; C. fashi; J. hose; K. popsi 法施). In Sanskrit, "gift of dharma"; one of the two (or sometimes three) forms of giving (DĀNA) praised in the sutras, along with the "gift of material goods" (ĀMIsADĀNA). Occasionally, a third form of giving, the "gift of fearlessness" (ABHAYADĀNA), viz., helping others to become courageous, is added to the list. "The gift of dharma" means to share the Buddhist teachings with others through such means as delivering sermons, copying sutras, encouraging others to cultivate the path (MĀRGA), and writing dictionaries.
Dharmagupta. (C. Damojiduo; J. Darumagyuta; K. Talmagŭpta 達摩笈多) (d. 619). A South Indian monktranslator who traveled to China during the Sui dynasty; sometimes known by his abbreviated name Jiduo. Arriving in the Chinese capital of Chang'an in 590, he set to translating several scriptures into Chinese, including sutras on the buddha BHAIsAJYAGURU, one of the later recensions of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, which he cotranslated with JNĀNAGUPTA, and Vasubandhu's commentary on the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA. Some ten different translations are attributed to him. He should be distinguished from the Dharmagupta (c. third century BCE) who was the eponymous founder of the DHARMAGUPTAKA school.
dharma. (P. dhamma; T. chos; C. fa; J. ho; K. pop 法). In Sanskrit, "factor," or "element"; a polysemous term of wide import in Buddhism and therefore notoriously difficult to translate, a problem acknowledged in traditional sources; as many as ten meanings of the term are found in the literature. The term dharma derives from the Sanskrit root √dhṛ, which means "to hold" or "to maintain." In Vedic literature, dharma is often used to refer to the sacrifice that maintains the order of the cosmos. Indian kings used the term to refer to the policies of their realms. In Hinduism, there is an important genre of literature called the dharmasāstra, treatises on dharma, which set forth the social order and the respective duties of its members, in relation to caste, gender, and stage of life. Based on this denotation of the term, many early European translators rendered dharma into English as "law," the same sense conveyed in the Chinese translation of dharma as fa (also "law"). ¶ In Buddhism, dharma has a number of distinct denotations. One of its most significant and common usages is to refer to "teachings" or "doctrines," whether they be Buddhist or non-Buddhist. Hence, in recounting his search for truth prior to his enlightenment, the Buddha speaks of the dharma he received from his teachers. After his enlightenment, the Buddha's first sermon was called "turning the wheel of the dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). When the Buddha described what he himself taught to his disciples, he called it the DHARMAVINAYA, with the vinaya referring to the rules of monastic discipline and the dharma referring presumably to everything else. This sense of dharma as teaching, and its centrality to the tradition, is evident from the inclusion of the dharma as the second of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA, along with the Buddha and the SAMGHA, or community) in which all Buddhists seek refuge. Commentators specified that dharma in the refuge formula refers to the third and fourth of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: the truth of the cessation (NIRODHASATYA) of the causes that lead to suffering and the truth of the path (MĀRGA) to that cessation. Here, the verbal root of dharma as "holding" is evoked etymologically to gloss dharma as meaning something that "holds one back" from falling into states of suffering. A distinction was also drawn between the dharma or teachings as something that is heard or studied, called the scriptural dharma (ĀGAMA-dharma), and the dharma or teachings as something that is made manifest in the consciousness of the practitioner, called the realized dharma (ADHIGAMA-dharma). ¶ A second (and very different) principal denotation of dharma is a physical or mental "factor" or fundamental "constituent element," or simply "phenomenon." In this sense, the individual building blocks of our compounded (SAMSKṚTA) existence are dharmas, dharma here glossed as something that "holds" its own nature. Thus, when Buddhist texts refer to the constituent elements of existence, they will often speak of "all dharmas," as in "all dharmas are without self." The term ABHIDHARMA, which is interpreted to mean either "higher dharma" or "pertaining to dharma," refers to the analysis of these physical and mental factors, especially in the areas of causation and epistemology. The texts that contain such analyses are considered to be one of the three general categories of the Buddhist canon (along with SuTRA and vinaya), known as the TRIPItAKA or "three baskets." ¶ A third denotation of the term dharma is that of "quality" or "characteristic." Thus, reference is often made to dharmas of the Buddha, referring in this sense not to his teachings but to his various auspicious qualities, whether they be physical, verbal, or mental. This is the primary meaning of dharma in the term DHARMAKĀYA. Although this term is sometimes rendered into English as "truth body," dharmakāya seems to have originally been meant to refer to the entire corpus (KĀYA) of the Buddha's transcendent qualities (dharma). ¶ The term dharma also occurs in a large number of important compound words. SADDHARMA, or "true dharma," appears early in the tradition as a means of differentiating the teachings of the Buddha from those of other, non-Buddhist, teachers. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, saddharma was used to refer, perhaps defensively, to the Mahāyāna teachings; one of the most famous Mahāyāna sutras is the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, known in English as the "Lotus Sutra," but whose full title is "White Lotus of the True Dharma Sutra." In Buddhist theories of history, the period after the death of the Buddha (often said to last five hundred years) is called the time of the true dharma. This period of saddharma is followed, according to some theories, by a period of a "semblance" of the true dharma (SADDHARMAPRATIRuPAKA) and a period of "decline" (SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA). The term DHARMADHĀTU refers to the ultimate nature of reality, as does DHARMATĀ, "dharma-ness." It should also be noted that dharma commonly appears in the designations of persons. Hence, a DHARMABHĀnAKA is a preacher of the dharma, a DHARMAPĀLA is a deity who protects the dharma; in both terms, dharma refers to the Buddhist doctrine. A DHARMARĀJAN is a righteous king (see CAKRAVARTIN), especially one who upholds the teachings of the Buddha. For various rosters of dharmas, see the List of Lists appendix.
DharmasaMgīti. (T. Chos yang dag par sdud pa; C. Faji jing; J. Hojukyo; K. Popchip kyong 法集經). In Sanskrit, "Recitation of Dharma," a SuTRA that contains references to doctrines that become emblematic of MAHĀYĀNA and especially YOGĀCĀRA thought, such as the notion of the nominal reality of all dharmas and the eight levels of consciousness (VIJNĀNA). The sutra does not survive in Sanskrit, and is extant only in Tibetan and Chinese. The Chinese translation was made by the Indian monk BODHIRUCI (fl. sixth century) in 515 CE, during the Northern Wei dynasty, at its capital Luoyang. The DharmasaMgīti, translated in six rolls, is one of over thirty Mahāyāna sutras and treatises that Bodhiruci translated during his sojourn in China, most of which reflect the latest developments in Indian Mahāyāna. Besides the DharmasaMgīti, Bodhiruci's translations that were related to the developing Yogācāratradition include the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, and the SHIDIJING LUN; his translation of the latter treatise led to the development of the Yogācāra-influenced DI LUN ZONG in China.
dharmavinaya. (P. dhammavinaya; T. chos 'dul ba; C. falü; J. horitsu; K. pomnyul 法律). In Sanskrit, the "teaching" (DHARMA) and "discipline" (VINAYA) expounded by the Buddha and recommended to his followers as the highest refuge and spiritual guide after his demise. The compound dharmavinaya, with dharma referring to the Buddha's discourses (SuTRA) and vinaya referring to monastic discipline, appears to be an early term used prior to the development of the ABHIDHARMA as a separate category of teachings and the tripartite division of the Buddhst canon (TRIPItAKA). Dharmavinaya is one of the terms (along with BUDDHADHARMA) within the tradition that is closest to what in the West is called "Buddhism." Generally, the sutras and the vinaya were collectively called dharmavinaya; the Chinese term falü may also less precisely refer only to the monastic precepts (see PRĀTIMOKsA) and does not always denote two separate categories.
dhātu. (T. khams; C. jie; J. kai; K. kye 界). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "element"; a polysemous term with wide application in Buddhist contexts. ¶ In epistemology, the dhātus refer to the eighteen elements through which sensory experience is produced: the six sense bases, or sense organs (INDRIYA; viz., eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind); the six corresponding sense objects (ĀLAMBANA; viz., forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, and mental phenomena); and the six sensory consciousnesses that result from contact (SPARsA) between the corresponding base and object (VIJNĀNA; viz., visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental consciousnesses). As this list makes clear, the eighteen dhātus also subsume the twelve ĀYATANA (sense-fields). The dhātus represent one of the three major taxonomies of dharmas found in the sutras (along with SKANDHA and āyatana), and represent a more primitive stage of dharma classification than the elaborate analyses found in much of the mature ABHIDHARMA literature (but cf. DHARMASKANDHA). ¶ In cosmology, dhātu is used in reference to the three realms of existence (TRILOKADHĀTU), which comprise all of the phenomenal universe: the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU), and the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU). The three realms of existence taken together comprise all of SAMSĀRA, and are the realms within which beings take rebirth. In this cosmological sense, dhātu is synonymous to AVACARA (sphere, domain); see AVACARA for further details. ¶ In a physical sense, dhātu is used to refer to the constituent elements of the physical world (see MAHĀBHuTA), of which four are usually recognized in Buddhist materials: earth, water, fire, and wind. Sometimes two additional constituents are added to the list: space (ĀKĀsA) and consciousness (VIJNĀNA). ¶ The term dhātu may also refer to an "elemental physical substance," that is, the physical remains of the body, and this context is synonymous with sARĪRA (relic), with which it is often seen in compound as sarīradhātu (bodily relic). Sometimes three types of relics are differentiated: specific corporeal relics (sarīradhātu), relics of use (pāribhogikadhātu), and relics of commemoration (uddesikadhātu). In a further development of this usage, in the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, dhātu is synonymous with GOTRA, the final element that enables all beings to become buddhas; see BUDDHADHĀTU.
Dīghanikāya. In Pāli, "Collection of Long Discourses"; the first division of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA. It is comprised of thirty-four lengthy suttas (SuTRA) arranged rather arbitrarily into three major sections: "morality" (sīlakkhanda), comprising suttas 1-14; "great division" (mahāvagga), comprising suttas 14-23; and the "charlatan" (pātikavagga), comprising suttas 24-34. Among the suttas contained in the Dīghanikāya are such renowned and influential scriptures as the AGGANNASUTTA, MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTA, SĀMANNAPHALASUTTA, and the SATIPAttHĀNASUTTA. The Pāli tradition asserts that the texts of the Dīghanikāya were first recited orally during the first Buddhist council (SAMGĪTI; see COUNCIL, FIRST) following the Buddha's death and were officially transcribed into written form in Sri Lanka during the reign of King VAttAGĀMAnI ABHAYA in the first century BCE. An analogous recension of the "Long Discourses" appears in the Sanskrit DĪRGHĀGAMA (all but three of its thirty sutras have their equivalents in Pāli). Fragments of the Sanskrit recension, which is associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school or its MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA offshoot, were rediscovered in Afghanistan in the 1990s. Before that rediscovery, only a Chinese translation of the Dīrghāgama survived, which was attributed to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school; the translation was finished in 413 CE. Although all three recensions of this collection have a tripartite structure, only the first section of the Pāli, the sīlakkhanda, has a counterpart in the Sarvāstivāda and Dharmaguptaka recensions. The Dīghanikāya appears in the Pali Text Society's English translation series as Dialogues of the Buddha.
Dīrghāgama. (T. Lung ring po; C. Chang Ahan jing; J. Joagongyo; K. Chang Aham kyong 長阿含經). In Sanskrit, "The Collection of Long Scriptures"; the Sanskrit scriptural collection (ĀGAMA) that is analogous to the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA. (All but three of the Dīrghāgama's thirty SuTRAS have equivalents in the Pāli Dīghanikāya.) The Sanskrit recension was long lost and survived only in a Chinese translation made in 413 CE by BUDDHAYAsAS and ZHU FONIAN; that Chinese recension is attributed to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school. In the 1990s, however, extensive fragments of a Sanskrit recension of the Dīrghāgama in BRĀHMĪ script were discovered in Afghanistan, a recension that is instead associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school or its MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA offshoot. These fragments, which constitute about fifty-five percent of the complete manuscript, are the object of intensive scholarly investigation. Small fragments of this same Sarvāstivāda or Mulasarvāstivāda recension have also been discovered in Central Asia. All three major recensions of the Dīrghāgama (including the Pāli Dīghanikāya) have a tripartite structure, but two of the three sections in the Sarvāstivāda manuscript are radically different from the other two recensions, suggesting that it comes from an independent textual lineage. In the Sarvāstivāda Sanskrit recension, part one, the "six sutra section" (satsutrakanipāta), and part two, the "section on pairs" (yuganipāta), have no counterpart in the Pāli or Dharmaguptaka recensions. Part three, the "section on morality" (sīlaskandhanipāta), has an analogue in the other two recensions, but the titles and sequence of the incorporated sutras differs. The first section of the Sarvāstivāda Dīrghāgama with its six major sutras-the Dasottarasutra (P. DASUTTARASUTTA), Arthavistarasutra, SaMgītisutra (P. SAnGĪTISUTTA), Catusparisatsutra, Mahāvadānasutra (P. MAHĀPADĀNASUTTANTA), and MAHĀPARNIRVĀnASuTRA (P. MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTANTA)-was not preserved in the Afghan manuscripts and is extant only in fragments from Central Asia, where it was popular in its own right and often circulated independently.
Divyāvadāna. In Sanskrit, "Divine Exploits"; a collection of thirty-eight "heroic tales" or "narratives" (AVADĀNA). Avadānas are the tenth of the twelvefold (DVĀDAsĀnGA[PRAVACANA]) categorization of the traditional genres of Buddhist literature and relate the past and present deeds of a person, either lay or ordained, who in some specific fashion exemplifies Buddhist ethics and practice. The present characters in the stories in the Divyāvadāna are often identified as persons whom the Buddha encountered in a former life. Thus, its tales have a narrative structure similar to JĀTAKA stories, in which an event in the present offers an opportunity to recount a story from the past, which in turn illuminates details regarding present circumstances. Themes that run throughout the Divyāvadāna include the realization of positive or negative consequences of action (KARMAN), the importance of moral discipline, and the great merit (PUnYA) that can be accrued through service or reverence offered to the buddhas or to sites related to the buddhas, such as a STuPA. The Divyāvadāna includes thirty-six avadānas and two SuTRAs. Famous stories found in the Divyāvadāna collection include the Purnāvadāna, the story of the monk PuRnA, and the AsOKĀVADĀNA, which recounts the birth, life, and reign of King AsOKA, the monarch whom the Buddhist tradition considers the great protector of the religion. Although the style and language of the works vary tremendously, more than half of the tales also appear in the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA. Given their debt to vinaya literature, it is not surprising that many of the tales in the Divyāvadāna often make reference to points of monastic discipline (VINAYA). This association with the Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya suggests that these stories could date as far back as the beginning of the Common Era. However, the oldest extant manuscript of the Divyāvadāna dates only to the seventeenth century, and there is no reference to a text by that title in a Buddhist source prior to that date. There also is no Tibetan or Chinese translation of the text, although many of its stories are found in the Tibetan and Chinese canons. (For example, twenty-one of the thirty-eight stories of the collection are found in the vinaya section of the Tibetan canon.) This has led some scholars to conclude that, although the stories themselves are quite old, the particular compilation as the Divyāvadāna may be rather late. A number of stories from the Divyāvadāna were translated by EUGÈNE BURNOUF in his 1844 Introduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme indien. The first Sanskrit edition of the entire text was undertaken in 1866 by Edward B. Cowell and Robert A. Neil. The Divyāvadāna legends had a significant influence on Buddhist art and were often the subject of Buddhist sculptures and paintings. For instance, in the "Sahasodgata" chapter of this collection, the Buddha describes the "wheel of existence" (BHAVACAKRA), which became a popular subject of painting in many of the Buddhist traditions.
duḥkha. (P. dukkha; T. sdug bsngal; C. ku; J. ku; K. ko 苦). In Sanskrit, "suffering" or "unsatisfactoriness"; the first of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (CATVĀRY ĀRYASATYĀNI) of Buddhism and a concept foundational to Buddhism's worldview and religious practice. The emblematic description of duḥkha, as found in the first noble truth, is, "Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering. To be conjoined with what one dislikes is suffering and to be separated from what one likes is suffering. Not to get what one wants is suffering. In short, grasping at the five aggregates (SKANDHA) is suffering." Suffering thus not only includes the suffering that will invariably be associated with ordinary life, such as birth, aging, disease, and death, but also subsumes a full range of mental, emotional, and spiritual dissatisfactions, and ultimately is seen to be inherent to life itself. The teaching of suffering therefore seeks to change one's ordinary perspectives on the things of this world as objects worthy of pursuit, so that instead one realizes their nature of impermanence (ANITYA), suffering, and nonself (ANĀTMAN), viz., the three marks of existence (TRILAKsAnA). Through this sort of systematic attention (YONIsOMANASKĀRA), even the pleasures of life are ultimately realized to be "unsatisfactory," because, like all compounded things, they are impermanent and thus inevitably destined to pass away. This awareness of suffering produces a sense of the "dangers" (ĀDĪNAVA) inherent in this world and prompts the practitioner to turn away from this world and toward the radical nonattachment that is NIRVĀnA. ¶ Many types of duḥkha are enumerated in the literature, including forms specific to each of the six realms of rebirth (GATI). Most common are lists of three, four, and eight types of suffering. The three major categories of suffering are: (1) "misery caused by (physical and mental) suffering" (DUḤKHADUḤKHATĀ), viz., the full range of unpleasant or painful sensations (VEDANĀ) that are associated with either the physical body or the mind; (2) "misery caused by change" (VIPARInĀMADUḤKHATĀ), i.e., pleasant sensations may be a cause of suffering because they do not perdure and eventually turn into pain; (3) "misery caused by conditioning" (SAMSKĀRADUḤKHATĀ), i.e., sensations that are neither painful nor pleasant may still be a cause of suffering because they are impermanent and thus undependable; because of past KARMAN, suffering may always occur unexpectedly in the next moment. The four types of suffering are the suffering associated with birth (jātiduḥkha), senescence or aging (jarāduḥkha), sickness (vyādhiduḥkha), and death (maranāduḥkha); various sutras describe the Buddha's quest for enlightenment as motivated by the impulse to overcome these four types of sufferings. The eight types of suffering comprise the above four types plus an additional four: "the suffering of being separated from persons and things one likes" (priyaviprayogaduḥkha), "the suffering of being associated with persons and things one dislikes" (apriyasaMprayogaduḥkha), "the suffering of not getting what one wants" (yad api icchayā paryesamāno na labhate tad api duḥkhaM), and "the suffering inherent in the five aggregates that are objects of clinging" (saMksepena paNcopādānaskandhaduḥkha). In addition to these three typical categories of suffering, there are other lists, from the eighteen types of suffering listed in the sāriputrābhidharmasāstra (Shelifu apitan lun) to the one hundred and ten types enumerated in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA. NĀGĀRJUNA's SUHṚLLEKHA gives a list of six sufferings: uncertainty, insatiability, casting off bodies repeatedly, repeated rebirth, repeatedly descending from high to low, and having no companions when dying and being reborn. Tibetan sources stress the role that meditation on suffering plays in producing a feeling of disgust (NIRVEDA; T. nges 'byung), that is, the preliminary turning away from the things of this world and turning toward nirvāna.
Edgerton, Franklin. (1885-1963). American scholar of Sanskrit; born in Le Mars, Iowa, he received his undergraduate education at Cornell. He then studied at Munich and Jena before returning to the United States, where he studied Sanskrit and comparative philology at Johns Hopkins. Edgerton taught at the University of Pennsylvania, before moving to Yale in 1926 as Salisbury Professor of Sanskrit. He remained there for the remainder of his academic career, retiring in 1953. Edgerton's great contribution to Buddhist studies was the 1953 publication of his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary and his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Reader, the result of some three decades of work. Edgerton coined the term BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT to describe the language of PRAKRIT, mixed Sanskrit, and Sanskrit that occurs in many Buddhist Sanskrit texts, especially the MAHĀYĀNA SuTRA literature. Prior to Edgerton, this language was sometimes called the Gāthā dialect because it occurred frequently in the verses, or GĀTHĀ, in the Mahāyāna sutras. Edgerton divided Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit into three classes based on the degree of hybridization within a given text. Since its publication, Edgerton's work, and the entire category of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit itself, has been the subject of much scholarly debate, but Edgerton's dictionary remains widely used.
eight classes of nonhuman beings. In Sanskrit, AstASENĀ; a listing of eight types of mythical and semi-mythical beings associated with the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU); they are often listed as being in attendance when the Buddha speaks the MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAs. There are various lists, but a standard grouping includes divinities (DEVA), serpent deities (NĀGA), demons (YAKsA), titans (ASURA), demigod musicians (GANDHARVA), mythical birds (GARUdA), half-horse/half-men (KIMNARA), and great snakes (MAHORĀGA). For fuller treatments, see AstASENĀ and entries for the individual beings.
ekayāna. (T. theg pa gcig pa; C. yisheng; J. ichijo; K. ilsŭng 一乘). In Sanskrit, lit. "one vehicle" or "single vehicle." "Vehicle" literally means "conveyance" or "transportation," viz., the conveyance that carries sentient beings from SAMSĀRA to NIRVĀnA; the term may also refer to the actual person who reaches the destination of the path. The doctrine of a single vehicle is set forth in certain MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAs, most famously, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), which declares that the three vehicles of the sRĀVAKA (disciple), PRATYEKABUDDHA (solitary buddha), and BODHISATTVA are actually just three expedient devices (UPĀYAKAUsALYA) for attracting beings to the one buddha vehicle, via which they all become buddhas. It is important to note that, although it is often claimed that a central tenet of the MAHĀYĀNA is that all sentient beings will eventually achieve buddhahood, this view is not universally set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras and philosophical schools. A number of important sutras, notably the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, maintained that there are three final vehicles and that those who successfully followed the path of the srāvaka and pratyekabuddha would eventually become ARHATs and would not then go on to achieve buddhahood (cf. GOTRA; BUDDHADHĀTU). This position was also held by such major YOGĀCĀRA figures as ASAnGA. In the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, however, the Buddha reveals that his earlier teachings of the three vehicles were in fact three expedient forms suited to specific beings' capacities; the sutra's exposition of the one buddha vehicle is said to be the unifying, complete, and final exposition of his teachings. Since this one-vehicle teaching is the teaching that leads to buddhahood, it is synonymous with the "buddha vehicle" (BUDDHAYĀNA), the "great vehicle" (MAHĀYĀNA), and sometimes the "bodhisattva vehicle" (BODHISATTVAYĀNA). In East Asia, there was substantial consideration given to the precise relations among these terms. Thus, the FAXIANG school of Chinese YOGĀCĀRA interprets the "one vehicle" of the three-vehicle system as being equivalent to the bodhisattva vehicle, while the HUAYAN and TIANTAI schools distinguish between the one buddha vehicle and the bodhisattva vehicle that is included within the three vehicles. The Faxiang school also distinguishes between two levels of the ekayāna, the "inclusive" Mahāyāna (sheru dasheng) and the "derivative" Mahāyāna (chusheng dasheng). According to the explanation of KUIJI (632-682), the first is an expedient like that used in the Saddharmapundarīkasutra to attract people of indeterminate nature to the one buddha vehicle. Because this type of sentient being is incapable of immediately attaining buddhahood, this teaching does not fully correspond to the meaning of the ekayāna. However, because all members of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra's audience have the potential to become buddhas through hearing this teaching, it is still considered to be true and effective. The second type means that all teachings of the Buddha are "born from" or "derive from" a single Mahāyāna teaching; Kuiji says that this type corresponds to the teaching of the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA.
Ekottarāgama. [alt. Ekottarikāgama] (P. Anguttaranikāya; T. Gcig las 'phros pa'i lung; C. Zengyi ahan jing; J. Zoichiagongyo; K. Chŭngil aham kyong 增壹阿含經). In Sanskrit, "Numerically Arranged Discourses," the Sanskrit analogue of the Pāli AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, in which the collected sutras are putatively arranged sequentially in numbered lists of "ones," "twos," etc.; the extant version of this collection, however, has a pronounced topical arrangement like the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA. The collection probably dates from sometime between the second century and the first part of the fourth century CE. The Ekottarāgama's sectarian affiliation remains in dispute. Some scholars have attributed it to the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA school of the mainstream Buddhist tradition, but this attribution has been called into question because certain passages of the text contradict established MahāsāMghika doctrine (such as the standard MahāsāMghika assertion that ARHATs are subject to backsliding) and show serious inconsistencies with the MahāsāMghika VINAYA. Because of these issues, other scholars have instead ascribed the text to the PRAJNAPTIVĀDA, an offshoot of the MahāsāMghika. Because of some seeming consistencies between the Ekottarāgama and DHARMAGUPTAKA doctrine and because the text refers to 250 PRĀTIMOKsA rules for monks, a number that corresponds to the Dharmaguptaka recension of that code, it is possible that the collection may belong to the Dharmaguptaka school. The text is only extant in a Chinese recension, Zengyi Ahan jing, translated by Gautama SaMghadeva in 397 during the Eastern Jin dynasty, in fifty-one rolls. It contains translations of only 471 sutras, far fewer than the 2,198 suttas in the Pāli Anguttaranikāya.
er mi. (J. nimitsu; K. i mil 二密). In Chinese, "two aspects of esoteric Buddhism." "Esoteric as to principle" (li mi) refers to the doctrines and conceptual understanding of esoteric Buddhism. "Esoteric as to practices" (shi mi) refers to the physical enactment of the "esoteric principle," either in tantric rituals and practices or in the Buddha's unfathomable activities. The Japanese TAIMITSU sect of esoteric Buddhism (as advocated by Japanese TENDAISHu) regards the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA as representative of esoteric as to principle, whereas the sutras promoted by SHINGONSHu are esoteric with regard to both principle and practices.
er xu. (J. nijo; K. i so 二序). In Chinese, the "two kinds of prefaces" appearing in most SuTRAs according to Chinese Buddhist exegetical traditions. The first kind is the so-called generic preface (tongxu)-the phrase "thus have I heard" (C. rushi wowen; S. EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM). The second kind is called the "specific preface" (biexu), which stipulates the particular location and audience of a sermon and is different between sutras. See also NIDĀNA.
evaM mayā srutam. (P. evaM me sutaM; T. 'di skad bdag gis thos pa; C. rushi wowen; J. nyozegamon; K. yosi amun 如是我聞). In Sanskrit, "thus have I heard," the stock phrase that begins most SuTRAs, certifying that the teachings about to be recounted were heard from the mouth of the Buddha (or, in some cases, were spoken with his sanction by insightful disciples). The "I" in the phrase is generally assumed to refer to the Buddha's attendant ĀNANDA, who recited the SuTRAPItAKA at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST) following the Buddha's PARINIRVĀnA. In MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature, however, where the argument is made that the Buddha taught many sutras that were not heard by Ānanda, it is sometimes advocated that the "I" instead refers to a particular BODHISATTVA who serves as the interlocutor for the scripture, such as MANJUsRĪ . There is also some debate within scholarly circles, following the commentarial interpretations of certain Buddhist traditions, whether this stock opening should also include the phrase "at one time" (ekasmin samaye) that usually follows, viz., "thus I have heard at one time" or "thus I once heard" (evaM mayā srutaM ekasmin samaye). See also ER XU; cf. GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA.
Fahua sanbu [jing]. (J. Hokke sanbu[kyo]; K. Pophwa sambu [kyong] 法華三部[經]). In Chinese, "The Three [Sister] Sutras of the 'Lotus,'" and often referred to in English as the "Threefold 'Lotus Sutra.'" The three scriptures are: the WULIANG YI JING ("Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings"); the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") itself; and the GUAN PUXIAN PUSA XINGFA JING ("Sutra on the Procedures for Visualizing the Bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA"). They are called "sister sutras" in East Asia because they seem to contain internal references to one other, which implied that they were propounded in this order during the final period of the Buddha's ministry (according to the TIANTAI school's temporal taxonomy of the scriptures; see WUSHI). The first of the three scriptures, the Wuliang yi jing, was presumed to be the prequel to the influential Saddharmapundarīkasutra (although the text is now generally believed to be an indigenous Chinese composition, see APOCRYPHA); the last, the Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing, was considered its sequel. The three texts are also called "sister sutras" because they all figured prominently in Tiantai teachings, although the Saddharmapundarīkasutra far eclipsed the other two sutras in importance in the school's exegetic tradition.
fashu. (J. hossu; K. popsu 法數). In Chinese, "enumerations of dharmas," the numerical schemes involving successive integers used to organize and memorize Buddhist teachings, such as the one path, two truths, three refuges, FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, etc. This classificatory and mnemonic device is frequently employed in both SuTRAs (such as the "Numerically-Arranged Discourses," or AnGUTTARANIKĀYA/EKOTTARĀGAMA) and sĀSTRAs. East Asian exegeses, compendia, and concordances were also often arranged by, or composed exclusively of, such sequential set of numerical headings. See also GEYI.
Faxian. (J. Hoken/Hokken; K. Pophyon 法顯) (c. 337-422). In Chinese, "Display of Dharma"; a Chinese monk pilgrim of the Eastern Jin dynasty, who is best known for his pilgrimage record of his travels to India, titled the FAXIAN ZHUAN. The text, also known as the FOGUO JI, ("Record of Buddhist Kingdoms") is an invaluable source for understanding South Asian Buddhism in the early fifth century. Motivated by a desire to procure a complete recension of an Indian VINAYA, in 399 Faxian left the Chinese capital of Chang'an for India, together with his fellow monks Hujing, Daozheng, and others. He left a detailed record of his journey through numerous kingdoms in Central Asia, his arduous path through the Himalayas, and various pilgrimage sites (see MAHĀSTHĀNA) in central India. He ended up staying for several years in India, studying Sanskrit and copying various SuTRAs and vinayas such as the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA vinaya, SAMYUKTĀGAMA, and MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, before leaving for Sri Lanka. Taking the southern sea route home from Sri Lanka, Faxian's ship was damaged in a typhoon and he was forced to stay on the island of Java for five months, finally returning to China in 413. Faxian brought back with him the new texts that he had collected overseas, and spent the rest of his life translating them into Chinese, several in collaboration with the Indian monk BUDDHABHADRA.
four noble truths. (S. catvāry āryasatyāni; P. cattāri ariyasaccāni; T. 'phags pa'i bden pa bzhi; C. si shengdi; J. shishodai; K. sa songje 四聖諦). Although the term "four noble truths" is well established in English-language works on Buddhism, it is a misleading translation of the original Sanskrit and Pāli terms. The term translated as "noble" (ĀRYA) refers not to the truths themselves, but to those who understand them; thus, the compound may more accurately, if less euphoniously, be rendered as "four truths [known by the spiritually] noble"; they are four facts known to be true by those "noble ones" with insight into the nature of reality, but not known by ordinary beings (PṚTHAGJANA). The four truths are: suffering (DUḤKHA), origination (SAMUDAYA), cessation (NIRODHA), and path (MĀRGA). The four noble truths are the subject of extensive exegesis in the tradition, but the four terms and the relationships among them may be summarized as follows. Existence in the realms that are subject to rebirth, called SAMSĀRA, is qualified by suffering (duḥkha), the first truth (the Sanskrit term may also be rendered as "sorrow," "pain," or more generally "unsatisfactoriness"). The types of sufferings that beings undergo in the various destinations of rebirth are enumerated at great length in Buddhist texts. In his first sermon delivered after his enlightenment (see DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), the Buddha identifies the following as forms of suffering: birth, aging, sickness, death, encountering what is unpleasant, separation from what is pleasant, not gaining what one desires, and the five SKANDHAs. The second truth is the origination (samudaya), or cause, of suffering. In his first sermon, the Buddha identifies the cause of suffering as craving (TṚsnĀ) or attachment; in his second sermon, the ANATTALAKKHAnASUTTA, said to have been delivered five days later, he suggests that the belief is self (ĀTMAN) is the cause of suffering. In other works, he lists two causes of suffering: unwholesome or unsalutary (AKUsALA) actions (KARMAN) such as killing, stealing, and lying, and the unwholesome mental states (see CAITTA) that motivate unwholesome actions. These unwholesome mental states include greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEsA), and ignorance (MOHA), with ignorance referring here to an active misperception of the nature of the person and the world or, more technically, to an unsystematic attention (AYONIsOMANASKĀRA) to the true nature of things, leading to the following "inverted views" (VIPARYĀSA): seeing pleasure where there is actually pain, purity where there is impurity, permanence where there is impermanence, and self where there is no self. The third truth is the cessation (nirodha) of suffering, which refers to NIRLĀnA, the "deathless" (AMṚTA) state that transcends all suffering. The fourth and final truth is that of the path (mārga) to the cessation of suffering. The path is delineated in exhaustive detail in Buddhist texts; in his first sermon, the Buddha describes an eightfold path (ĀRLĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). The four truths therefore posit the unsatisfactory nature of existence, identify its causes, hold out the prospect of a state in which suffering and its causes are absent, and set forth a path to that state. Suffering is to be identified, its origin destroyed, its cessation realized, and the path to its cessation followed. The four truths demonstrate the importance of causality (see HETUPRATYAYA) in Buddhist thought and practice. Suffering is the effect of the cause, or origin, viz., "craving." Cessation is the absence of suffering, which results from the destruction of suffering's origin, craving. The path is the means by which one attains that cessation. The Buddha states in his first sermon that when he gained absolute and intuitive knowledge of the four truths, he achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from future rebirth. The four truths are also often described in terms of their sixteen aspects (sodasākāra), which counteract four inverted views (viparyāsa) for each truth. For the truth of suffering, the four aspects are knowledge that the aggregates (SKANDHA) are impermanent, suffering, empty, and selfless; these counteract seeing permanence, pleasure, mine (MAMAKĀRA), and I (AHAMKĀRA), respectively. For the truth of origination, the four aspects are knowledge that KLEsA(affliction) and action (karman) are cause (HETU), origination (samudaya), producer (saMbhava), and condition (PRATYAYA); they counteract the view that there is no cause, that there is a single cause, that the cause is transformation of a fundamental nature, and that the cause is a prior act of divine will, respectively. For the truth of cessation, the four aspects are knowledge that nirvāna is cessation (NIRODHA), peace (sānta), sublime (pranīta), and a definite escape (niryāna); these counteract the view that there is no liberation, that liberation is suffering, that the pleasure of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA) is unmitigated, and that NIRLĀnA is not firmly irreversible. And for the truth of the path, the four aspects are knowledge that the eightfold noble path is a path (mārga), correct method (UPĀYA), practice (PRATIPATTI), and brings a definite escape (nairyānika); these counteract the view that there is no path, that this eightfold noble path is vile, that something else is also a path, and that this path is reversible. Some Mahāyāna sutras say that those who are attached to (ABHINIVEsA) the four noble truths as being essentially true do not understand the purport of the Buddha's doctrine; only the teaching of the third noble truth, NIRLĀnA, is definitive (NĪTĀRTHA), the statements about the other truths require interpretation (NEYĀRTHA). See also DARsANAMĀRGA.
gandhaghatikā. (T. spos snod; C. xianglu; J. koro; K. hyangno 香爐). In Sanskrit, "censer," "incense burner"; a small stove with a perforated lid, both typically made of bronze or pottery, in which incense is burned as an offering during the performance of a ritual. In certain VINAYA traditions, such as the DHARMAGUPTAKA (see SIFEN LÜ), the censer is included in a list of eighteen requisites (S. astādasadravya; see PARIsKĀRA; NIsRAYA) that monks were allowed to keep, along with tooth cleaners, soap, the three robes, water bottle, begging bowl, sitting mat, walking staff, water filter, handkerchief, knife, fire starter, tweezers, sleeping hammock, sutras, vinaya texts, buddha images, and bodhisattva images.
gate gate pāragate pārasaMgate bodhi svāhā. (T. ga te ga te pā ra ga te pā ra saM ga te bo dhi svā hā; C. jiedi jiedi boluojiedi boluosengjiedi puti sapohe; J. gyatei gyatei haragyatei harasogyatei boji sowaka; K. aje aje paraaje parasŭngaje moji sabaha 帝帝波羅帝波羅僧帝菩提薩婆訶). A Sanskrit MANTRA contained in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). At the conclusion of the SuTRA, the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA says to sĀRIPUTRA, "Therefore, the mantra of the perfection of wisdom is the mantra of great wisdom, the unsurpassed mantra, the unequalled mantra, the mantra that completely pacifies all suffering. Because it is not false, it should be known to be true. The mantra of the perfection of wisdom is stated thus: gate gate pāragate pārasaMgate bodhi svāhā." Although most mantras are not translatable, this one can be roughly rendered into English as "gone, gone, gone beyond, gone completely beyond, enlightenment, svāhā" (svāhā is an interjection, meaning "hail," commonly placed at the end of a mantra). "Gate" in the mantra is most probably a vocative of gatā addressed to the goddess PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ (the iconographic representation of perfect wisdom); hence, the mantra may be addressed to PrajNāpāramitā and mean, "You who have gone, gone, gone beyond," etc. Given the ubiquity of the PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism and its frequent ritual chanting by monks in both East Asia and Tibet, the mantra has been the subject of extensive commentary. Thus, some commentators correlate the first five words with the five paths (PANCAMĀRGA) to buddhahood: the first "gate" indicates the path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA); the second "gate," the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA); "pāragate," the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA); "pārasaMgate," the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA); and BODHI, the adept path (AsAIKsAMĀRGA). Such an interpretation is in keeping with the Indian scholastic view of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, where it is said that the sutras have two teachings, one explicit and one implicit. The explicit teaching is emptiness (suNYATĀ) and the implicit teaching is the various realizations (ABHISAMAYA) of the bodhisattva along the path to buddhahood. From this perspective, everything in the sutra up to the mantra provides the explicit teaching and the mantra provides the implicit teaching. Other commentators state that the first part of the sutra (up to the mantra) is intended for bodhisattvas of dull faculties and that the mantra is intended for bodhisattvas of sharp faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). Some of the commentators include "it is thus" (tadyathā) in the mantra and add oM at the beginning. Although the presence of DHĀRAnĪ is relatively common in Mahāyāna sutras, something that is explicitly called a mantra is not, leading some commentators to consider whether the PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra should be classified as a sutra or a TANTRA.
ghantā. (T. dril bu; C. jianzhi; J. kenchi; K. konch'i 犍稚). In Sanskrit, "gong"; a resonant instrument used in Buddhist monasteries to announce the time of events, or to assemble the congregation. According to such texts as the MAHĪsĀSAKA VINAYA, ghantās are to be sounded when it is time to recite SuTRAs and to assemble SAMGHA members for meals and other activities, or to announce the time of the UPOsADHA observance. Ghanthās are also ritual bells used in tantric liturgy. When used in conjunction with the VAJRA, the ghantā is said to represent wisdom (PRAJNĀ), while the vajra represents method (UPĀYA).
Gilgit. A region on the northwestern frontier of KASHMIR in northern Pakistan, also the name of the township where the river Gilgit meets the Indus; a trade route passed through the region, giving it strategic importance. Some associate Gilgit with a region the Tibetans call Bru sha. Its rulers (especially the Turuska) supported Buddhism at a number of times during its history, particularly between the sixth and eighth centuries; it fell under the control of the Tibetan kingdom for a time in the late eighth century. A STuPA discovered in Gilgit in 1931 yielded one of the largest troves ever discovered of Indian Buddhist manuscripts, associated especially with the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA offshoot of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school and with the MAHĀYĀNA. The discoveries included manuscripts of significant portions of the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA, and numerous Mahāyāna texts, including the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and various PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras.
Gṛdhrakutaparvata. (P. Gijjhakutapabbata; T. Bya rgod phung po'i ri; C. Lingjiushan; J. Ryojusen; K. Yongch'uksan [alt. Yongch'wisan/Yongch'usan] 靈鷲山). In Sanskrit, "Vulture Peak," one of the five hills surrounding the city of RĀJAGṚHA, a favored site of GAUTAMA Buddha and several of his most important disciples in mainstream Buddhist materials and the site where the Buddha is said to have delivered many renowned sutras in the NIKĀYAs and ĀGAMAs; in the MAHĀYĀNA, Gṛdhrakuta is also the location where sĀKYAMUNI Buddha is purported to have preached such important Mahāyāna scriptures as the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") and the perfection of wisdom sutras (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ). The hill was so named either because it was shaped like a vulture's beak or a flock of vultures, or because vultures roosted there. In another legend, the peak is said to have received its name when, in an attempt to distract ĀNANDA from his meditation, the demon MĀRA turned himself into a frightening vulture; Ānanda, however, was unswayed by the provocation and eventually became enlightened. In one of the most famous episodes in the life of the Buddha, his evil cousin DEVADATTA, in attempting to kill the Buddha, instead wounded him when he hurled a boulder down on him from the hill, cutting his toe; for this and other "acts that bring immediate retribution" (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN), Devadatta fell into AVĪCI hell. Because many important Mahāyāna sermons are said to have been spoken on the peak, some schools-specifically the Japanese NICHIRENSHu-believe that the mountain itself is a PURE LAND. Other sources state that because of the sutras set forth there, the peak has become a STuPA, and like the Buddha's seat (VAJRĀSANA) in BODHGAYĀ, it will not be destroyed by fire at the end of the KALPA. Although beings in the intermediate state (ANTARĀBHAVA) are said to be able to pass through mountains, they are not able to pass through Vulture Peak. The first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST), in which a group of five hundred ARHATS met to recite the Buddha's teaching after his death, is said to have been held in a cave on Vulture Peak.
grhyasutras (Grihyasutras) ::: [ritual works containing directions for domestic rites and ceremonies].
Grhya-sutras: The “House Books” of Hinduism, teaching and expounding the rites for the critical points of life, from birth to death, and the family sacrifices.
Grihyasutras ::: see grhyasutras
Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing. (J. Kan Fugen bosatsu gyobokyo; K. Kwan Pohyon posal haengbop kyong 觀普賢菩薩行法經). In Chinese, "Sutra on the Procedures for Visualizing the Bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA"; one of the "Three [Sister] Sutras of the 'Lotus'" (FAHUA SANBU [JING]), along with the WULIANG YI JING ("Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings") and the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") itself. The extant text, in one roll, was translated into Chinese by Dharmamitra (356-442) sometime between 424 and 442; two earlier translations, neither of which is extant, are mentioned in the scriptural catalogues (JINGLU): the Puxian guan jing by *Gītamitra (c. fourth century) and the Guan Puxian pusa jing, attributed to KUMĀRAJĪVA. There is no extant Sanskrit recension of the scripture. While the Wuliang yi jing is presumed to be the prequel to the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, the Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing is usually considered its sequel, being similar in content to the twenty-eighth and final chapter of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. In this scripture, the Buddha provides a detailed account of a meditation that will generate a vision of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra in all his glory, including the majesty of the snowy-white elephant on which he rides. Once Samantabhadra is visible, he will then reveal to the meditator all the buddhas of the ten directions, as well as various other pure lands and bodhisattvas. The scripture concludes with Samantabhadra's explanation of how to conduct a repentance ritual that will purify the six sense organs, thus ensuring that the meditator will never again engage in unwholesome acts (AKUsALA-KARMAN) and will no longer be subject to rebirth in the three realms of existence (TRILOKA[DHĀTU]).
Guan Wuliangshou jing. (S. *Amitāyurdhyānasutra; J. Kan Muryojukyo; K. Kwan Muryangsu kyong 觀無量壽經). In Chinese, "Sutra on the Visualization of [the Buddha of] Immeasurable Life"; often called simply the Guan jing, or "Visualization Scripture." Along with the AMITĀBHASuTRA and SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the Guan Wuliangshou jing has been considered one of the three central scriptures of the PURE LAND tradition(s) (JINGTU SANBU JING). The Guan jing was extremely influential in East Asian Buddhism for advocating specific types of visualizations or contemplations (guan) on the person of the buddha AMITĀBHA (C. Wuliangshou; S. Amitāyu), and for encouraging oral recitation of Amitābha's name (chengming; see NIANFO). Early commentaries on the scripture were written by SHANDAO (613-681), an important Chinese exponent of pure land practice, as well as by TIANTAI ZHIYI (538-597), and JINGYING HUIYUAN (523-592), all attesting to the text's centrality to the East Asian Buddhist tradition. Although the Guan Wuliangshou jing purports to be a translation by the monk KĀLAYAsAS (fl. c. 383-442), no Sanskrit or Tibetan recension is known to have ever existed; Uighur versions of the Guan Wuliangshou jing are extant, but they are translations of the Chinese version. The scripture also contains specific Chinese influences, such as references to earlier Chinese translations of pure land materials and other contemplation sutras (guan jing), which has suggested to some scholars that the text might be a Chinese indigenous composition (see APOCRYPHA). It is now generally accepted that the scripture outlines a visualization exercise that was practiced in Central Asia, perhaps specifically in the TURFAN region, but includes substantial Chinese admixtures. ¶ The Guan Wuliangshou jing tells the story of prince AJĀTAsATRU who, at the urging of DEVADATTA, imprisons his father, king BIMBISĀRA, and usurps the throne. After Ajātasatru learns that his mother, queen VAIDEHĪ, has been surreptitiously keeping her husband alive by sneaking food in to him, he puts her under house arrest as well. The distraught queen prays to the Buddha for release from her suffering and he immediately appears in her chambers. Vaidehī asks him to show her a land free from sorrow and he displays to her the numerous buddha fields (BUDDHAKsETRA) throughout the ten directions (DAsADIs) of the universe. Queen Vaidehī, however, chooses to be reborn in the buddha AMITĀBHA's pure land of SUKHĀVATĪ, so the Buddha instructs her in sixteen visualizations that ensure the meditator will take rebirth there, including visualizations on the setting sun, the lotus throne of Amitābha, Amitābha himself, as well as the bodhisattvas AVALOKITEsVARA and MAHĀSTHĀMAPRĀPTA. The visualizations largely focus on the details of sukhāvatī's beauty, such as its beryl ground, jeweled trees, and pure water. In the last three visualizations, the Buddha expounds the nine grades of rebirth (JIUPIN) in that land, which became a favorite topic among exegetes in China, Korea, and Japan. The Guan Wuliangshou jing has also exerted much influence in the realm of art. A number of exquisite mural representations of sukhāvatī and the sixteen contemplations adorn the walls of the DUNHUANG cave complex, for example.
Guanyin. (J. Kannon; K. Kwanŭm 觀音). In Chinese, "Perceiver of Sounds," an abbreviation of the longer name Guanshiyin (J. Kanzeon; K. Kwanseŭm; Perceiver of the World's Sounds); the most famous and influential BODHISATTVA in all of East Asia, who is commonly known in Western popular literature as "The Goddess of Mercy." Guanyin (alt. Guanshiyin) is the Chinese translation of AVALOKITEsVARA, the bodhisattva of compassion; this rendering, popularized by the renowned Kuchean translator KUMĀRAJĪVA in his 405-406 CE translation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), derives from an earlier form of this bodhisattva's name, Avalokitasvara, which is attested in some Sanskrit manuscripts of this scripture; Kumārajīva interprets this name as "gazing" (avalokita; C. guan) on the "sounds" (svara; C. yin) [of this wailing "world" (C. shi) of suffering]. Avalokitasvara was supplanted during the seventh century CE by the standard Sanskrit form Avalokitesvara, the "gazing" (avalokita) "lord" (īsvara); this later form is followed in XUANZANG's Chinese rendering Guanzizai (J. Kanjizai; K. Kwanjajae), as found in his 649 CE translation of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). The primary textual source for Guanyin worship is the twenty-fifth chapter of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra; that chapter is devoted to the bodhisattva and circulated widely as an independent text in East Asia. The chapter guarantees that if anyone in danger calls out Guanshiyin's name with completely sincerity, the bodhisattva will "perceive the sound" of his call and rescue him from harm. Unlike in India and Tibet, Avalokitesvara took on female form in East Asia around the tenth century. In traditional China, indigenous forms of Guanyin, such as BAIYI GUANYIN (White-Robed Guanyin), Yulan Guanyin (Guanyin with Fish Basket), SHUIYUE GUANYIN (Moon in Water Guanyin), Songzi Guanyin (Child-Granting Guanyin), MALANG FU, as well as Princess MIAOSHAN, became popular subjects of worship. Guanyin was worshipped in China by both monastics and laity, but her functions differed according to her manifestation. Guanyin thus served as a protectress against personal misfortune, a symbol of Buddhist ideals and restraint, or a granter of children. Various religious groups and lay communities also took one of her various forms as their patroness, and in this role, Guanyin was seen as a symbol of personal salvation. Beginning in the tenth century, these different manifestations of Guanyin proliferated throughout China through indigenous sutras (see APOCRYPHA), secular narratives, miracle tales, monastic foundation legends, and images. In later dynasties, and up through the twentieth century, Guanyin worship inspired both male and female religious groups. For example, White Lotus groups (see BAILIAN SHE; BAILIAN JIAO) during the Song dynasty included members from both genders, who were active in erecting STuPAs and founding cloisters that promoted Guanyin worship. In the twentieth century, certain women's groups were formed that took Princess Miaoshan's refusal to marry as inspiration to reject the institution of marriage themselves and, under the auspices of a Buddhist patron, pursue other secular activities as single women. ¶ In Japan, Kannon was originally introduced during the eighth century and took on additional significance as a female deity. For example, Kannon was often invoked by both pilgrims and merchants embarking on long sea voyages or overland travel. Invoking Kannon's name was thought to protect travelers from seven different calamities, such as fire, flood, storms, demons, attackers, lust and material desires, and weapons. Moreover, Kannon worship in Japan transcended sectarian loyalties, and there were numerous miracle tales concerning Kannon that circulated throughout the Japanese isles. ¶ In Korea, Kwanŭm is by far the most popular bodhisattva and is also known there as a deity who offers succor and assistance in difficult situations. The cult of Kwanŭm flourished initially under the patronage of the aristocracy in both the Paekche and Silla kingdoms, and historical records tell of supplications made to Kwanŭm for the birth of children or to protect relatives who were prisoners of war or who had been lost at sea. Hence, while the cult of AMITĀBHA was principally focused on spiritual liberation in the next life, Kwanŭm instead was worshipped for protection in this life. Still today, Kwanŭm is an object of popular worship and a focus of ritual chanting in Korean Buddhist monasteries by both monks and, especially, laywomen (and usually chanted in the form Kwanseŭm).
guna. (T. yon tan; C. gongde; J. kudoku; K. kongdok 功德). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. "string," or "strand," by extension a "quality" or "spiritual virtue." In the sense of a "quality," or "constituent part," the term appears in lists such as the five "strands" or "aspects" of "sensuality" (kāmaguna), viz., the sensual pleasures associated with the five physical senses. Guna as "spiritual virtue" or "meritorious quality" (S. guna; C. gongde) is sometimes contrasted with "merit" (S. PUnYA; C. fude), i.e., practices that lead to worldly rewards and/or better rebirths but not necessarily to enlightenment. In general, such religious deeds as building monasteries, erecting STuPAs, making images of the Buddha, transcribing sutras, and chanting all help to generate merit that can lead to better quality of life in this and other existences but will not in themselves produce the spiritual virtue (guna) that will be sufficient to bring about liberation from the cycle of rebirth (SAMSĀRA). See also GUnAPĀRAMITĀ.
Gunavarman. (C. Qiunabamo; J. Gunabatsuma; K. Kunabalma 求那跋摩) (367-431 CE). A Kashmiri monk who was an important early translator of Buddhist VINAYA and BODHISATTVA preceptive materials into Chinese. He was a prince of Kubhā, who was ordained at the age of twenty and eventually became known as a specialist in the Buddhist canon (TREPItAKA). Upon his father's death, he was offered the throne, but refused, and instead embarked on travels throughout Asia to preach the dharma, including to Java, where he helped to establish the Buddhist tradition. Various miracles are associated with the places he visited, such as fragrance wafting in the air when he meditated and a dragon-like creature who was seen ascending to heaven in his presence. In 424 CE, Gunavarman traveled to China and was invited by Emperor Wen of the Liu Song dynasty to come to the capital in Nanjing. Upon his arrival, a monastery was built in his honor and Gunavarman lectured there on various sutras. During his sojourn in China, he translated some eighteen rolls of seminal Buddhist texts into Chinese, including the BODHISATTVABHuMI, and several other works associated with the BODHISATTVAsĪLA, the DHARMAGUPTAKA VINAYA (SIFEN LÜ), and monastic and lay precepts. Gunavarman was a central figure in founding the order of nuns (BHIKsUNĪ) in China and he helped arrange the ordination of several Chinese nuns whose hagiographies are recorded in the BIQIUNI ZHUAN.
haihui. (J. kaie; K. haehoe 海會). In Chinese, lit. "oceanic congregation," referring, e.g., to congregations of sages, divinities, bodhisattvas, etc., that are said to be as vast as the ocean. "A congregation that is [as vast as] the ocean" is a common motif in MAHĀYĀNA sutras, whose expositions are typically attended by astronomical numbers of beings. Such "oceanic congregations" also sometimes refer to the extraordinary entourages of celestial buddhas. For example, "the oceanic congregation of SUKHĀVATĪ" (jile haihui) usually involves a religious vision of the buddha AMITĀBHA and the infinite numbers of inhabitants resident in his PURE LAND. Congregations in Chan monasteries (see CONGLIN) are also called a "congregation that is [as vast as the confluence of rivers in] the ocean" to symbolize the coming together of many sincere practitioners.
hīnayāna. (T. theg pa dman pa; C. xiaosheng; J. shojo; K. sosŭng 小乘). In Sanskrit, "lesser vehicle," a pejorative term coined by the MAHĀYĀNA ("Great Vehicle") tradition of Buddhism to refer to the (in their minds' discredited) doctrines and practices of its rival sRĀVAKAYĀNA schools of the mainstream Buddhist tradition. Hīna has the negative connotations of "lesser," "defective," and "vile," and thus the term hīnayāna is inevitably deprecatory. It should be understood that the term hīnayāna is never used self-referentially by the srāvakayāna schools of mainstream Buddhism and thus should never be taken as synonymous with the THERAVĀDA school of contemporary Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian Buddhism. Hīnayāna does, however, have a number of usages in Buddhist literature. (1) Hīnayāna is used by proponents of the Mahāyāna to refer specifically to those who do not accept the Mahāyāna sutras as being the authentic word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). (2) Hīnayāna is used in Mahāyāna literature to refer collectively to the paths of the sRĀVAKAs and the PRATYEKABUDDHAs (see also ER SHENG), i.e., those who, out of a desire to attain enlightenment for themselves alone, lack sufficient compassion to undertake the BODHISATTVA path leading ultimately to buddhahood. (3) Hīnayāna has been used both by traditional Buddhist exegetes and by modern scholars of Buddhism to refer to the non-Mahāyāna schools of Indian Buddhism, traditionally numbered as eighteen, which themselves each set forth the three paths of the srāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva. See MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS.
House Books: See: Grhya-sutras.
Huaisu. (J. Kaiso; K. Hoeso 懷素) (634-707). Chinese VINAYA master of the Tang dynasty. Huaisu was ordained at the age of eleven by XUANZANG, under whom he studied various SuTRAs and sĀSTRAs. After receiving his precepts, Huaisu studied the Sifen lü xingshi chao with its author, the renowned vinaya master DAOXUAN. Huaisu also studied Fali's Sifen lü shu under one of his major disciples. After studying the SIFEN LÜ ("Four-Part Vinaya") of the DHARMAGUPTAKA school with these teachers, Huaisu decided to rectify what he considered flaws in earlier studies of the vinaya and composed the Sifen lü kaizong ji, in twenty rolls. Huaisu's text soon came to known as the "new commentary" (xinshu), and he and his followers came to be called the East Pagoda vinaya school (DONGTA LÜ ZONG) in distinction to Daoxuan's NANSHAN LÜ ZONG (Mt. Nan vinaya school) and Fali's XIANGBU LÜ ZONG (Xiang Region vinaya school). Huaisu also authored commentaries on the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the Dharmaguptaka BHIKsU precepts and their ecclesiastical procedures (karmavācanā), and various other texts.
Huanglong pai. (J. oryoha/oryuha; K. Hwangnyong p'a 龍派). In Chinese, "Huanglong school"; collateral lineage of the CHAN school's LINJI ZONG, one of the five houses and seven schools (WU JIA QI ZONG) of the Chan during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1126). The school's name comes from the toponym of its founder, HUANGLONG HUINAN (1002-1069), who taught at Mt. Huanglong in present-day Jiangxi province; Huinan was a disciple of Shishuang Chuyuan (986-1039), himself a sixth-generation successor in the Linji school. The Huanglong school was especially known for "lettered Chan" (WENZI CHAN), a style of Chan that valorized belle lettres, and especially poetry, in Chan practice. Many of the most influential monks in the Huanglong school exemplified a period when Chan entered the mainstream of Chinese intellectual life: their practice of Chan was framed and conceptualized in terms that drew from their wide learning and profound erudition, tendencies that helped make Chan writings particularly appealing to wider Chinese literati culture. JUEFAN HUIHONG (1071-1128), for example, decried the bibliophobic tendencies in Chan that were epitomized in the aphorism that Chan "does not establish words and letters" (BULI WENZI) and advocated that Chan insights were in fact made manifest in both Buddhist sutras and the uniquely Chan genres of discourse records (YULU), lineage histories (see CHUANDENG LU), and public-case anthologies (GONG'AN). Huanglong and YUNMEN ZONG masters made important contributions to the development of the Song Chan literary styles of songgu ([attaching] verses to ancient [cases]) and niangu (raising [and analyzing] ancient [cases]). Because of their pronounced literary tendencies, many Huanglong monks became close associates of such Song literati-officials as Su Shi (1036-1101), Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), and ZHANG SHANGYING (1043-1122). After the founder's death, discord appeared within the Huanglong lineage: the second-generation master Baofeng Kewen (1025-1102) and his disciple Juefan Huihong criticized the practices of another second-generation master Donglin Changzong (1025-1091) and his disciples as clinging to silence and simply waiting for enlightenment; this view may have influenced the subsequent criticism of the CAODONG ZONG by DAHUI ZONGGAO (1089-1163), who trained for a time with the Huanglong master Zhantang Wenjun (1061-1115). The Huanglong pai was the first school of Chan to be introduced to Japan: by MYoAN EISAI (1141-1215), who studied with the eighth-generation Huanglong teacher Xu'an Huaichang (d.u.). The Huanglong pai did not survive as a separate lineage in either country long after the twelfth century, as its rival YANGQI PAI came to prominence; it was eventually reabsorbed into the Yangqi lineage.
Huayan shiyi. (J. Kegon no jui; K. Hwaom sibi 華嚴十異). In Chinese, "Ten Distinctions of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA," ten reasons why HUAYAN exegetes consider the AvataMsakasutra to be superior to all other scriptures and thus the supreme teaching of the Buddha. (1) The "time of its exposition" was unique (shiyi): the sutra was supposedly the first scripture preached after the Buddha's enlightenment and thus offers the most unadulterated enunciation of his experience. (2) The "location of its exposition" was unique (chuyi): it is said that the BODHI TREE under which the sutra was preached was the center of the "oceans of world systems of the lotus womb world" (S. padmagarbhalokadhātu; C. lianhuazang shijie; cf. TAIZoKAI). (3) The "preacher" was unique (zhuyi): The sutra was supposedly preached by VAIROCANA Buddha, as opposed to other "emanation buddhas." (4) The "audience" was unique (zhongyi): only advanced BODHISATTVAs-along with divinities and demigods who were in actuality emanations of the Buddha-were present for its preaching; thus, there was no division between MAHĀYĀNA and HĪNAYĀNA. (5) The "basis" of the sutra was unique (suoyiyi): its teaching was based on the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA), not the other provisional vehicles created later within the tradition. (6) The "exposition" of the sutra was unique (shuoyi): the AvataMsakasutra preached in this world system is consistent with the sutra as preached in all other world systems; this is unlike other sutras, which were provisional adaptations to the particular needs of this world system only. (7) The "status" of the vehicles in the sutra were unique (weiyi): no provisional categorization of the three vehicles of Buddhism (TRIYĀNA) was made in this sutra. This is because, according to the sutra's fundamental theme of "unimpeded interpenetration," any one vehicle subsumes all other vehicles and teachings. (8) Its "practice" was unique (xingyi): the stages (BHuMI) of the BODHISATTVA path are simultaneously perfected in this sutra's teachings, as opposed to having to be gradually perfected step-by-step. (9) The enumeration of "dharma gates," or list of dharmas, was unique (famenyi): whereas other sutras systematize doctrinal formulas using different numerical schemes (e.g., FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, eightfold path, etc.), this sutra exclusively employs in all its lists the number "ten"-a mystical number that symbolizes the sutra's infinite scope and depth. (10) Its "instantiation" was unique (shiyi): even the most mundane phenomena described in the AvataMsakasutra (such as trees, water, mountains, etc.) are expressions of the deepest truth; this is unlike other sutras that resort primarily to abstract, philosophical concepts like "emptiness" (suNYATĀ) or "suchness" (TATHATĀ) in order to express their profoundest truths.
Huayan wujiao. (J. Kegon no gokyo; K. Hwaom ogyo 華嚴五教). In Chinese, "Huayan's five classifications of the teachings." The HUAYAN ZONG recognizes two different versions of this doctrinal-classification schema, which ranks different strands of Buddhist teachings. The best-known version was outlined by DUSHUN and FAZANG: (1) The HĪNAYĀNA teachings (xiaojiao; cf. XIAOSHENG JIAO), also known as the srāvakayāna teaching (shengwenjiao), was pejoratively referred to as "teachings befitting the [spiritually] obtuse" (yufa). The ĀGAMAs and the ABHIDHARMAs were relegated to this class, which supposedly dealt primarily with theories of elements (DHĀTU) and more basic concepts such as dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). (2) The "elementary teaching [of Mahāyāna]" ([Dasheng] SHIJIAO). Within this category, two additional subgroups were differentiated. The first was the "initial teaching pertaining to emptiness" (kong shijiao), which encompassed the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and exegetical traditions such as MADHYAMAKA. This class of teachings was characterized by an emphasis (or, in Huayan's polemical assessment, an overemphasis) on the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The second subgroup, the "initial teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao), broaches the dynamic and phenomenal aspects of reality and did not confine itself to the theme of emptiness. YOGĀCĀRA and its traditional affiliate sutras and commentaries were classified under this subgroup. Together, these two subgroups were deemed the provisional teachings (quanjiao) within the MAHĀYĀNA tradition. (3) The "advanced [Mahāyāna] teachings" ([Dasheng] ZHONGJIAO) focused on the way true suchness (ZHENRU; S. TATHATĀ) was innately immaculate but could be activated in response to myriad conditions. The DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith"), sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, and LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA are examples of texts belonging to this doctrinal category. The treatment in these texts of the one mind (YIXIN) and TATHĀGATAGARBHA thought was considered a more definitive rendition of the MAHĀYĀNA teachings than were the elementary teachings (shijiao). (4) The "sudden teachings" (DUNJIAO), which includes texts like the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, was ranked as a unique category of subitist teachings befitting people of keen spiritual faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA), and therefore bypasses traditional, systematic approaches to enlightenment. The CHAN ZONG's touted soteriological methods involving sudden enlightenment (DUNWU) and its rejection of reliance on written texts led some Huayan teachers to relegate that school to this advanced, but still inferior, category of the teachings. Chan was thus superseded by, (5) the "perfect teachings" or "consummate teachings" (YUANJIAO). This supposedly most comprehensive and definitive strand of Buddhist teaching was reserved for the Huayan school and especially its definitive scripture, the AVATAMSAKASuTRA. ¶ The second version of five classifications was made by GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841) in his YUANREN LUN: (1) The "teachings pertaining to the human and heavenly realms" (RENTIAN JIAO) encompassed "mundane" (LAUKIKA) practices, such as the observation of the five precepts (PANCAsĪLA) and the ten wholesome ways of action (KUsALA-KARMAPATHA); this classification was named because of its believed efficacy to lead practitioners to higher realms of rebirth. (2) The "HĪNAYĀNA teachings" (XIAOSHENG JIAO), which were similar to the previous "xiaojiao." (3) The "dharma-characteristics teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng faxiang jiao), which was analogous to the aforementioned "elementary teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao) in the preceding classification scheme. (4) The "characteristics-negating teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng poxiang jiao) was analogous to the preceding "elementary teaching pertaining to emptiness." (5) The "nature-revealing teaching of the one vehicle" (yisheng xiangxing jiao) was equivalent to the last three categories Fazang's system combined together. See also HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG.
Huike. (J. Eka; K. Hyega 慧可) (c. 487-593). "Wise Prospect"; putative second patriarch of the CHAN ZONG. Huike (a.k.a. Sengke) was a native of Hulao (alt. Wulao) near Luoyang in present-day Henan province. When he was young, Huike is said to have mastered the Confucian classics and Daoist scriptures in addition to the Buddhist SuTRAs. He was later ordained by a certain Baojing (d.u.) on Mt. Xiang near Longmen, and received the full monastic precepts at Yongmusi. In 520, he is said to have made his famous visit to the monastery of SHAOLINSI on SONGSHAN, where he became the disciple of the Indian monk and founder of Chan, BODHIDHARMA. According to legend, Huike is said to have convinced the Indian master to accept him as a disciple by cutting off his left arm as a sign of his sincerity. (His biography in the GAOSENG ZHUAN tells us instead that he lost his arm to robbers.) Once Bodhidharma finally relented, Huike asked him to pacify his mind. Bodhidharma told him in response to bring him his mind, but Huike replied that he has searched everywhere for his mind but has not been able to find it anywhere. "Well, then," said Bodhidharma, in a widely quoted response, "I've pacified it for you." This brief encounter prompted Huike's awakening experience. Later, Huike taught at the capital Ye (present-day Henan province), where he is said to have amassed a large following. In 550, Huike ostensibly transmitted Bodhidharma's DHARMA to the obscure monk SENGCAN (the putative third patriarch of Chan) and later went into hiding during Emperor Wu's (r. 560-578) persecution of Buddhism (574-578).
In Buddhist writings, the Sutras are the second division of sacred works, generally known under the equivalent Pali term Suttas.
indriyasaMvara. (T. dbang po sdom pa; C. genlüyi; J. konritsugi; K. kŭnyurŭi 根律儀). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "sensory restraint," or "guarding the sense organs"; an important factor in the development of mindfulness (SMṚTI, P. SATI) and eventually concentration (SAMĀDHI), in which the meditator trains to see things as they actually are, rather than only in terms of oneself-i.e., as things we like, dislike, or are indifferent toward. In addition to its role in formal meditative training, indriyasaMvara should also be maintained throughout the ordinary activities of everyday life, in order to control the inveterate tendency toward craving. Maintaining sensory restraint helps the meditator to control one's reaction to the generic signs (NIMITTA) or secondary characteristics (ANUVYANJANA) of an object; instead, one halts the perceptual process at the level of simple recognition, simply noting what is seen, heard, etc. By not seizing on these signs and characteristics, perception is maintained at a level prior to an object's conceptualization and the resulting proliferation of concepts (PRAPANCA) throughout the full range of one's sensory experience. As the frequent refrain in the sutras states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions created by the intrusion of ego (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process. Mastery of this technique of sensory restraint provides access to the signless (ĀNIMITTA) gate to deliverance (VIMOKsAMUKHA).
In each case, the name of the realm indicates the object of meditation of the beings reborn there. Hence, in the first, for example, the beings perceive only infinite space. Rebirth in these different spheres is based on mastery of the corresponding four immaterial meditative absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA; ārupyasamāpatti) in the previous life. While the devas of the sensuous realm and the realm of subtle materiality come to have larger and ever more splendid bodies at the more advanced levels of their heavens, the devas of the immaterial realm do not have even the subtlest foundation in materiality; their existence is so refined that it is not even possible to posit exactly where they dwell spatially. In some schools, such as the Sarvāstivāda, the immaterial realm does not even exist as a discrete place: rather, when a being who has mastered the immaterial absorptions dies, he is reborn at the very same location where he passed away, except now he is "immaterial" or "formless" and thus invisible to coarser beings. According to the Theravāda, even a mind-made body (MANOMAYAKĀYA) is excluded from this realm, for the devas here possess only the mind base (MANĀYATANA), mental objects (P. dhammāyatana), the elements of mental consciousness (P. manoviNNānadhātu), and the element of mental objects (P. dhammadhātu), needing only three nutriments (ĀHĀRA) to survive-contact (P. phassa), mental cognition (P. manosaNcetana), and consciousness (P. viNNāna). The Buddha claims to have lived among the devas of the immaterial realm in certain of his previous lives, but without offering any detailed description of those existences. ¶ In all realms, devas are born apparitionally. In the sensuous realm, devas are born in their mother's lap, appearing as if they are already five to ten years old at birth; by contrast, devas of the subtle-materiality and immaterial realms appear not to need the aid of parents; those in the subtle-materiality realm appear fully grown, while those in the immaterial realm do not appear at all, because they have no form. It is also said that, when devas are reborn, they are aware of their prior existence and of the specific KARMAN that led to their rebirth in the heavenly realms. The different deva realms are also distinguished by differences in nutriment, sexuality, requisites, and life span. The devas of the lower heavens of the sensuous realm consume ordinary food; those in the upper spheres of the sensuous realm and the lower levels of the realm of subtle materiality feed only on sensory contact; the devas of the upper levels of the realm of subtle materiality feed only on contemplation; those in the immaterial realm feed on cognition alone. Sexual differentiation remains only in the sensuous realm: in the heaven of the four heavenly kings and the heaven of the thirty-three, the devas engage in physical copulation, the devas of the yāma heaven engage in sexual union by embracing one another, the devas of the tusita heaven by holding hands, those of the nirmānarati heaven by smiling at one another, and those of the paranirmitavasavartin heaven by exchanging a single glance. Clothes are said to be used in all deva worlds except in the immaterial realm. The life spans of devas in the sensuous realm range from five hundred years for the gods of the heaven of the four heavenly kings to one thousand years for the trāyastriMsa gods, two thousand years for the yāma gods, four thousand years for the tusita gods, eight thousand years for the nirmānarati gods, and sixteen thousand years for the paranirmitavasavartin gods. However, there is a range of opinion of what constitutes a year in these heavens. For example, it is said that in the tusita heaven, four hundred human years equal one day in the life of a god of that heaven. The life spans of devas in the realm of subtle materiality are measured in eons (KALPA). The life spans of devas in the immaterial realm may appear as essentially infinite, but even those divinities, like all devas, are subject to impermanence (ANITYA) and will eventually die and be subject to further rebirths once the salutary meditative deed that caused them to be reborn there has been exhausted. The sutras say that for a deva of the sensuous realm, there are five portents of his impending death: the garlands of flowers he wears begin to fade, his clothes become soiled and his palace dusty, he begins to perspire, his body becomes opaque and loses its luster, and his throne becomes uncomfortable. At that point, the deva experiences a vision of his next place of rebirth. This vision is said to be one of the most horrible sufferings in saMsāra, because of its marked contrast to the magnificence of his current life. There are also said to be four direct reasons why devas die: exhaustion of their life spans, their previous merit, their food, and the arising of anger. ¶ Rebirth as a deva is presumed to be the reward of virtuous karman performed in previous lives and is thus considered a salutary, if provisional, religious goal. In the "graduated discourse" (P. ANUPUBBIKATHĀ; S. ANUPuRVIKATHĀ) taught by the Buddha, for example, the Buddha uses the prospect of heavenly rebirth (svargakathā), and the pleasures accruing thereto, as a means of attracting laypersons to the religious life. Despite the many appealing attributes of these heavenly beings, such as their physical beauty, comfortable lives, and long life span, even heavenly existence is ultimately unsatisfactory because it does not offer a definitive escape from the continued cycle of birth and death (saMsāra). Since devas are merely enjoying the rewards of their previous good deeds rather than performing new wholesome karman, they are considered to be stagnating spiritually. This spiritual passivity explains why they must be reborn in lower levels of existence, and especially as human beings, in order to further their cultivation. For these reasons, Buddhist soteriological literature sometimes condemns religious practice performed solely for the goal of achieving rebirth as a deva. It is only certain higher level of devas, such as the devas belonging to the five pure abodes (suddhāvāsa), that are not subject to further rebirth, because they have already eliminated all the fetters (saMyojana) associated with that realm and are destined to achieve arhatship. Nevertheless, over the history of Buddhism, rebirth in heaven as a deva has been a more common goal for religious practice, especially among the laity, than the achievement of nirvāna. ¶ The sutras include frequent reference to "gods and men" (S. devamanusya; C. tianren) as the objects of the Buddha's teachings. Despite the fact that this is how most Buddhist traditions have chosen to translate the Sanskrit compound, "gods" here is probably meant to refer to the terrestrial divinities of "princes" or "kings," rather than heavenly beings; thus, the compound should be more properly (if, perhaps, pedantically) rendered "princes and peoples." Similarly, as the "divinities" of this world, buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats are also sometimes referred to as devas. See also DEVALOKA; DEVATĀ.
In the 3rd century BC the language used throughout Northern India was practically one, and it was derived directly from the speech of the Vedic Aryans, retaining many Vedic forms lost in the later classical Sanskrit. The basis of the language used in the Buddhist canon was that used in Ujjayini, the capital of the Avanti district. The chief doctrines of Buddhism are recorded in the works known as the Suttas (Sutras in Sanskrit) — there being four Nikayas consisting of 16 volumes; the fifth Nikaya being the Jatakas (birth stories of the Buddha).
In the Buddhist sutras, sakkayaditthi is the first chain to be broken upon entering the path; when the path is really entered this chain is in fact recognized to be nonexistent.
jieshe. (J. kessha; K. kyolsa 結社). In Chinese, "retreat society"; a generic designation for various religious reform movements that were especially popular during Song-dynasty China and Koryo-dynasty Korea. These fraternal societies had their antecedents in the AMITĀBHA society of LUSHAN HUIYUAN (334-416) during the Eastern Jin dynasty and were widespread by the ninth century. By the Song dynasty, such communities were pervasive throughout China, especially in the south. These societies were typically involved in TIANTAI, HUAYAN, and PURE LAND practice, though some were dedicated to the worship of a specific BODHISATTVA, such as SAMANTABHADRA. These societies were typically founded outside the ecclesiastical establishment and, by encouraging both lay and ordained adepts to train together, they fostered some measure of religious egalitarianism within East Asian Buddhism. The jieshe movement was especially influential in Koryo-dynasty Korea, where some fourteen separate kyolsa sites are mentioned in the Koryosa ("History of Koryo"), from Kangwon province in the north to South Cholla province in the south. The best known is the CHoNGHYE KYoLSA (Samādhi and PrajNā Society) initiated in 1180 by POJO CHINUL (1158-1210) and formally established in 1188, which was dedicated to SoN (Chan) cultivation. In 1197, the community had grown so large that it was relocated to Kilsangsa on Mt. Songgwang, the site of the major present-day monastery of SONGGWANGSA. The residents of the society are said to have gathered together to recite sutras, train in meditation, and engage in group work activity. Chinul's first composition, the Kwon su Chonghye kyolsa mun ("Encouragement to Practice: The Compact of the Samādhi and PrajNā Society"), written in 1290, provided the rationale behind the establishment of the community and critiqued pure land adepts who claim that buddhahood cannot be achieved in the present lifetime. Chinul was joined at his community by the Ch'ont'ae (TIANTAI) adept WoNMYO YOSE (1163-1240), who subsequently founded the Paengnyon kyolsa (White Lotus Society) in 1211 at Mandoksan in the far southwest of the peninsula, which was engaged in Ch'ont'ae practice.
Jinglü yixiang. (J. Kyoritsu iso; K. Kyongnyul isang 經律異相). In Chinese, lit., "Peculiarities of the Sutras and Vinayas"; an encyclopedia of exotics found in both SuTRA and VINAYA literature compiled in 516 CE by the monk Baochang, at the request of the martial emperor of the Liang dynasty (Liang Wudi). The encyclopedia is composed of fourteen chapters: heaven, earth, BUDDHAs, BODHISATTVAs, sRĀVAKAs, kings, crown princes, elders, laymen (UPĀSAKA) and laywomen (UPĀSIKĀ), non-Buddhist sages, other laymen and commoners, ghosts, animals, and hells. The Jinglü yixiang serves as an important resource for studying the ways in which Buddhism as a foreign religion was understood and adopted by medieval Chinese Buddhists.
jingtu sanbu jing. (J. jodo sanbukyo; K. chongt'o sambu kyong 淨土三部經). In Chinese, "the three scriptures on the pure land," a designation for three main sutras that focus on AMITĀBHA Buddha and his PURE LAND of SUKHĀVATĪ; these are generally considered to be the central canonical sutras of the pure land schools, and especially of the Japanese JoDOSHu and JoDO SHINSHu. The three scriptures are (1) SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the "[Larger] Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life" (Wuliangshou jing); (2) "Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life" (GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING); and (3) AMITĀBHASuTRA, the "[Smaller] Sutra on the Buddha Amitābha" (Amituo jing). The writings of the pure land school are to a large extent commentaries on or exegeses of these three scriptures.
jingtu sansheng. (J. jodo no sansho; K. chongt'o samsong 淨土三聖). In Chinese, "the pure land trinity," or "the three saints of the pure land"; referring to the buddha AMITĀBHA (Amituo fo, usually depicted as standing in the middle), the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA (Guanshiyin pusa, usually depicted as flanking left), and bodhisattva MAHĀSTHĀMAPRĀPTA (Dashizhi pusa, usually depicted as flanking right). These are the three deities featured most prominently in sutras on the PURE LAND of SUKHĀVATĪ and its pictorial representations (see JINGTU BIAN).
JNānagupta. (C. Shenajueduo; J. Janakutta; K. Sanagulta 闍那崛多) (523-600). Indian monk from GANDHĀRA, who arrived in China around 559 and became a prolific translator of Indian materials into Chinese; some thirty-five of his translations are still extant and preserved in the Chinese canon (DAZANGJING). He is perhaps best known for his retranslation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), which included portions of the scripture that did not appear in KUMĀRAJĪVA's pioneering translation made two centuries before, especially the important "Chapter on Devadatta." He also translated the AdhyāsayasaNcodana, the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the Abhiniskramanasutra (a possible translation of the MAHĀVASTU), and several DHĀRAnĪ sutras.
Jodo Shinshu. (浄土眞宗). In Japanese, the "True Pure Land school"; referring to the followers of the Japanese PURE LAND monk SHINRAN (1173-1262) and often called simply the Shinshu ("True School"). The central scriptures of the Jodo Shinshu are the so-called three pure land SuTRAs (J. jodo sanbukyo, see JINGTU SANBUJING): the longer SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the shorter Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra (also known as the AMITĀBHASuTRA) and the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING, as well as the writings of Shinran, such as his magnum opus, KYoGYo SHINSHo. Following the example of Shinran's own vocation, the school is distinguished from the earlier JoDOSHu by its more liberal attitude toward the Buddhist VINAYA rules of conduct, permitting its clergy to marry, have families, and eat meat, and its faith-oriented approach to practice, which placed relatively less emphasis on the efficacy of nenbutsu (C. NIANFO), the invocation of the name of the buddha AMITĀBHA, and greater stress on the power and grace of Amitābha. Because Shinran believed that people in this degenerate age of the dharma (J. mappo; C. MOFA) had little hope of gaining salvation through through own power (JIRIKI), he taught instead the complete reliance on Amitābha's salvific power (TARIKI). And because there was no possibility of effecting salvation on one's own, Shinran advocated that just a single sincere recitation of his name (ICHINENGI) would be sufficient to earn Amitābha's grace, in distinction to other of Honen's successors, who advocated multiple or even continuous recitations of Amitābha's name (TANENGI). Shinran's teachings spread from the capital of Kyoto to the countryside, largely through the proselytizing efforts of his disciples. The followers of Shinran eventually formed regional centers known as dojo (cultivation sites), which later came under control of the monastery HONGANJI, thus developing a unified sectarian identity. This process largely began with the development of a memorial cult surrounding Shinran. KAKUNYO (1270-1351), Shinran's great-grandson, formalized the memorial services (hoonko) for Shinran and transformed his mausoleum in otani into a temple, which he later named Honganji. The regional centers also developed into contending factions (e.g., the Bukkoji, Senjuji, and Kinshokuji branches), but they were eventually unified under the strong leadership of RENNYO (1415-1499), the eighth abbot of Honganji. In 1465, warrior monks from HIEIZAN razed Honganji and turned the site into one of their own branch temples (matsuji). In 1478, having gained enough support to counter any threat from Mt. Hiei, Rennyo moved Honganji to the Yamashina area of Kyoto. The move was completed in 1483 with the completion of the Amida hall. Under Rennyo's leadership, Honganji became the central monastery of the Jodo Shinshu tradition. Rennyo built a broad network of temples that was consolidated under the sole administration of Honganji. After a brief move to osaka, Honganji was relocated to its current site in Kyoto on the order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598). A split occurred between two factions shortly thereafter, and ever since the early seventeenth century the Nishi (West) and Higashi (East) Honganji complexes have served as the religious centers of these two major branches of Jodo Shinshu, the NISHI HONGANJIHA and the HIGASHI HONGANJIHA (also known as the oTANIHA). See also JoDOSHu.
Jodoshu. (浄土宗). In Japanese, the "PURE LAND school"; referring to the followers of HoNEN (1133-1212), who formed the first indigenous school of Japanese Buddhism outside the aegis of the imperial court. The central scriptures of the school are the so-called three pure land SuTRAs (jodo sanbukyo; see JINGTU SANBUJING): the longer SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the shorter Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra (also known as the AMITĀBHASuTRA), and the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING; as well as the *Aparimitāyussutropadesa ("Exegesis of the Wuliangshou jing"), commonly known as the Jingtu lun (J. Jodoron) ("Treatise on the Pure Land") and attributed by tradition to VASUBANDHU (see WULIANGSHOU JING YOUPOTISHE YUANSHENG JI). Honen's teachings focused on the "easy path" to NIRVĀnA and the prospect of achieving enlightenment exclusively through recitation of the nenbutsu (C. NIANFO), which would lead to rebirth in the buddha AMITĀBHA's pure land. Honen's teachings quickly spread throughout Japan largely through the efforts of his disciples SHINRAN (1173-1262), Ryukan (1148-1228), Shokobo Bencho (1162-1238), Zen'ebo Shoku (1177-1247), Jokakubo Kosai (1163-1247), and Kakumyobo Chosai (1184-1366). While his disciples all agreed on the efficacy of the recitation of the nenbutsu as advocated by Honen, they developed different interpretations of this practice. These divisions eventually led to the formation of disparate factions within the school. Those who followed Bencho came to be known as the Chinzei branch; their spirit of tolerance for other practices allowed the Chinzei branch to thrive. Shoku's followers, now known as the Seizan branch, held the position that rebirth in the pure land is possible only through continuous repetition of the nenbutsu (TANENGI); indeed, Shoku himself was said to recite the nenbutsu as many as sixty thousand times a day. Kosai, and to a lesser extent Shinran, held the more radical position that a single invocation of the name of Amitābha (ICHINENGI) would suffice. In 1207, in an effort to suppress the spread of Honen's teaching of exclusive nenbutsu, Honen, Kosai, and Shinran, were exiled to different regions of the country. In 1227, the Jodo movement was further suppressed when Honen's grave was desecrated by HIEIZAN monks and Kosai was again sent into exile. In 1450, the Chinzei branch came to dominate the other branches when the Chinzei adherent Keijiku (1403-1459) assumed the position of abbot of the monastery CHION'IN (built at Honen's grave site) in Kyoto. The Chinzei branch firmly established itself as the leading branch with the support of the Tokugawa bakufu. The teachings of Bencho's disciple Ryochu (1199-1287), who advocated the active use of the nenbutsu for purifying bad KARMAN in order to attain rebirth in pure land, came to be the official position of the Chinzei branch and thus of the wider Jodoshu tradition. See also JoDO SHINSHu.
Juefan Huihong. (J. Kakuhan Eko; K. Kakpom Hyehong 覺範慧洪) (1071-1128). Chinese CHAN monk in the HUANGLONG PAI collateral line of the LINJI ZONG during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127) and major proponent of "lettered Chan" (WENZI CHAN), which valorized belle lettres, and especially poetry, in the practice of Chan. Huihong entered the monastery after he was orphaned at fourteen, eventually passing the monastic examinations at age nineteen and receiving ordination at Tianwangsi in the eastern capital of Kaifeng. After studying the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi) for four years, he eventually began to study at LUSHAN with the Chan master Zhenjing Kewen (1025-1102), under whom he achieved enlightenment. Because of Huihong's close ties to the famous literati officials of his day, and especially with the statesman and Buddhist patron ZHANG SHANGYING (1043-1122), his own career was subject to many of the same political repercussions as his associates; indeed, Huihong himself was imprisoned, defrocked, and exiled multiple times in his life when his literati colleagues were purged. Compounding his problems, Huihong also suffered along with many other monks during the severe Buddhist persecution (see FANAN) that occurred during the reign of Emperor Huizong (r. 1100-1125). Even amid these trying political times, however, Huihong managed to maintain both his monastic vocation and his productive literary career. Huihong is in fact emblematic of many Chan monks during the Song dynasty, when Chan enters the mainstream of Chinese intellectual life: his practice of Chan was framed and conceptualized in terms that drew from his wide learning and profound erudition, tendencies that helped make Chan writings particularly appealing to wider Chinese literati culture. Huihong decried the bibliophobic tendencies in Chan that were epitomized in the aphorism that Chan "does not establish words and letters" (BULI WENZI) and advocated that Chan insights were made manifest in both Buddhist sutras as well as in the uniquely Chan genres of discourse records (YULU), genealogical histories (see CHUANDENG LU), and public-case anthologies (GONG'AN). Given his literary penchant, it is no surprise that Huihong was a prolific author. His works associated with Chan lineages include the CHANLIN SENGBAO ZHUAN ("Chronicles of the SAMGHA Jewel in the Chan Grove"), a collection of biographies of about a hundred eminent Chan masters important in the development of lettered Chan; and the Linjian lu ("Anecdotes from the Groves [of Chan]"), completed in 1107 and offering a record of Huihong's own encounters with fellow monks and literati and his reflections on Buddhist practice. Huihong also wrote two studies of poetics and poetic criticism, the Lengzhai yehua ("Evening Discourses from Cold Studio") and Tianchu jinluan ("Forbidden Cutlets from the Imperial Kitchen"), and numerous commentaries to Buddhist scriptures, including the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), SHOULENGYAN JING, and YUANJUE JING.
Kanjur (Tibetan) bka’ ’gyur (kang-gyur, kan-jur) [from bka’ sacred word + ’gyur translation] The portion of the Tibetan Buddhist canon containing the sutras, the texts ascribed to the Buddha himself and called the “Buddha Word” (Sanskrit buddha-vachana). The second part of the Tibetan Buddhist cannon, the Tanjur, contains sastras or commentaries and other scholastic works. The Kanjur consists almost entirely of works translated from Sanskrit or other Indian languages. Although the texts contained in the Kanjur are overwhelmingly of Indian origin, the compilation of the Kanjur was done in Tibet, and in structure it differs greatly from the old Indian Tripitakas. Four more or less complete recensions of the Buddhist canon survive: the Pali, the Chinese, the Tibetan, and the Mongolian, this last, however, being a translation of the Tibetan. The first three recensions differ from each other in content and arrangement. The overall arrangement of the Kanjur is in three sections, giving the Sanskrit names: Vinaya (monastic discipline), Sutra (discourses of the Buddha), and Tantra (esoteric and ritual texts). The Sutra section is divided into several subsections. Each section or subsection contains numerous individual texts.
Kāsyapaparivarta. (T. 'Od srung gi le'u; C. Yiri monibao jing; J. Yuinichi manihokyo; K. Yuil manibo kyong 遺日摩尼寶經). In Sanskrit, "The KĀsYAPA Chapter"; a SuTRA from one of the earliest strata of Indian MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism, probably dating from sometime in the first century CE. The sutra offers an overview of practices emblematic of BODHISATTVAs, which are arranged in several groups of four practices apiece. The text cites a "bodhisattva canon" (BODHISATTVAPItAKA) as the source for the teaching on the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) and offers one of the earliest mentions of the "thought of enlightenment" (BODHICITTA) in its Mahāyāna interpretation as the aspiration to achieve buddhahood. A bodhisattva who generates this thought even for the first time is said to be superior to the solitary buddhas (PRATYEKABUDDHA) and disciples (sRĀVAKA). Disciples are also censured as not being true sons of the Buddha, an early expression of the later Mahāyāna school's more explicit denunciations of the so-called HĪNAYĀNA. The sutra also refers to bodhisattva precepts (see BODHISATTVAsĪLA), which will subsequently be elaborated upon in such texts as MAITREYA/ASAnGA's BODHISATTVABHuMI and in such Chinese APOCRYPHA as the FANWANG JING. The Kāsyapaparivarta was one of the first sutras translated into Chinese, by the Indo-Scythian monk *LOKAKsEMA (c. 178-198 CE) in 179 CE; a later recension is also included in the massive RATNAKutA collection of sutras. The Kāsyapaparivarta is one of a substantial number of scriptures in the Ratnakuta collection for which Sanskrit recensions have been rediscovered and edited. Its Sanskrit manuscript was first discovered in KHOTAN in the 1890s and was more than one thousand years old; other Sanskrit fragments have subsequently been recovered.
Katsuragisan. (J) (葛城山). Mountain practice site on the border between the present-day Japanese prefectures of Nara and osaka, which was an important center of SHUGENDo practice. The semilegendary founder of Shugendo, EN NO OZUNU (b. 634), is said to have lived for some thirty years in a cave on this mountain. Since En no Ozunu was considered to be a manifestation of Hoki Bosatsu (DHARMODGATA) who, according to the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, lived in the Diamond Mountains, the Katsuragi range includes the appositely named KONGoSAN (Mt. Kongo; see also KŬMGANGSAN). Like many sacred mountains around Japan, there are encased sutras known to be interred in Katsuragisan region. Twenty-eight buried scrolls (J. kyozuka) of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra")-corresponding to its twenty-eight chapters-were presumed to have been buried at Mt. Katsuragi, according to the late twelfth-century Shozan engi text. Also purportedly interred on the mountain are twenty-nine scrolls of the Nyohokyo (C. *Rufa jing) and eight hannyakyo (PRAJNAPĀRAMITĀ) scrolls. During the Heian period, burying Buddhist scriptures at mountains in Japan served the dual role of physically sacralizing the mountain and also preserving the dharma in the face of the religion's predicted demise (J. mappo; C. MOFA).
Kausthila. (P. Kotthita; T. Gsus po che; C. Juchiluo; J. Kuchira; K. Kuch'ira 拘絺羅). One of the principal arhat disciples of the Buddha deemed foremost among his monk disciples in analytical knowledge (S. PRATISAMVID; P. patisambhidā), viz., of (1) true meaning, (2) the dharma, (3) language, and (4) ready wit. During the time of a previous buddha, Kausthila was said to have been a wealthy householder, who happened to overhear the Buddha praise one of his disciples as being foremost in analytical knowledge. It was then that he resolved to achieve the same preeminence during the dispensation of a future buddha. According to the Pāli account, Kausthila/Kotthita was the son of a wealthy brāhmana family from sRĀVASTĪ, who was learned in the Vedas and who converted while listening to the Buddha preach to his father. He entered the SAMGHA and, taking up a topic of meditation (KAMMAttHĀNA), soon attained arhatship. Kausthila is a frequent interlocutor in the NIKĀYAs and ĀGAMAs and often engages in doctrinal exchanges with sĀRIPUTRA, such as regarding what exists after NIRVĀnA or the relative quality of various types of liberation (VIMUKTI; P. vimutti). Other topics on which Kausthila discourses in the SuTRAs include discussions on action (KARMAN); the arising of phenomena, ignorance, and knowledge; the nature of the senses and sense objects; the fate of ARHATs after their deaths; things not revealed by the Buddha; and so on. On one occasion, during a discussion among the elders, a dispute erupted between Kausthila and a monk named Citta. Citta continually interrupted the discussion by insisting on his views, to the point that Kausthila had to remind him to let others speak. Citta's supporters objected that their favorite's views were eminently sound; but Kasthila replied that not only were Citta's views mistaken but he would soon reject the Buddha's teachings and leave the order. Kausthila's reputation was burnished when events unfolded exactly as he had foretold. sāriputra held Kausthila in such high regard that he praises him in three verses preserved in the Pāli THERAGĀTHĀ. His fame was such that he is often known within the tradition as Kausthila the Great (Mahākausthila; P. Mahākotthita).
khadgavisāna. (P. khaggavisāna; T. bse ru; C. linjiao; J. ringaku; K. in'gak 麟角). In Sanskrit, "rhinoceros"; the solitary way of life pursued by the rhinoceros is a metaphor commonly found in the sutras to refer to the life of solitude that monks should follow. The Buddha acknowledged the value of living together with a community of like-minded religious colleagues (KALYĀnAMITRA), but rather than keep the company of "bad friends," it was instead preferable to live "like a rhinoceros" (KHAdGAVIsĀnAKALPA). As but one of many examples in the literature, the Khaggavisānasutta ("Discourse on the Rhinoceros") in the SUTTANIPĀTA (I.13) is a series of verses that all end with the repeated refrain that monks should "wander alone, like a rhinoceros." Since the term khadga (P. khagga) by itself means a "rhinoceros," the Pāli commentaries parsed the compound khadgavisāna (khaggavisāna) to mean "rhinoceros horn," a rendering sometimes found in English translations, and the metaphor was then interpreted to mean "solitary" like the single horn of a rhinoceros. The standard Chinese translation for this term as "rhinoceros horn" (linjiao) also reflects this traditional understanding.
kiMnara. (P. kinnara; T. mi 'am ci; C. jinnaluo; J. kinnara; K. kinnara 緊那羅). A class of wondrous celestial musicians in the court of KUBERA, ranking below the GANDHARVA. In Sanskrit, the name lit. means "How could this be human?" They are said to have human bodies but the heads of horses, but they also are sometimes depicted as little birds with human heads. KiMnara are common decorative figures in Buddhist cave and temple art. The kiMnara is one of the eight kinds of nonhumans (AstASENĀ) who protect the dharma, and they often appear in the audience of Buddhist SuTRAs. The other seven are the DEVA, ASURA, GANDHARVA, NĀGA, YAKsA, GARUdA, and MAHORĀGA.
Konjaku monogatarishu. (今昔物語集). In Japanese, "Tales of Times Now Past"; a collection of Buddhist tales compiled by the Japanese monk Minamoto no Takakuni (1004-1077). The Konjaku monogatarishu is claimed to have originally been composed in thirty-one rolls, but rolls eight, eighteen, and twenty-one are not extant. Rolls one through five are Buddhist tales from India, six through ten from China, and eleven through twenty from Japan. The Konjaku monogatarishu contains stories about the life of the Buddha and the events that occurred after his PARINIRVĀnA, the transmission of Buddhism to China, the merits that accrue from worshipping the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), and moralistic tales of filial piety and karmic retribution. The tales of Japan provide a narrative of the transmission of Buddhism and the various Chinese schools to Japan, SHoTOKU TAISHI's support of Buddhism, the establishment of Buddhist monasteries, the merit of constructing Buddhist images and studying SuTRAS, and the lives of eminent Japanese monks. Fascicles twenty-two to thirty-one deal with worldly tales about the Fujiwara clan, arts, battles, and ghosts.
ksanika. (T. skad cig ma; C. chana qing; J. setsunakei; K. ch'alla kyong 刹那頃). In Sanskrit, "momentary"; originally used in the sutras in its literal sense of a very small fraction of time, the term has also been used synonymously with "impermanence" (ANITYA) to indicate the "momentary" (ksanika) nature of all phenomena. Ksanika acquired technical significance when the doctrine of impermanence (ANITYA) came to be elaborated and interpreted in the various mainstream Indian schools in their attempt to ground the Buddhist understanding of the processes governing compounded existence on a logically defensible basis. These developments led the SAUTRĀNTIKA school to advocate a "doctrine of momentariness" (KsAnIKAVĀDA), viz., that a dharma lasts only a single moment (KsAnA), in which is comprised both its genesis and its destruction.
ksatriya. (P. khattiya; T. rgyal rigs; C. chali; J. setsuri; K. ch'alli 刹利). In Sanskrit, "warrior" or "royalty"; the second of the four castes of traditional Indian society, along with priests (brāhmana), merchants (vaisya), and servants (sudra). As the son of the sākya king, sUDDHODANA, the soon-to-be buddha GAUTAMA belonged to the ksatriya caste. Many of the leading figures in the sRAMAnA movement, ascetic wanderers who stood in opposition to the brāhmana priests of traditional Vedic religion, derived primarily from people of ksatriya background. The Buddha's caste may also account for the frequent disparagement in the sutras of the sacrificial activities of Vedic priests and the common topos in the sutras of redefining the meaning of brahman (brāhmana) in terms of meditative achievement and enlightenment (see KASSAPASĪHANĀDASUTTA; TEVIJJASUTTA), although it is also the case that brāhmana priests were a chief rival of the early Buddhist community for patronage. The Buddhist and broader sramana suspicions of the soteriological efficacy of the sacrifices performed by brāhmanas also appear in the dismissal of religious rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARĀMARsA) as one of the three coarser fetters (SAMYOJANA) or wrong views (MITHYĀDṚstI) that must be given up to attain stream-entry (SROTAĀPANNA). It is said that buddhas are only born into two castes, the brāhmana and the ksatriya, depending upon which is regarded most highly at the time of that buddha's birth.
ksetrasuddhi. [alt. ksetravisuddhi] (T. dag zhing). In Sanskrit, "pure [buddha] field"; a type of buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) created by a buddha as a result of his practice and which comes into existence at the time of that buddha's enlightenment. The nature of the purity is variously defined but typically means that in this world the realms of animals, ghosts, and hell beings do not exist; although songbirds may exist, they have been created by the buddha for the delight of the inhabitants of his buddha-field. The pure buddha-field is regarded as the outcome of the training (PRAYOGA) in purifying a buddha-field, one of the final practices of BODHISATTVAS set forth in the fourth chapter of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA's explanation of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs. The purification is brought about by the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ): for example, perfect giving (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ) brings about an external pure field (parallel to the BHĀJANALOKA) supplied with all the enjoyments of the deities, and so on. See also JINGTU.
ksīnāsrava. (P. khīnāsava; T. zag pa zad pa; C. loujin; J. rojin; K. nujin 漏盡). In Sanskrit, "contaminants destroyed" or "free from impurities"; an epithet of the ARHAT who has destroyed all of the contaminants (ĀSRAVA) and will enter NIRVĀnA upon death. The term appears commonly in the opening passages of the MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAS when describing the arhats who have gathered to hear the Buddha's teaching. In an example of the self-praise of the Mahāyāna sutras at the expense of the arhat, the suRAMGAMASAMĀDHISuTRA declares that a man who has committed the five deeds of immediate retribution (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN) yet has heard the sutra is superior to an arhat who has destroyed the contaminants; this is because the former may achieve buddhahood while the arhat is destined only for nirvāna. See also ĀSRAVAKsAYA.
kuladuhitṛ. (P. kuladhītā; T. rigs kyi bu mo; C. shannüren; J. zennyonin; K. sonyoin 善女人). In Sanskrit, "daughter of good family," or "respectable family"; an Indian term of address used by teacher toward a female student; hence, in the sutras, the Buddha typically addresses his "pupils" as kuladuhitṛ and "sons of good family" (KULAPUTRA). In the Mahāyāna sutras, the term is often interpreted to mean a woman who belongs to the BODHISATTVA lineage.
kulaputra. (P. kulaputta; T. rigs kyi bu; C. shannanzi; J. zennanshi; K. sonnamja 善男子). In Sanskrit, "son of good family," or "son of respectable family"; an Indian term of address used by a teacher toward a male student; hence in the sutras, the Buddha typically addresses his "pupils" as kulaputra and "daughters of good family" (KULADUHITṚ). In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, the term was often interpreted to mean a man who belongs to the BODHISATTVA lineage.
Kumārajīva. (C. Jiumoluoshi; J. Kumaraju; K. Kumarajip 鳩摩羅什) (344-409/413). The most influential translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese. He is regarded by tradition as the founder of the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG or "Three Treatises" branch of the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy. According to his hagiography, Kumārajīva was born in the Central Asian petty kingdom of KUCHA, where he was related to the royal family on his mother's side. In his youth, he studied SARVĀSTIVĀDA doctrine in Kashmir but was later converted to MAHĀYĀNA at the Central Asian oasis town of Kashgar by the monk BUDDHAYAsAS. When the Chinese general Lü Guang conquered Kucha in 383, he took Kumārajīva back with him to Liangzong near the Chinese outpost of DUNHUANG as a prize, only to lose the eminent scholar-monk to Yaoxing (r. 394-416) when the Latter Qin ruler reconquered the region in 401. During his eighteen years as a hostage, Kumārajīva apparently learned to speak and read Chinese and seems to have been one of the first foreign monks able to use the language fluently. A year later in 402, Yaoxing invited Kumārajīva to the capital of Chang'an, where he established a translation bureau under Kumārajīva's direction that produced some of the most enduring translations of Buddhist texts made in Chinese. The sheer number and variety of the translations made by Kumārajīva and his team were virtually unmatched until XUANZANG (600/602-664 CE). Translations of some seventy-four texts, in 384 rolls, are typically attributed to Kumārajīva, including various sutras, such as the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, and VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and important sāstras such as the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, sATAsĀSTRA, Dvādasamukhasāstra, and the DAZHIDU LUN. Because Kumārajīva was one of the first foreign monks to have learned Chinese well, he produced translations that were readily comprehensible as Chinese, and his translations remain the most widely read in East Asia of any translator's; indeed, where there are multiple translations of a scripture, it is almost inevitably Kumārajīva's that remains part of the living tradition. The accuracy of his translations is said to be attested by the fact that his tongue remained unburned during his cremation. Along with his correspondences with the monk LUSHAN HUIYUAN found in the DASHENG DAYI ZHANG, these translations laid the foundation for Mahāyāna thought, and especially Madhyamaka philosophy, in China. His many famous disciples include DAOSHENG, SENGZHAO, Daorong, and Sengrui, who are known collectively as the "four sages."
laksanayāna. (T. mtshan nyid theg pa). In Sanskrit, "vehicle of attributes," a term used in PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ and tantric literature to refer to the SuTRA (i.e., exoteric) paths of sRĀVAKAs, PRATYEKABUDDHAs, and BODHISATTVAs. In the TANTRAs, laksanayāna refers to the practices of bodhisattvas as delineated in the sutras and their commentaries. In this context, it is a synonym of PĀRAMITĀYĀNA.
Lankāvatārasutra. (T. Lang kar gshegs pa'i mdo; C. Ru Lengqie jing; J. Nyu Ryogakyo; K. Ip Nŭngga kyong 入楞伽經). In Sanskrit, "Scripture on the Descent into Lanka"; a seminal MAHĀYĀNA sutra that probably dates from around the fourth century CE. In addition to the Sanskrit recension, which was discovered in Nepal, there are also three extant translations in Chinese, by GUnABHADRA (translated in 443), BODHIRUCI (made in 513), and sIKsĀNANDA (made in 700), and two in Tibetan. The text is composed as a series of exchanges between the Buddha and the BODHISATTVA Mahāmati, who asks his questions on behalf of Rāvana, the YAKsA king of Lanka. Thanks to the wide-ranging nature of Mahāmati's questions, the text covers many of the major themes that were the focus of contemporary Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism, and especially the emerging YOGĀCĀRA school, including the theory of the storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA), the womb or embryo of the buddhas (TATHĀGATAGARBHA), and mind-only (CITTAMĀTRA); despite these apparent parallels, however, the sutra is never quoted in the writings of the most famous figures of Indian Yogācāra, ASAnGA (c. 320-390) and VASUBANDHU (c. fourth century CE). The sutra also offers one of the earliest sustained condemnations in Buddhist literature of meat eating, a practice that was not proscribed within the mainstream Buddhist tradition (see JAINA; DHUTAnGA). The Lankāvatāra purports to offer a comprehensive synthesis of the Mahāyāna, and indeed, its many commentators have sought to discover in it a methodical exposition of scholastic doctrine. In fact, however, as in most Mahāyāna sutras, there is little sustained argumentation through the scripture, and the scripture is a mélange composed with little esprit de synthèse. ¶ The emerging CHAN school of East Asia retrospectively identified the Lankāvatāra as a source of scriptural authority; indeed, some strands of the tradition even claimed that the sutra was so influential in the school's development that its first translator, Gunabhadra, superseded BODHIDHARMA in the roster of the Chan patriarchal lineage, as in the LENGQIE SHIZI JI ("Records of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankāvatāra"). Rather than viewing the Chan school as a systematic reading of the Lankāvatāra, as the tradition claims, it is perhaps more appropriate to say that the tradition was inspired by similar religious concerns. The Newari Buddhist tradition of Nepal also includes the Lankāvatāra among its nine principal books of the Mahāyāna (NAVAGRANTHA; see NAVADHARMA).
Ldan kar ma. (Denkarma). One of the earliest known catalogues of Tibetan Buddhist texts translated during the imperial period of the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet; also spelled Ldan dkar ma or Lhan kar ma. The work, preserved in the BSTAN 'GYUR section of the Tibetan canon, was compiled in the early ninth century and catalogues more than seven hundred distinct texts. Its name is derived from the Ldan kar (Denkar) palace in which it was written. The work is an important aid for scholars in determining which Buddhist texts were known and available during this early period of Tibetan history. It also illustrates the development of early principles for categorizing Buddhist literature, prefiguring the formation of the modern canon with its BKA' 'GYUR and bstan 'gyur sections. MAHĀYĀNA sutras are listed first, followed by HĪNAYĀNA sutras, treatises (sĀSTRA), TANTRAs, DHĀRAnĪs, praises (STOTRA), prayers (PRAnIDHĀNA), auspicious verses (mangalagāthā), VINAYA texts, and works on logic (NYĀYA). The collection ends with a list of revisions and translations in progress. See also JINGLU.
*Lokaksema. (C. Zhi Loujiachan; J. Shi Rukasen; K. Chi Rugach'am 支婁迦讖) (c. 178-198 CE). A pioneering translator of Indic Buddhist materials into Chinese. Lokaksema was an Indo-Scythian monk from the KUSHAN kingdom in the GANDHĀRA region of northwest India, who was active in China sometime in the last quarter of the second century CE, soon after the Parthian translator AN SHIGAO. His Sanskrit name is a tentative reconstruction of the Chinese transcription Loujiachan, and he is often known in the literature by the abbreviated form Zhi Chan (using the ethnikon ZHI). Lokaksema is said to have arrived in the Chinese capital of Luoyang in 167 CE, where he began to render Indic Buddhist sutras into Chinese. Some fourteen works in twenty-seven rolls are typically ascribed to him (although the numbers given in the literature vary widely), of which twelve are generally presumed to be authentic. The translations thought to be genuine include the first Chinese renderings of sutras from some of the earliest strata of Indic MAHĀYĀNA literature, including the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ (Xiaopin bore jing), the KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA (Yi rimonibao jing), the PRATYUTPANNABUDDHASAMMUKHĀVASTHITASAMĀDHISuTRA (Banzhou sanmei jing), and the AKsOBHYATATHĀGATASYAVYuHA (Achu foguo jing). Given the time of his arrival in China, the Indic texts on which his translations were based must already have been in circulation in Kushan territory by at least 150 CE, giving a terminus ad quem for their composition. Rendered into a kind of pidgin Chinese, these "translations" may actually have targeted not Chinese readers but instead an émigré community of Kushan immigrants who had lost their ability to read Indic languages.
Madhyamāgama. (P. Majjhimanikāya; T. Dbu ma'i lung; C. Zhong ahan jing; J. Chuagongyo; K. Chung aham kyong 中阿含觀). In Sanskrit, the "Medium [Length] Scriptures"; the division of the Sanskrit SuTRAPItAKA corresponding closely to, but also substantially larger, than the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA of the Pāli canon. The Madhyamāgama collection is no longer extant in an Indic language but is preserved in its entirety in a Chinese translation made by Gautama SaMghadeva between 397 and 398; a few fragments of a Sanskrit recension have been discovered (such as at TURFAN), and there are Tibetan translations of some individual sutras from the collection. The extant Sanskrit fragments are ascribed to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school; since these fragments correspond closely to the Chinese renderings, it is generally accepted that the Chinese translation of the Madhyamāgama represents the Sarvāstivāda school's recension of this collection. The Madhyamāgama contains 222 sutras, eighty of which correspond to suttas in the Pāli AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, eleven to suttas in the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, and twelve to suttas in the DĪGHANIKĀYA. Of the Pāli Majjhimanikāya's 152 suttas, ninety-eight have corresponding recensions in the Madhyamāgama. See also ĀGAMA.
Madhyamakahṛdaya. (T. Dbu ma'i snying po). In Sanskrit, "Essence of the Middle Way"; the major work of the sixth-century Indian MADHYAMAKA (and, from the Tibetan perspective, SVĀTANTRIKA) master BHĀVAVIVEKA (also referred to as Bhavya and Bhāviveka). The text is written in verse, accompanied by the author's extensive prose commentary, entitled the TARKAJVĀLĀ. The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan, the TARKAJVĀLĀ only in Tibetan. The work is in eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in Bhāvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNāna), and omniscience (SARVAJNĀTĀ). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and Bhāvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRĀVAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, SāMkhya, Vaisesika, Vedānta, and MīmāMsā. These chapters (along with sĀNTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are a valuable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and the other Indian philosophical schools of the day. The chapter on the srāvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the mainstream Buddhist schools as to why the Mahāyāna SuTRAs are not the word of the Buddha. Bhāvaviveka's response to these charges, as well as his refutation of Yogācāra in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited.
Madhyamakāvatāra. (T. Dbu ma la 'jug pa). In Sanskrit, "Entrance to the Middle Way" (translated also as "Supplement to the Middle Way"); the major independent (as opposed to commentarial) work of the seventh-century Indian master CANDRAKĪRTI, who states that it is intended as an avatāra (variously rendered as "primer," "entrance," and "supplement") to NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. The work is written in verse, to which the author provides an extensive prose commentary (bhāsya). The work is organized around ten "productions of the aspiration to enlightenment" (BODHICITTOTPĀDA), which correspond to the ten stages (BHuMI) of the bodhisattva path (drawn largely from the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA) and their respective perfections (PĀRAMITĀ), describing the salient practices and attainments of each. These are followed by chapters on the qualities of the bodhisattva, on the stage of buddhahood, and a conclusion. The lengthiest (comprising approximately half of the work) and most important chapter of the text is the sixth, dealing with the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ). This is one of the most extensive and influential expositions in Indian literature of Madhyamaka philosophical positions. In it, Candrakīrti provides a detailed discussion of the two truths-ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA)-arguing that all things that have these two natures and that conventional truths (which he glosses as "concealing truths") are not in fact true because they appear falsely to the ignorant consciousness. He also discusses the crucial question of valid knowledge (PRAMĀnA) among the unenlightened, relating it to worldly consensus (lokaprasiddha). The sixth chapter also contains one of the most detailed refutations of YOGĀCĀRA in MADHYAMAKA literature, treating such topics as the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), the foundational consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA), and the statements in the sutras that the three realms of existence are "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA). This chapter also contains Candrakīrti's most famous contribution to Madhyamaka reasoning, the sevenfold reasoning designed to demonstrate the absence of a personal self (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA). Adding to and elaborating upon a fivefold reasoning found in Nāgārjuna's Mulamadhyamakakārikā, Candrakīrti argues that the person does not intrinsically exist because of it: (1) not being the aggregates (SKANDHA), (2) not being other than the aggregates, (3) not being the basis of the aggregates, (4) not depending on the aggregates, (5) not possessing the aggregates, (6) not being the shape of the aggregates, and (7) not being the composite of the aggregates. He illustrates this reasoning by applying it to the example of a chariot, which, he argues, is not to be found among its constituent parts. The sixth chapter concludes with a discussion of the sixteen and the twenty forms of emptiness (suNYATĀ), which include the emptiness of emptiness (suNYATĀsuNYATĀ). The work was the most widely studied and commented upon Madhyamaka text in Tibet among all sects, serving, for example, as one of the "five texts" (ZHUNG LNGA) that formed the DGE LUGS scholastic curriculum. The work is preserved only in Tibetan, although a Sanskrit manuscript of verses has been discovered in Tibet.
Mahabhashya (Sanskrit) Mahābhāṣya [from mahā great + bhāṣya commentary on technical sutras, usually in the vernacular] Great commentary; Patanjali’s Commentary on the Sutras (Grammar) of Panini and the Varttikas of Katyayana (Katyayana’s critical annotations of Panini’s Sutras). Sometimes referred to simply as the Bhashya, it is one of the three known writings of Patanjali.
Mahābherīhārakaparivarta. (T. Rnga bo che chen po'i le'u; C. Dafagu jing; J. Daihokkukyo; K. Taebopko kyong 大法鼓經). A Sanskrit MAHĀYĀNA sutra translated into Chinese by GUnABHADRA in the fifth century as the "Great Drum Sutra"; it is considered one of the major sutras for the exposition of the notion of the "embryo of the buddhas" (TATHĀGATAGARBHA). It is one of two texts (the other being the Mahāyāna AnGULIMĀLĪYASuTRA) that make specific reference to the TATHĀGATAGARBHASuTRA, stating that only BODHISATTVA-MAHĀSATTVAs understand the nature of the tathāgatagarbha and thus preserve the Tathāgatagarbhasutra. This sutra also sets forth the doctrine of a single vehicle (EKAYĀNA), similar to that found in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA.
mahābrahmā. (T. Tshang pa chen po; C. Dafan tian; J. Daibonten; K. Taebom ch'on 大梵天). In Sanskrit and Pāli, the "great BRAHMĀ"; the highest of the three heavens that constitute the first absorption (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU) in the Buddhist cosmological system. The term often appears in plural, as mahābrahmānaḥ (P. mahābrahmāno), suggesting that this heaven is not the domain of a single brahmā, of whom the divinities of the two lower heavens are his subjects and ministers, but rather that a number of mahābrahmā gods inhabit this heaven. However, it is typically a single Brahmā, often called Brahmā SAHĀMPATI, who appears in the sutras. In the BRAHMAJĀLASUTTA, the false belief in a creator god derives from the fact that the first mahābrahmā divinity to be reborn in this heaven at the beginning of world cycle falsely imagined himself to be the creator of the beings who were reborn after him in the brahmā heavens, with those beings in turn believing his claim and professing it on earth after they were reborn as humans. As with all the heavens of the realm of subtle materiality, one is reborn as a divinity there through achieving the same level of concentration (dhyāna) as the gods of that heaven during one's practice of meditation in a previous lifetime. See also BRAHMALOKA.
Mahākapphina. (P. Mahākappina; T. Ka pi na chen po; C. Mohejiebinna; J. Makakohinna; K. Mahagoppinna 摩訶劫賓那). Sanskrit proper name of an eminent ARHAT deemed by the Buddha foremost among those who taught monks. According to Pāli accounts (where he is referred to as Mahākappina), he was older than the Buddha and had been the king of a frontier kingdom whose capital was Kukkutavatī. His wife was a princess from the city of Sāgala named Anojā. Mahākappina was endowed with a great intellect and every day he sent messengers from his city to inquire if scholars were traveling through his realm. One day, merchants from Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) visited Kukkutavatī and told the king about the Buddha and his teachings. On hearing the news, the king was overjoyed and, presenting the travelers with a gift of thousands of coins, resolved to meet the Buddha himself. Setting out for Sāvatthi with his retinue, Mahākappina found his path blocked by three rivers. These he crossed by means of an "asseveration of truth" (see SATYAVACANA), in which he declared, "If this teacher indeed be a perfect buddha, let not even the hooves of my horses get wet." When the royal delegation approached the Buddha, he preached to them, whereupon all of them attained arhatship and entered the order. When Anojā and the other royal wives heard the news, they resolved to follow their husbands and enter the order as nuns. When the Buddha preached to the women they all attained stream-entry (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA) and took ordination. Mahākappina used to spend his time in the bliss of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) and was wont to exclaim, "Oh joy, Oh joy." While dwelling at the Maddakucchi Deer Park, he wondered whether he needed to attend the fortnightly confessional (P. UPOSATHA; S. UPOsADHA). The Buddha, knowing his thoughts, appeared before him and instructed him to attend. Thinking Mahākappina too inactive, he instructed him to teach the dharma to others. Mahākappina complied, and by means of a single sermon a thousand recluses attained arhatship. In the Mahāyāna sutras, where he is known by his Sanskrit name, Mahākapphina, he is listed among the monks in audience for the preaching of the SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA.
Mahākāsyapa. (P. Mahākassapa; T. 'Od srung chen po; C. Mohejiashe; J. Makakasho; K. Mahagasop 摩訶迦葉). Sanskrit name of one of the Buddha's leading disciples, regarded as foremost in the observance of ascetic practices (P. DHUTAnGA; S. dhutaguna). According to the Pāli accounts (where he is called Mahākassapa) his personal name was Pipphali and he was born to a brāhmana family in MAGADHA. Even as a child he was inclined toward renunciation and as a youth refused to marry. Finally, to placate his parents, he agreed to marry a woman matching in beauty a statue he had fashioned. His parents found a match in Bhaddā Kapilānī (S. BHADRA-KAPILĀNĪ), a beautiful maiden from Sāgala. But she likewise was inclined toward renunciation. Both sets of parents foiled their attempts to break off the engagement, so in the end they were wed but resolved not to consummate their marriage. Pipphali owned a vast estate with fertile soil, but one day he witnessed worms eaten by birds turned up by his plowman. Filled with pity for the creatures and fearful that he was ultimately to blame, he resolved then and there to renounce the world. At the same time, Bhaddā witnessed insects eaten by crows as they scurried among sesame seeds put out to dry. Feeling pity and fear at the sight, she also resolved to renounce the world. Realizing they were of like mind, Pipphali and Bhaddā put on the yellow robes of mendicants and abandoned their property. Although they left together, they parted ways lest they prove a hindrance to one another. Realizing what had transpired, the Buddha sat along Pipphali's path and showed himself resplendent with yogic power. Upon seeing the Buddha, Pipphali, whose name thenceforth became Kassapa, immediately recognized him as his teacher and was ordained. Traveling to Rājagaha (S. RĀJAGṚHA) with the Buddha, Mahākassapa requested to exchange his fine robe for the rag robe of the Buddha. The Buddha consented, and his conferral of his own rag robe on Mahākassapa was taken as a sign that, after the Buddha's demise, Mahākassapa would preside over the convention of the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST). Upon receiving the Buddha's robe, he took up the observance of thirteen ascetic practices (dhutanga) and in eight days became an arahant (S. ARHAT). Mahākassapa possessed great supranormal powers (P. iddhi; S. ṚDDHI) and was second only to the Buddha in his mastery of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA). His body was said to be adorned with seven of the thirty-two marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA). So revered by the gods was he, that at the Buddha's funeral, the divinities would not allow the funeral pyre to be lit until Mahākassapa arrived and had one last chance to worship the Buddha's body. Mahākassapa seems to have been the most powerful monk after the death of the Buddha and is considered by some schools to have been the Buddha's successor as the first in a line of teachers (dharmācārya). He is said to have called and presided over the first Buddhist council, which he convened after the Buddha's death to counter the heresy of the wicked monk SUBHADRA (P. Subhadda). Before the council began, he demanded that ĀNANDA become an arhat in order to participate, which Ānanda finally did early in the morning just before the event. At the council, he questioned Ānanda and UPĀLI about what should be included in the SuTRA and VINAYA collections (PItAKA), respectively. He also chastised Ānanda for several deeds of commission and omission, including his entreaty of the Buddha to allow women to enter the order (see MAHĀPRAJĀPATĪ), his allowing the tears of women to fall on the Buddha's corpse, his stepping on the robe of the Buddha while mending it, his failure to recall which minor monastic rules the Buddha said could be ignored after his death, and his failure to ask the Buddha to live for an eon or until the end of the eon (see CĀPĀLACAITYA). Pāli sources make no mention of Mahākassapa after the events of the first council, although the Sanskrit AsOKĀVADĀNA notes that he passed away beneath three hills where his body will remain uncorrupted until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA. At that time, his body will reanimate itself and hand over to Maitreya the rag robe of sĀKYAMUNI, thus passing on the dispensation of the buddhas. It is said that the robe will be very small, barely fitting over the finger of the much larger Maitreya. ¶ Like many of the great arhats, Mahākāsyapa appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely listed as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit Vimalakīrti. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understands the parable of the burning house and rejoices in the teaching of a single vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood. Mahākāsyapa is a central figure in the CHAN schools of East Asia. In the famous Chan story in which the Buddha conveys his enlightenment by simply holding up a flower before the congregation and smiling subtly (see NIANHUA WEIXIAO), it is only Mahākāsyapa who understands the Buddha's intent, making him the first recipient of the Buddha's "mind-to-mind" transmission (YIXIN CHUANXIN). He is thus considered the first patriarch (ZUSHI) of the Chan school.
Mahākātyāyana. (P. Mahākaccāna; T. Ka tya'i bu chen po; C. Mohejiazhanyan; J. Makakasen'en; K. Mahagajonyon 摩訶迦旃延). Also known as Kātyāyana (P. Kaccāna, Kaccāyana); Sanskrit name of one of the Buddha's chief disciples and an eminent ARHAT deemed foremost among the Buddha's disciples in his ability to elaborate on the Buddha's brief discourses. According to the Pāli accounts, where he is known as Mahākaccāna, he was the son of a brāhmana priest who served King Candappajjota of AVANTI. He was learned in the Vedas and assumed his father's position upon his death. He was called Kaccāna because of the golden hue of his body and because it was the name of his clan. Once, he and seven companions were sent by the king to invite the Buddha to Avanti, the capital city of Ujjenī (S. Ujjayinī). The Buddha preached a sermon to them, whereupon they all attained arhatship and entered the order. Mahākaccāna took up residence in a royal park in Ujjenī, where he was treated with great honor by the king. He was such an able preacher and explicator of doctrine that many persons joined the order, until, it is said, the entire kingdom of Avanti sparkled with yellow robes. He became most renowned for his discourses in the MADHUPIndIKASUTTA, Kaccāyanasutta, and Parāyanasutta. In a previous life, Mahākaccāna was a thaumaturge (vijjādhara; S. VIDHYĀDHARA) during the time of the buddha Padumuttara. It was then that he first made the vow to win the eminence he eventually did under Gotama (S. Gautama) Buddha. Although living far away in Avanti, Mahākaccāna often went to hear the Buddha preach, and the assembled elders always left a place for him. He is said to have requested the Buddha to allow for special dispensation to ordain new monks in outlying regions without the requisite number of monastic witnesses. Mahākaccāna was noted for his ability to provide detailed exegeses of the Buddha's sometimes laconic instructions and brief verses, and several suttas in the Pāli canon are ascribed to him. According to tradition, he is the author of the NETTIPPAKARAnA and the PEtAKOPADESA, which seek to provide the foundational principles that unify the sometimes variant teachings found in the suttas; these texts are some of the earliest antecedents of commentarial exegesis in the Pāli tradition and are the only commentaries included in the suttapitaka proper. He is also said to be the author of the Pāli grammar, the Kaccāyanavyākarana. According to the Sanskrit tradition, Mahākātyāyana was the initiator of the STHAVIRANIKĀYA branch of the mainstream Buddhist schools and traditional compiler of the ABHIDHARMA. The JNĀNAPRASTHĀNA of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMAPItAKA is attributed to him, but it was certainly composed several hundred years later by an author of the same name. He is often depicted holding an alm's bowl (PĀTRA) or with his fingers interlaced at his chest. Like many of the great arhats, Mahākātyāyana appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit the lay BODHISATTVA VIMALAKĪRTI. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understand the parable of the burning house and who rejoices in the teaching of the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood.
Mahāmaudgalyāyana. (P. Mahāmoggallāna; T. Mo'u 'gal gyi bu chen po; C. Mohemujianlian/Mulian; J. Makamokkenren/Mokuren; K. Mahamokkollyon/Mongnyon 摩訶目犍連/目連). An eminent ARHAT and one of the two chief disciples of the Buddha, often depicted together with his friend sĀRIPUTRA flanking the Buddha. Mahāmaudgalyāyana was considered supreme among the Buddha's disciples in supranormal powers (ṚDDHI). According to Pāli accounts, where he is called Moggallāna, he was older than the Buddha and born on the same day as sāriputra (P. Sāriputta). Both he and sāriputra were sons of wealthy families and were friends from childhood. Once, when witnessing a play, the two friends were overcome with a sense of the impermanence and the vanity of all things and decided to renounce the world as mendicants. They first became disciples of the agnostic SaNjaya Belatthiputta (SANJAYA VAIRĀtĪPUTRA), although later they took their leave and wandered the length and breadth of India in search of a teacher. Finding no one who satisfied them, they parted company, promising one another that if one should succeed he would inform the other. Later sāriputra met the Buddha's disciple, Assaji (S. AsVAJIT), who recited for him a précis of the Buddha's teachings, the so-called YE DHARMĀ verse, which immediately prompted sāriputra to attain the path of a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA). He repeated the stanza to Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who likewise immediately became a stream-enterer. The two friends thereupon resolved to take ordination as disciples of the Buddha and, together with five hundred disciples of their former teacher SaNjaya, proceeded to the Veluvana (S. VEnUVANAVIHĀRA) grove where the Buddha was residing. The Buddha ordained the entire group with the formula ehi bhikkhu pabbajjā ("Come forth, monks"; see EHIBHIKsUKĀ), whereupon all five hundred became arhats, except for sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana. Mahāmaudgalyāyana attained arhatship seven days after his ordination, while sāriputra reached the goal one week later. The Buddha declared sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana his chief disciples the day they were ordained, noting that they had both strenuously exerted themselves in countless previous lives for this distinction; they appear often as the bodhisattva's companions in the JĀTAKAs. sāriputra was chief among the Buddha's disciples in wisdom, while Mahāmaudgalyāyana was chief in mastery of supranormal powers. He could create doppelgängers of himself and transform himself into any shape he desired. He could perform intercelestial travel as easily as a person bends his arm, and the tradition is replete with the tales of his travels, such as flying to the Himālayas to find a medicinal plant to cure the ailing sāriputra. Mahāmaudgalyāyana said of himself that he could crush Mount SUMERU like a bean and roll up the world like a mat and twirl it like a potter's wheel. He is described as shaking the heavens of sAKRA and BRAHMĀ to dissuade them from their pride, and he often preached to the divinities in their abodes. Mahāmaudgalyāyana could see ghosts (PRETA) and other spirits without having to enter into meditative trance as did other meditation masters, and because of his exceptional powers the Buddha instructed him alone to subdue the dangerous NĀGA, Nandopananda, whose huge hood had darkened the world. Mahāmaudgalyāyana's powers were so immense that during a terrible famine, he offered to turn the earth's crust over to uncover the ambrosia beneath it; the Buddha wisely discouraged him, saying that such an act would confound creatures. Even so, Mahāmaudgalyāyana's supranormal powers, unsurpassed in the world, were insufficient to overcome the law of cause and effect and the power of his own former deeds, as the famous tale of his death demonstrates. A group of naked JAINA ascetics resented the fact that the people of the kingdom of MAGADHA had shifted their allegiance and patronage from them to the Buddha and his followers, and they blamed Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who had reported that, during his celestial and infernal travels, he had observed deceased followers of the Buddha in the heavens and the followers of other teachers in the hells. They hired a group of bandits to assassinate the monk. When he discerned that they were approaching, the eighty-four-year-old monk made his body very tiny and escaped through the keyhole. He eluded them in different ways for six days, hoping to spare them from committing a deed of immediate retribution (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN) by killing an arhat. On the seventh day, Mahāmaudgalyāyana temporarily lost his supranormal powers, the residual karmic effect of having beaten his blind parents to death in a distant previous lifetime, a crime for which he had previously been reborn in hell. The bandits ultimately beat him mercilessly, until his bones had been smashed to the size of grains of rice. Left for dead, Mahāmaudgalyāyana regained his powers and soared into the air and into the presence of the Buddha, where he paid his final respects and passed into NIRVĀnA at the Buddha's feet. ¶ Like many of the great arhats, Mahāmaudgalyāyana appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely listed as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit VIMALAKĪRTI. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understands the parable of the burning house and who rejoices in the teaching of the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood. Mahāmaudgalyāyana is additionally famous in East Asian Buddhism for his role in the apocryphal YULANBEN JING. The text describes his efforts to save his mother from the tortures of her rebirth as a ghost (preta). Mahāmaudgalyāyana (C. Mulian) is able to use his supranormal powers to visit his mother in the realm of ghosts, but the food that he offers her immediately bursts into flames. The Buddha explains that it is impossible for the living to make offerings directly to the dead; instead, one should make offerings to the SAMGHA in a bowl, and the power of their meditative practices will be able to save one's ancestors and loved ones from rebirths in the unfortunate realms (DURGATI).
mahāpadesa. (P. mahāpadesa; T. chen po bstan pa; C. dashuo; J. daisetsu; K. taesol 大). In Sanskrit, "great authorities"; one of the categories employed in Buddhist hermeneutics to determine textual authority, that is, to judge after the Buddha's death, when he was no longer available as the final arbiter, whether a specific teaching was the authentic word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). According to this system of evaluation, someone might claim that a specific teaching is the word of the Buddha because of it having been heard from one of four possible authorities: (1) from the Buddha, (2) from a community (SAMGHA) of senior monks, (3) from a smaller group of learned elder monks, and (4) from a single learned monk. When someone claims to have heard a teaching directly from one of these four sources, the saMgha may determine whether it is the word of the Buddha by ascertaining whether it corresponds to the teachings of the SuTRAs and is in agreement with the VINAYA. If it does, it is to be accepted as the word of the Buddha; if it does not, it is to be rejected. In the Pāli tradition, the four are set forth in the Mahāpadesasutta, which is found in the canon both as an independent text and as incorporated into the MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTA. The Sanskrit versions of the topic, in both mainstream and MAHĀYĀNA materials, add a third criterion to this conformity with the sutras and with the vinaya: that the words not go against "the way things are" (DHARMATĀ).
Mahāparinirvānasutra. (T. Yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa chen po'i mdo; C. Da banniepan jing; J. Daihatsunehangyo; K. Tae panyolban kyong 大般涅槃經). In Sanskrit, "Discourse on the Great Decease" or the "Great Discourse on the Final Nirvāna"; also known in all languages simply as the Nirvāna Sutra. As its title suggests, the SuTRA describes the events and the Buddha's final instructions prior to his passage into PARINIRVĀnA and is thus the Sanskrit retelling of the mainstream version of the text (see MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTA). However, although some of the same events are narrated in both versions, the Sanskrit text is very different in content, providing one of the most influential sources for MAHĀYĀNA views of the true nature of the Buddha and his NIRVĀnA, and of the buddha-nature (referred to in the sutra as both BUDDHADHĀTU, or "buddha-element," and TATHĀGATAGARBHA). There appear to have been a number of Sanskrit versions of the sutra, the earliest of which was likely compiled in Kashmir (see KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA) in the third century CE. One piece of internal evidence for the date of composition is the presence of prophecies that the dharma would fall into decline seven hundred years after the Buddha's passage into nirvāna. None of the Sanskrit versions is extant (apart from fragments), but several are preserved in Chinese and Tibetan translations. The earliest and shortest of these translations is in six rolls, translated into Chinese by FAXIAN (who brought the Sanskrit text to China from India) and BUDDHABHADRA, and completed in 418 CE. A second version was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan at the end of the eighth century. The longest version, in forty rolls, was translated into Chinese by DHARMAKsEMA and completed in 423. It is known as the "Northern Text." This version was later translated into Tibetan from the Chinese as the Yongs su mya ngan las das pa chen po'i mdo. Besides the Tibetan translation of the long Chinese version by Dharmaksema, there is another version of the sutra in Tibetan translation, a Mahāparinirvānasutra in 3,900 slokas, translated by Jinamitra, Dhyānagarbha, and Ban de btsan dra, as well as a few folios of a translation of the sutra by Kamalagupta and RIN CHEN BZANG PO. The Faxian and Dharmaksema Chinese versions were subsequently edited into a single work, in thirty-six rolls. Chinese scriptural catalogues (JINGLU) also refer to two other translations of the sutra, made prior to that of Faxian, but these are no longer extant. There were significant differences between the versions of Faxian and Dharmaksema (and hence apparently in the Sanskrit recensions that they translated), so much so that scholars speculate that the shorter version was composed in a non-Mahāyāna community, with Mahāyāna elements being added to what evolved into the longer version. The most famous of the differences between the versions occurs on the question of whether all beings, including "incorrigibles" (ICCHANTIKA), possess the buddha-nature; the shorter version says that they do not and they are therefore condemned to eternal damnation; the longer version says that they do and thus even they retain the capacity to achieve enlightenment. The shorter version of the sutra describes the SAMGHA as consisting of monks and nuns and preaches about the need to provide donations (DĀNA) to them; the longer version includes the laity among the saMgha and preaches the need for charity to all persons. The longer version also recommends various forms of punishment, including execution, for those who denigrate the Mahāyāna. The sutra also makes reference to other famous sutras, such as the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and is mentioned in other sutras, such as the MAHĀMEGHASuTRA. The Mahāparinirvānasutra, like other important sutras extolling tathāgatagarbha thought, such as the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, plays on the classical doctrine of the four "inverted views" (VIPARYĀSA), according to which sentient beings mistakenly view that which is suffering as being pleasurable, that which is impermanent as permanent, that which is impure as pure, and that which is without self as having self. In this sutra, by contrast, the four right views of suffering, impermanence, impurity, and no-self are proclaimed to be erroneous when describing the Buddha, his nirvāna, and the buddhadhātu; these are instead each said to be in fact blissful, permanent, pure, and endowed with self (see GUnAPĀRAMITĀ). Thus, the Buddha did not pass into nirvāna, for his lifespan is incalculable. The Buddha's nirvāna-which is referred to in the sutra as "great nirvāna" (mahānirvāna) or "great final nirvāna" (MAHĀPARINIRVĀnA)-differs from that of the ARHAT. The nirvāna of the arhat is said to be merely the state of the absence of the afflictions (KLEsA) but with no awareness of the buddhadhātu. The nirvāna of the buddha is instead eternal, pure, blissful, and endowed with self, a primordially existent reality that is only temporarily obscured by the klesa; when that nirvāna and buddhadhātu are finally "recognized," buddhahood is then achieved. The Buddha reveals the existence of this nirvāna to bodhisattvas. Because the buddhadhātu is present within all sentient beings, these four qualities are therefore found not simply in the Buddha but in all beings. This implies, therefore, that the Buddha and all beings are endowed with self, in direct contradiction to the normative Buddhist doctrine of no-self (ANĀTMAN). Here, in this sutra, the teaching of no-self is described as a conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA): when the Buddha said that there was no self, what he actually meant was that there is no mundane, conditioned self among the aggregates (SKANDHA). The Buddha's true teaching, as revealed at the time of his nirvāna, is that there is a "great self" or a "true self" (S. mahātman; C. dawo), which is the buddhadhātu, in all beings. To assert that there is no self is to misunderstand the true dharma. The doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ) thus comes to mean the absence of that which is compounded, suffering, and impermanent. These teachings would become influential in Tibet, especially among the proponents of the doctrine of "other emptiness" (GZHAN STONG). See also GUnAPĀRAMITĀ.
*MahāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa chen po'i mdo; C. Dabore boluomiduo jing; J. Daihannya haramittakyo; K. Taebanya paramilta kyong 大般若波羅蜜多經). In Sanskrit, the "Sutra on the Great Perfection of Wisdom"; a massive compilation of PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ scriptural literature said to have been preached by the Buddha in four different places to sixteen discrete assemblies. These sixteen assemblies correspond to sixteen separate perfection of wisdom sutras, including such seminal works as the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("PrajNāpāramitā in One Hundred Thousand Lines") and the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Diamond Sutra"), which are integrated in this text into a single narrative. This recension of the scripture is only extant in a Chinese translation made in six hundred rolls by XUANZANG and his translation team between the years 660 and 663. Xuanzang's recension is by far the largest of all the prajNāpāramitā scriptures in the Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING), constituting about a third of the entire prajNāpāramitā section. The MahāprajNāpāramitāsutra also often holds pride of place as the first sutra found in many traditional East Asian Buddhist scriptural canons, such as the KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG. (In Tibet, the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ in sixteen volumes comes at the start of the prajNāpāramitā section.) There has been speculation that the Chinese version of the well-known PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"), which was also translated by Xuanzang, may be a redaction of sections of this Chinese recension of the MahāprajNāpāramitāsutra, made as a mneumonic encoding (DHĀRAnĪ) of the massive perfection of wisdom literature.
MahāsaMnipātasutra. (T. 'Dus pa chen po'i mdo; C. Dafangdeng daji jing; J. Daihodo daijukkyo; K. Taebangdŭng taejip kyong 大方等大集經). In Sanskrit, the "Great Compilation"; an anthology of texts that, along with the RATNAKutASuTRA, is one of the two major compendiums of MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The collection consists of seventeen Mahāyāna sutras, and was probably first compiled in the third century CE but did not reach its final form until the fifth century or later; the anthology was translated into Chinese by DHARMAKsEMA c. 414 CE. The entire collection is only extant in Chinese, although individual sutras in the collection are extant in Sanskrit and Tibetan. It includes such sutras as the Ākāsagarbhasutra and the CANDRAGARBHAPARIPṚCCHĀ, an important text on the decline of the dharma.
mahāsattva. (T. sems dpa' chen po; C. dashi/mohesa; J. daiji/makasatsu; K. taesa/mahasal 大士/摩訶薩). In Sanskrit, "great being"; an epithet of a BODHISATTVA. Some commentators define mahāsattva as a bodhisattva who has attained the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), in which case the term would be synonymous with ĀRYABODHISATTVA. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, however, the term does not seem always to carry this technical meaning and instead occurs as a standard epithet of an advanced bodhisattva, as in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA, where AVALOKITEsVARA is referred to as "bodhisattva-mahāsattva."
Mahāvastu. In Sanskrit, the "Great Chapter." Also known as the Mahāvastu AVADĀNA, this lengthy work is regarded as the earliest Sanskrit biography of the Buddha. The work describes itself as a book "of the VINAYAPItAKA according to the LOKOTTARAVĀDA, which is affiliated with the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA." The work thus provides important insights into how the Buddha was understood by the Lokottaravāda, or "Proponents of the Supramundane," a branch of the MahāsaMghika, or "Great Community," which some scholars regard as a possible antecedent of the Mahāyāna. The placement of the work in the vinayapitaka suggests that the genre of biographies of the Buddha began as introductions to the monastic code, before becoming independent works. Indeed, it corresponds roughly to the MAHĀVAGGA portion of the KHANDHAKA in the Pāli vinayapitaka. The Mahāvastu is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the previous lives of the being who would become the buddha sĀKYAMUNI, recounting the virtuous deeds he performed and the BODHISATTVA vow he made to the buddha DĪPAMKARA and other buddhas of the past. The second part begins in TUsITA, when the bodhisattva decides where to take his final birth. It goes on to recount his birth, childhood and youth; departure from the palace; and search for enlightenment. It concludes with his defeat of MĀRA. The third section describes the first conversions and the foundation of the SAMGHA. Like other early "biographies" of the Buddha, the narrative ends long before the Buddha's passage into PARINIRVĀnA. Also like these other works, the Mahāvastu does not provide a simple chronology, but is interrupted with numerous teachings, avadānas, and JĀTAKAs, some of which do not have analogues in the Pāli. There are also interpolations: for example, there are two versions of the BODHISATTVA's departure, the first rather simple and the second more elaborate, containing the famous story of the chariot rides during which the prince encounters aging, sickness, and death for the first time (cf. CATURNIMITTA). The so-called proto-Mahāyāna elements of the Mahāvastu have been the subject of much debate. For example, the text includes a lengthy description of the ten bodhisattva BHuMIs, often regarded as a standard Mahāyāna tenet, but their description differs in significant ways from that found in the Mahāyāna sutras. Although clearly a work with many interpolations, linguistic elements suggest that portions of the text may date to as early as the second century BCE.
Mahāvyutpatti. (T. Bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa chen po; C. Fanyi mingyi daji; J. Hon'yaku myogi taishu; K. Ponyok myongŭi taejip 翻譯名義大集). In Sanskrit, the "Great Detailed Explanation"; an important Sanskrit-Tibetan lexicon dating from the ninth century. In order to provide consistency in the translation of Indian SuTRAs and sĀSTRAs, the Tibetan king RAL PA CAN convened a meeting of scholars in 821 and charged them with providing standard Tibetan equivalents for a wide range of terms encountered in Sanskrit Buddhist texts. The result was a lexicon known as the Mahāvyutpatti, which contains (in one version) 9,565 terms. The king is said to have instructed its compilers not to include tantric vocabulary. The work is organized into 283 categories, the purpose of some of which (the eighteen kinds of suNYATĀ, the ten virtuous actions, the thirty-two marks of a MAHĀPURUsA) are more self-evident than others ("names of strange things," "various terms"). During the seventeenth century, Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchurian equivalencies were added to the lexicon so that the terms would be available in the four major languages used in the Qing empire (Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian). The first English translation was made by ALEXANDER CSOMA DE KŐRÖS, but it was not published until long after his death. The Mahāvyutpatti continues to be consulted in editions produced by Japanese scholars that include additional Chinese equivalencies and various indexes.
Mahāyāna sutras (nos. 1509-1535)
MahāyānasutrālaMkāra. [alt. SutrālaMkāra] (T. Theg pa chen po'i mdo sde'i rgyan; C. Dasheng zhuangyan jing lun; J. Daijo shogongyoron; K. Taesŭng changomgyong non 大乘莊嚴經論). In Sanskrit, the "Ornament for the Mahāyāna Sutras"; one of the five works (together with the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA) said to have been presented to ASAnGA by the bodhisattva MAITREYA in the TUsITA heaven (see also MAITREYANĀTHA). Written in verse, the text offers a systematic presentation of the practices of the bodhisattva from the standpoint of the YOGĀCĀRA school and is one of the most important of the Indian Mahāyāna sĀSTRAs. Its twenty-one chapters deal with (1) the proof that the MAHĀYĀNA sutras are the word of the Buddha; (2) taking refuge in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA); (3) the lineage (GOTRA) of enlightenment necessary to undertake the bodhisattva path; (4) the generation of the aspiration to enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA); (5) the practice of the BODHISATTVA; (6) the nature of reality, described from the Yogācāra perspective; (7) the attainment of power by the bodhisattva; (8) the methods of bringing oneself and others to maturation; (9) enlightenment and the three bodies of a buddha (TRIKĀYA); (10) faith in the Mahāyāna; (11) seeking complete knowledge of the dharma; (12) teaching the dharma; (13) practicing in accordance with the dharma; (14) the precepts and instructions received by the bodhisattva; (15) the skillful methods of the bodhisattva; (16) the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) and the four means of conversion (SAMGRAHAVASTU), through which bodhisattvas attract and retain disciples; (17) the worship of the Buddha; (18) the constituents of enlightenment (BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA); (19) the qualities of the bodhisattva; and (20-21) the consummation of the bodhisattva path and the attainment of buddhahood. There is a commentary (BHĀsYA) by VASUBANDHU and a subcommentary by STHIRAMATI.
Mahāyāna. (T. theg pa chen po; C. dasheng; J. daijo; K. taesŭng 大乘). In Sanskrit, "great vehicle"; a term, originally of self-appellation, which is used historically to refer to a movement that began some four centuries after the Buddha's death, marked by the composition of texts that purported to be his words (BUDDHAVACANA). Although ranging widely in content, these texts generally set forth the bodhisattva path to buddhahood as the ideal to which all should aspire and described BODHISATTVAs and buddhas as objects of devotion. The key doctrines of the Mahāyāna include the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), the skillful methods (UPĀYAKAUsALYA) of a buddha, the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of a buddha, the inherency of buddha-nature (BUDDHADHĀTU; TATHĀGATAGARBHA), and PURE LANDs or buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA). The term Mahāyāna is also appended to two of the leading schools of Indian Buddhism, the YOGĀCĀRA and the MADHYAMAKA, because they accepted the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha. However, the tenets of these schools were not restricted to expositions of the philosophy and practice of the bodhisattva but sought to set forth the nature of wisdom and the constituents of the path for the ARHAT as well. The term Mahāyāna often appears in contrast to HĪNAYĀNA, the "lesser vehicle," a pejorative term used to refer to those who do not accept the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, and Mongolia, and therefore is sometimes referred to as "Northern Buddhism," especially in nineteenth-century sources. Because of the predominance of the Mahāyāna in East Asia and Tibet, it is sometimes assumed that the Mahāyāna displaced earlier forms of Buddhism (sometimes referred to by scholars as "Nikāya Buddhism" or "MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS") in India, but the testimony of Chinese pilgrims, such as XUANZANG and YIJING, suggests that the Mahāyāna remained a minority movement in India. These pilgrims report that Mahāyāna and "hīnayāna" monks lived together in the same monasteries and followed the same VINAYA. The supremacy of the Mahāyāna is also sometimes assumed because of the large corpus of Mahāyāna literature in India. However, scholars have begun to speculate that the size of this corpus may not be a sign of the Mahāyāna's dominance but rather of its secondary status, with more and more works composed but few gaining adherents. Scholars find it significant that the first mention of the term "Mahāyāna" in a stone inscription does not appear in India until some five centuries after the first Mahāyāna sutras were presumably composed, perhaps reflecting its minority, or even marginal, status on the Indian subcontinent. The origins of the Mahāyāna remain the subject of scholarly debate. Earlier theories that saw the Mahāyāna as largely a lay movement against entrenched conservative monastics have given way to views of the Mahāyāna as beginning as disconnected cults (of monastic and sometimes lay members) centered around an individual sutra, in some instances proclaimed by charismatic teachers called DHARMABHĀnAKA. The teachings contained in these sutras varied widely, with some extolling a particular buddha or bodhisattva above all others, some saying that the text itself functioned as a STuPA. Each of these sutras sought to represent itself as the authentic word of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha, which was more or less independent from other sutras; hence, the trope in so many Mahāyāna sutras in which the Buddha proclaims the supremacy of that particular text and describes the benefits that will accrue to those who recite, copy, and worship it. The late appearance of these texts had to be accounted for, and various arguments were set forth, most making some appeal to UPĀYA, the Buddha's skillful methods whereby he teaches what is most appropriate for a given person or audience. Thus, in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the Buddha famously proclaims that the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) that he had previously set forth were in fact expedient stratagems to reach different audiences and that there is in fact only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA), revealed in the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, the BUDDHAYĀNA, which had been taught many times in the past by previous buddhas. These early Mahāyāna sutras seem to have been deemed complete unto themselves, each representing its own world. This relatively disconnected assemblage of various cults of the book would eventually become a self-conscious scholastic entity that thought of itself as the Mahāyāna; this exegetical endeavor devoted a good deal of energy to surveying what was by then a large corpus of such books and then attempting to craft the myriad doctrines contained therein into coherent philosophical and religious systems, such as Yogācāra and Madhyamaka. The authority of the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha seems to have remained a sensitive issue throughout the history of the Mahāyāna in India, since many of the most important authors, from the second to the twelfth century, often offered a defense of these sutras' authenticity. Another influential strand of early Mahāyāna was that associated with the RĀstRAPĀLAPARIPṚCCHĀ, KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA, and UGRAPARIPṚCCHĀ, which viewed the large urban monasteries as being ill-suited to serious spiritual cultivation and instead advocated forest dwelling (see ARANNAVĀSI) away from the cities, following a rigorous asceticism (S. dhutaguna; P. DHUTAnGA) that was thought to characterize the early SAMGHA. This conscious estrangement from the monks of the city, where the great majority of monks would have resided, again suggests the Mahāyāna's minority status in India. Although one often reads in Western sources of the three vehicles of Buddhism-the hīnayāna, Mahāyāna, and VAJRAYĀNA-the distinction of the Mahāyāna from the vajrayāna is less clear, at least polemically speaking, than the distinction between the Mahāyāna and the hīnayāna, with followers of the vajrayāna considering themselves as following the path to buddhahood set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras, although via a shorter route. Thus, in some expositions, the Mahāyāna is said to subsume two vehicles, the PĀRAMITĀYĀNA, that is, the path to buddhahood by following the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) as set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras, and the MANTRAYĀNA or vajrayāna, that is, the path to buddhahood set forth in the tantras.
mahorāga. (T. lto 'phye chen po; C. mohouluojia; J. magoraga; K. mahuraga 摩睺羅迦). A type of demigod in the Buddhist pantheon, the mahorāga are huge subterranean serpents who lie on their sides and rotate in the earth, their rotations causing earthquakes and tremors. They are often propitiated prior to the construction of a shrine, STuPA, or monastery. Iconographically, they are pictured like nāgas, with the head, arms, and torso of a human, and the lower body and tail of a serpent. The mahorāga are one of the eight kinds of nonhumans (AstASENĀ) who protect the dharma, who often appear in the audience of Buddhist SuTRAs; the other seven are the DEVA, ASURA, GANDHARVA, NĀGA, YAKsA, GARUdA, and KIMNARA.
Maijishan. (J. Bakusekizan; K. Maekchoksan 麥積山). In Chinese, "Haystack Mountain"; a cave monastery site located southeast of Tianshui in the northwest Chinese province of Gansu, located on a hill some 466 feet (142 meters) high. Situated on the edge of the Qinling Mountains, Maijishan was once an important stop along the ancient SILK ROAD. Based on an inscription dated to 407 CE in cave no. 76, construction of the Maijishan cave sites is presumed to have been initiated by the Yao Xin family (396-416) during the Later Qin dynasty and to have continued for centuries. Close to two hundred caves have been preserved, which include more than seven thousand terracotta sculptures and countless painted murals. Many of the caves and wooden structures at the site have been damaged or destroyed due to natural disasters. While the paintings at the site are heavily damaged, the sculptures are well preserved and feature smooth modeling and flat planes devoid of naturalism. The dignified facial expressions with foreign features (e.g., round, open eyes and pronounced noses) are similar to those of the BINGLINGSI images. The arrangement of cave no. 78 consists of three large seated buddhas, which probably represent the buddhas of the past, present, and future. Two small niches at the rear wall feature the pensive bodhisattva MAITREYA and SIDDHĀRTHA in the pensive pose (see MAITREYĀSANA).The two standing bodhisattvas in cave no. 74 are characterized by their smooth bodies and scarves that elegantly frame their bodies; these features, along with the three-disk crown, derive from the Silk Road cave site of KIZIL. The cave temple sites of Binglingsi and Maijishan reflect the artistic synthesis of different Central Asian styles, which heavily influenced the development of the later Northern Wei artistic styles at LONGMEN and YUNGANG. Both sites also display a range of iconographies derived from sutras that were newly translated during the Liang and Qin dynasties, whose rulers used Buddhism to enhance their political prestige.
Maitreya. (P. Metteya; T. Byams pa; C. Mile; J. Miroku; K. Mirŭk 彌勒). In Sanskrit, "The Benevolent One"; the name of the next buddha, who now abides in TUsITA heaven as a BODHISATTVA, awaiting the proper time for him to take his final rebirth. Buddhists believed that their religion, like all conditioned things, was inevitably impermanent and would eventually vanish from the earth (cf. SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA; MOFA). According to one such calculation, the teachings of the current buddha sĀKYAMUNI would flourish for five hundred years after his death, after which would follow a one-thousand-year period of decline and a three-thousand-year period in which the dharma would be completely forgotten. At the conclusion of this long disappearance, Maitreya would then take his final birth in India (JAMBUDVĪPA) in order to reestablish the Buddhist dispensation anew. According to later calculations, Maitreya will not take rebirth for some time, far longer than the 4,500 years mentioned earlier. He will do so only after the human life span has decreased to ten years and then increased to eighty thousand years. (Stalwart scholiasts have calculated that his rebirth will occur 5.67 billion years after the death of sākyamuni.) Initially a minor figure in early Indian Buddhism, Maitreya (whose name derives from the Indic MAITRĪ, meaning "loving-kindness" or "benevolence") evolved during the early centuries of the Common Era into one of the most popular figures in Buddhism across Asia in both the mainstream and MAHĀYĀNA traditions. He is also known as AJITA, although there are indications that, at some point in history, the two were understood to be different deities. As the first bodhisattva to become a figure of worship, his imagery and cult set standards for the development of later bodhisattvas who became objects of cultic worship, such as AVALOKITEsVARA and MANJUsRĪ. Worship of Maitreya began early in Indian Buddhism and became especially popular in Central and East Asia during the fifth and sixth centuries. Such worship takes several forms, with disciples praying to either meet him when he is reborn on earth or in tusita heaven so that they may then take rebirth with him when he becomes a buddha, a destiny promised in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") to those who recite his name. Maitreya is also said to appear on earth, such as in a scene in the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG's account of his seventh-century travels to India: attacked by pirates as he sailed on the Ganges River, Xuanzang prayed to and was rescued by the bodhisattva. Maitreya also famously appeared to the great Indian commentator ASAnGA in the form of a wounded dog as a means of teaching him the importance of compassion. Devotees across the Buddhist world also attempt to extend their life span in order to be alive when Maitreya comes, or to be reborn at the time of his presence in the world, a worldly paradise that will be known as ketumati. His earliest iconography depicts him standing or sitting, holding a vase (KUndIKĀ), symbolizing his imminent birth into the brāhmana caste, and displaying the ABHAYAMUDRĀ, both features that remain common attributes of his images. In addition, he frequently has a small STuPA in his headdress, believed to represent a prophecy regarding his descent to earth to receive the robes of his predecessor from MAHĀKĀsYAPA. Maitreya is also commonly depicted as a buddha, often shown sitting in "European pose" (BHADRĀSANA; see also MAITREYĀSANA), displaying the DHARMACAKRAMUDRĀ. He is said to sit in a chair in "pensive" posture in order to be able to quickly stand and descend to earth at the appropriate time. Once he is reborn, Maitreya will replicate the deeds of sākyamuni, with certain variations. For example, he will live the life of a householder for eight thousand years, but having seen the four sights (CATURNIMITTA) and renounced the world, he will practice asceticism for only one week before achieving buddhahood. As the Buddha, he will first travel to Mount KUKKUtAPĀDA near BODHGAYĀ where the great ARHAT Mahākāsyapa has been entombed in a state of deep SAMĀDHI, awaiting the advent of Maitreya. Mahākāsyapa has kept the robes of sākyamuni, which the previous buddha had entrusted to him to pass on to his successor. Upon his arrival, the mountain will break open, and Mahākāsyapa will come forth from a stupa and give Maitreya his robes. When Maitreya accepts the robes, it will only cover two fingers of his hands, causing people to comment at how diminutive the past buddha must have been. ¶ The cult of Maitreya entered East Asia with the initial propagation of Buddhism and reached widespread popularity starting in the fourth century CE, a result of the popularity of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra and several other early translations of Maitreya scriptures made in the fourth and fifth centuries. The Saddharmapundarīkasutra describes Maitreya's present abode in the tusita heaven, while other sutras discuss his future rebirth on earth and his present residence in heaven. Three important texts belonging to the latter category were translated into Chinese, starting in the fifth century, with two differing emphases: (1) the Guan Mile pusa shangsheng doushuo tian jing promised sentient beings the prospect of rebirth in tusita heaven together with Maitreya; and (2) the Guan Mile pusa xiasheng jing and (3) the Foshuo Mile da chengfo jing emphasized the rebirth of Maitreya in this world, where he will attain buddhahood under the Dragon Flower Tree (Nāgapuspa) and save numerous sentient beings. These three texts constituted the three principal scriptures of the Maitreya cult in East Asia. In China, Maitreya worship became popular from at least the fourth century: DAO'AN (312-385) and his followers were among the first to propagate the cult of Maitreya and the prospect of rebirth in tusita heaven. With the growing popularity of Maitreya, millenarian movements associated with his cult periodically developed in East Asia, which had both devotional and political dimensions. For example, when the Empress WU ZETIAN usurped the Tang-dynasty throne in 690, her followers attempted to justify the coup by referring to her as Maitreya being reborn on earth. In Korea, Maitreya worship was already popular by the sixth century. The Paekche king Mu (r. 600-641) identified his realm as the world in which Maitreya would be reborn. In Silla, the hwarang, an elite group of male youths, was often identified with Maitreya and such eminent Silla monks as WoNHYO (617-686), WoNCH'ŬK (613-696), and Kyonghŭng (fl. seventh century) composed commentaries on the Maitreya scriptures. Paekche monks transmitted Maitreya worship to Japan in the sixth century, where it became especially popular in the late eighth century. The worship of Maitreya in Japan regained popularity around the eleventh century, but gradually was replaced by devotions to AMITĀBHA and KsITIGARBHA. The worship of Maitreya has continued to exist to the present day in both Korea and Japan. The Maitreya cult was influential in the twentieth century, for example, in the establishment of the Korean new religions of Chŭngsan kyo and Yonghwa kyo. Maitreya also merged in China and Japan with a popular indigenous figure, BUDAI (d. 916)-a monk known for his fat belly-whence he acquired his now popular East Asian form of the "laughing Buddha." This Chinese holy man is said to have been an incarnation of the bodhisattva Maitreya (J. Miroku Bosatsu) and is included among the Japanese indigenous pantheon known as the "seven gods of good fortune"(SHICHIFUKUJIN). Hotei represents contentment and happiness and is often depicted holding a large cloth bag (Hotei literally means "hemp sack"). From this bag, which never empties, he feeds the poor and needy. In some places, he has also become the patron saint of restaurants and bars, since those who drink and eat well are said to be influenced by Hotei. Today, nearly all Chinese Buddhist monasteries (and many restaurants as well) will have an image of this Maitreya at the front entrance; folk belief has it that by rubbing his belly one can establish the potential for wealth.
Majjhimanikāya. (S. MADHYAMĀGAMA). In Pāli, "Collection of Middle [Length] Discourses"; the second of the five divisions of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA, the others being the DĪGHANIKĀYA, SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, and KHUDDAKANIKĀYA. The Majjhimanikāya contains 152 suttas (S. SuTRA) divided into three major parts, with fifty suttas in each of the first two parts and fifty-two in the third. Each one of these parts is further subdivided into five sections (vagga). The suttas are not arranged in any particular order, although suttas with broadly related themes (e.g., the six sense faculties, or INDRIYA), similar styles (e.g., suttas that contain a shorter, and often verse, summary of doctrine followed by longer expositions) or target audiences (e.g., discourses to householders, monks, religious wanderers, or brāhmanas) are sometimes grouped together in the same section. The enlightenment cycle of Gotama (S. GAUTAMA) Buddha finds some of its earliest expressions in several suttas in this nikāya. For example, the ARIYAPARIYESANĀSUTTA does not include the famous story of the prince's chariot rides but says instead, "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and went forth from the home life into homelessness." There is sometimes overlap between nikāyas; for example, the SATIPAttHĀNASUTTA of the Majjhimanikāya appears as the first section of the Mahāsatipatthānasutta of the Dīghanikāya. Not all of the suttas are spoken by the Buddha; for example, ĀNANDA delivers the Gopakamoggallānasutta after the Buddha's passage into PARINIRVĀnA. The Sanskrit counterpart of the Majjhimanikāya is the MADHYAMĀGAMA, which is the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school's recension of this collection. In the Chinese translation, ninety-eight of the Madhyamāgama's 222 sutras correspond to suttas found in the Majjhimanikāya, eighty appear in the Anguttaranikāya, twelve to the Dīghanikāya, and eleven to the SaMyuttanikāya.
Ma ni bka' 'bum. In Tibetan, "One Hundred Thousand Pronouncements [Regarding] Mani"; a heterogenious compilation of texts traditionally attributed to the Tibetan king SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO. This large collection of works, usually published in two massive volumes, is generally understood as a treasure text (GTER MA), said to have been revealed by three individuals during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: the SIDDHA Gngos grub (Ngodrup), the famed treasure revealer (GTER STON) NYANG RAL NYI MA 'OD ZER, and Shākya 'Od-a disciple in the Nyang ral lineage sometimes known as Shākya bzang po (Shākya Sangpo). The texts are organized into three parts or cycles (skor): (1) "The cycle of SuTRAs" (mdo skor), containing many legendary accounts of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA and Srong btsan sgam po; (2) "the cycle of sādhanas" (sgrub skor), containing various meditation manuals (SĀDHANA) based on different aspects of Avalokitesvara; and (3) "the cycle of precepts" (zhal gdams kyi skor), a miscellany of texts, many of which relate to the bodhisattva of great compassion. The remaining texts are sometimes referred to as "the cycle of the disclosure of the hidden" (gab pa mngon phyung gi skor). The title of the collection refers to the famed six-syllable MANTRA of Avalokitesvara, OM MAnI PADME HuM. The texts are an important early source for many of Tibet's key legends: the activities of Srong btsan sgam po, including the founding of the JO KHANG temple, and the status of Avalokitesvara as the special protector of Tibet and the Tibetan people, incarnated in the person of Srong btsan sgam po himself. The Ma ni bka' 'bum also includes an account of a set of four statues (three or five according to some sources) in a form of AVALOKITEsVARA (called the "Four Brother Statues of Avalokitesvara") said to have spontaneously arisen by miraculous means from the trunk of single sandalwood tree. According to the Tibetan text, the Tibetan king Srong bstan sgam po dispatched a monk named Akarasīla to southern Nepal, where he discovered the four images in the midst of a large sandalwood grove. Akarasīla then "invited" the statues to reside in various locations in order to dispel misery and strife and serve as the basis for religious practice. These statues are considered some of the most sacred Buddhist images in Nepal and Tibet. In their most common reckoning, the four brothers are: (1) the white MATSYENDRANĀTH in Jana Bāhāl, Kathmandu, Nepal; (2) the red Matsyendranāth in nearby Patan; (3) the Ārya Lokesvara in the PO TA LA Palace, LHA SA; (4) and the 'PHAGS PA WA TI in SKYID GRONG, southern Tibet (a part of which is now in possession of the Dalai Lama in exile). Sometimes a fifth image is included: the Minanāth in Patan.
MaNjusrīnāmasaMgīti. (T. 'Jam dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par brjod pa; C. Sheng miaojixiang zhenshi ming jing; J. Shomyokichijo shinjitsumyokyo; K. Song myogilsang chinsil myong kyong 聖妙吉祥眞實名經). In Sanskrit, "Litany of the Names of MANJUsRĪ"; one of the most popular liturgical works of late Indian Buddhism. The text dates from the late seventh or early eighth century CE and in its present form includes 167 verses and a lengthy prose section. It begins with a request to the Buddha from a disciple, in this case, the tantric deity VAJRADHARA, to set forth the names of MaNjusrī. The Buddha offers extensive praise to MaNjusrī in the form of multiple epithets and identifications, equating him with all that is auspicious, although special attention is paid to his identity with the myriad categories of Buddhist wisdom. In other verses, the Buddha provides syllables to be recited in order to visualize a variety of deities, all of whom are considered forms of MaNjusrī. MaNjusrī himself is identified with the letter A, the first letter of the Sanskrit alphabet, and hence the source of all other names and the deities they represent. The Buddha also describes the MAndALA of MaNjusrī. The prose section, like so many Mahāyāna sutras, extols the virtues of its own recitation. Here, the Buddha declares that those who recite the MaNjusrīnāmasaMgīti three times daily will gain all manner of attainment and will also be protected by the Hindu gods, such as Visnu (NĀRĀYAnA) and siva (Mahesvara).
MaNjusrī. (T. 'Jam dpal; C. Wenshushili; J. Monjushiri; K. Munsusari 文殊師利). In Sanskrit, "Gentle Glory," also known as MANJUGHOsA, "Gentle Voice"; one of the two most important BODHISATTVAs in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism (along with AVALOKITEsVARA). MaNjusrī seems to derive from a celestial musician (GANDHARVA) named PaNcasikha (Five Peaks), who dwelled on a five-peaked mountain (see WUTAISHAN), whence his toponym. MaNjusrī is the bodhisattva of wisdom and sometimes is said to be the embodiment of all the wisdom of all the buddhas. MaNjusrī, Avalokitesvara, and VAJRAPĀnI are together known as the "protectors of the three families" (TRIKULANĀTHA), representing wisdom, compassion, and power, respectively. Among his many epithets, the most common is KUMĀRABHuTA, "Ever Youthful." Among MaNjusrī's many forms, the most famous shows him seated in the lotus posture (PADMĀSANA), dressed in the raiments of a prince, his right hand holding a flaming sword above his head, his left hand holding the stem of a lotus that blossoms over his left shoulder, a volume of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ atop the lotus. MaNjusrī plays a major role in many of the most renowned Mahāyāna sutras. MaNjusrī first comes to prominence in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, which probably dates no later than the first century CE, where only MaNjusrī has the courage to visit and debate with the wise layman VIMALAKĪRTI and eventually becomes the interlocutor for Vimalakīrti's exposition of the dharma. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, only MaNjusrī understands that the Buddha is about to preach the "Lotus Sutra." In the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, it is MaNjusrī who sends SUDHANA out on his pilgrimage. In the Ajātasatrukaukṛtyavinodana, it is revealed that MaNjusrī inspired sĀKYAMUNI to set out on the bodhisattva path many eons ago, and that he had played this same role for all the buddhas of the past; indeed, the text tells us that MaNjusrī, in his guise as an ever-youthful prince, is the father of all the buddhas. He is equally important in tantric texts, including those in which his name figures in the title, such as the MANJUsRĪMuLAKALPA and the MANJUsRĪNĀMASAMGĪTI. The bull-headed deity YAMĀNTAKA is said to be the wrathful form of MaNjusrī. Buddhabhadra's early fifth-century translation of the AvataMsakasutra is the first text that seemed to connect MaNjusrī with Wutaishan (Five-Terrace Mountain) in China's Shaanxi province. Wutaishan became an important place of pilgrimage in East Asia beginning at least by the Northern Wei dynasty (424-532), and eventually drew monks in search of a vision of MaNjusrī from across the Asian continent, including Korea, Japan, India, and Tibet. The Svayambhupurāna of Nepal recounts that MaNjusrī came from China to worship the STuPA located in the middle of a great lake. So that humans would be able worship the stupa, he took his sword and cut a great gorge at the southern edge of the lake, draining the water and creating the Kathmandu Valley. As the bodhisattva of wisdom, MaNjusrī is propiated by those who wish to increase their knowledge and learning. It is considered efficacious to recite his mantra "oM arapacana dhīḥ" (see ARAPACANA); Arapacana is an alternate name for MaNjusrī.
mantra. (T. sngags; C. zhenyan; J. shingon; K. chinon 眞言). In Sanskrit, "spell," "charm," or "magic formula"; a syllable or series of syllables that may or may not have semantic meaning, most often in a form of Sanskrit, the contemplation or recitation of which is thought to be efficacious. Indian exegetes creatively etymologized the term with the paronomastic gloss "mind protector," because a mantra serves to protect the mind from ordinary appearances. There are many famous mantras, ranging in length from one syllable to a hundred syllables or more. They are often recited to propitiate a deity, and their letters are commonly visualized in tantric meditations, sometimes within the body of the meditator. Although mantras are typically associated with tantric texts, they also appear in the SuTRAs, most famously in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). Numerous tantric SĀDHANAs require the recitation of a particular mantra a specific number of times, with the recitations counted on a rosary (JAPAMĀLĀ). In Tibetan Buddhism, mantras are also repeated mechanically by turning "prayer wheels" (MA nI 'KHOR LO). Perhaps the most famous of all such spells is the six-syllable mantra of the bodhisattva AVALOKITEsVARA, OM MAnI PADME HuM, which is recited throughout the Tibetan Buddhist world. The Japanese SHINGONSHu takes its name from the Sinitic translation of mantra as "true word" (C. zhenyan; J. shingon).
Māra. (T. Bdud; C. Mo; J. Ma; K. Ma 魔). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit., "Maker of Death"; the personification of evil in Buddhism and often referred to as the Buddhist "devil" or "demon"; he is in fact a powerful divinity of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), devoted to preventing beings from achieving liberation from rebirth and thus conquering death. In the biographies of the Buddha, Māra figures as the Buddha's antagonist. According to the most elaborate accounts of the Buddha's enlightenment experience, when the BODHISATTVA SIDDHĀRTHA sat under the BODHI TREE, vowing not to rise until he attained liberation from SAMSĀRA, he was approached by Māra, who sought to dissuade him from his quest. When he refused, Māra sent his minions to destroy him, but their weapons were transformed into flower blossoms. When he sent his daughters-Ratī (Delight), Aratī (Discontent), and Tṛsnā (Craving)-to seduce him, the bodhisattva remained unmoved, in some versions transforming them into hags and then restoring their beauty once they repented. When Māra questioned the bodhisattva's right to occupy his seat beneath the Bodhi tree, the bodhisattva declared that he had earned that right by accumulating merit over countless eons. When asked who could vouch for these deeds, the bodhisattva extended his right hand and touched the earth, thereby calling the goddess of the earth, STHĀVARĀ, to bear witness to his virtue; this gesture, called the BHuMISPARsAMUDRĀ ("earth-touching gesture"), is one of the most common iconographic depictions of the Buddha. The goddess bore witness to the bodhisattva's virtue by causing the earth to quake. In a Southeast Asian version, the goddess is called THORANI, and she wrung out from her hair all the water that the bodhisattva had offered in oblations over many lives. This created a great torrent, which washed Māra away. In all accounts, Māra is finally vanquished and withdraws, with the entire episode being referred to as the "defeat of Māra" (Māravijaya). Māra reappears shortly after the Buddha's enlightenment, urging him to immediately pass into PARINIRVĀnA and not bother teaching others. His request is rejected, but he nevertheless extracts from the Buddha a promise to enter nirvāna when he has completed his teaching; near the end of the Buddha's life, Māra reappears at the CĀPĀLACAITYA to remind him of his promise. Māra also distracts the Buddha's attendant, ĀNANDA, preventing him from requesting that the Buddha live until the end of the eon, a power that the Buddha possesses but must be asked to exercise. Ānanda is chided by the Buddha and later rebuked by the SAMGHA for his oversight. Māra commonly appears in Buddhist literature when monks and nuns are about to achieve enlightenment, attempting to distract them. Māra would eventually figure in sectarian polemics as well. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, those who claim that the Mahāyāna sutras are not the authentic word of the Buddha are condemned as being possessed by Māra. In scholastic literature, Māra is expanded metaphorically into four forms. SKANDHAMĀRA, the māra of the aggregates (SKANDHA), is the mind and body of unenlightened beings, which serve as the site of death. Klesamāra, the māra of the afflictions (KLEsA), refers to such afflictions as greed, hatred, and delusion, which catalyze death and rebirth and which prevent liberation. MṚTYUMĀRA, the māra of death, is death itself, and DEVAPUTRAMĀRA, the deity Māra, is the divinity (DEVA) who attacked the Buddha and who seeks to prevent the defeat of the other three forms of Māra.
Maskarin Gosālīputra. (P. Makkhali Gosāla; T. Kun tu rgyu gnag lhas kyi bu; C. Moqieli Jushelizi; J. Magari Kusharishi; K. Malgari Kusarija 末伽梨拘賖梨子) (d. c. 488 BCE). In Sanskrit, "Maskarin, Who Was Born in a Cow Shed"; the name of an ĀJĪVAKA teacher (and the sect's founder, according to some sources) who was a contemporary of the Buddha. Because no Ājīvaka texts have survived, information about the school's doctrines must be derived from Buddhist and JAINA sources. According to Jaina accounts, Maskarin Gosālīputra was a disciple of MAHĀVĪRA but eventually left the Jaina fold. Maskarin Gosālīputra subsequently founded his own school of wandering religious (sRAMAnA) called the Ājīvakas and was notorious for denying the doctrine of moral cause and effect (KARMAN). As his rivals describe his teachings, he asserted that there is no immediate or ultimate cause for the purity or depravity of beings; instead, beings are directed along their course by destiny or fate (niyati). Thus attainments or accomplishments of any kind are not a result of an individual's own action or the acts of others; rather, those beings experience ease or pain according to their positions within the various stations of existence. Maskarin Gosālīputra is portrayed as advocating a theory of automatic purification through an essentially infinite number of transmigrations (saMsārasuddhi), during which all beings would ultimately attain perfection. The Buddha is said to have regarded Makkhali Gosālīputra's views as the most dangerous of heresies, because they were capable of leading even the divinities (DEVA) to loss, discomfort, and suffering. He is one of the so-called six heterodox teachers (TĪRTHIKA) often mentioned in Buddhist sutras and criticized by the Buddha. The other five are PuRAnA-KĀsYAPA, AJITA KEsAKAMBHALA, KAKUDA KĀTYĀYANA, SANJAYA VAIRAtĪPUTRA, and NIRGRANTHA-JNĀTĪPUTRA.
mātṛkā. (P. mātikā; T. phyi mo; C. modalijia; J. matarika; K. madalliga 摩怛理迦). In Sanskrit, lit. "matrix" and related etymologically to that English word; systematized "matrices" or "lists" of terms and topics appearing in the SuTRAs, which served as the nucleus of the ABHIDHARMA literature. Important early disciples of the Buddha, including sĀRIPUTRA, MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA, and MAHĀKĀTYĀYANA, are said to have compiled such lists in order to systematize the disparate teachings found in the Buddha's discourses, using these rosters as mnemonic devices for teaching the DHARMA to their students. The earliest matrices may have been such common dharma lists as the five aggregates (SKANDHA), twelve sense spheres (ĀYATANA), and eighteen elements (DHĀTU). These relatively simple lists were gradually elaborated into complex matrices that were intended to provide a systematic overview of the full range of Buddhist spiritual development, such as an exhaustive matrix of twenty-two triads (such as wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate) and one hundred dyads that provides the exegetical framework for the DHAMMASAnGAnI, the first book in the Pāli ABHIDHAMMA. None of the early matrices of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA or YOGĀCĀRA schools are extant, but they can be reconstructed from culling the lists treated in their abhidharma literatures; these rosters closely follow those appearing in the Pāli abhidhamma. By tying together, expanding upon, and systematizing these various matrices, the different schools of abhidharma constructed scholastically meticulous and coherent exegeses of Buddhist doctrine and soteriology. The mātṛkā thus served as the forerunner of the adhidharma, and the abhidharma thus represents an elaboration and analysis of these lists. In some early accounts, in fact, a matrix was essentially synonymous with the abhidharma, and both terms are used in differing accounts of the initial recitation of the Buddhist canon following the Buddha's demise; indeed, the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA is sometimes even referred to as the mātṛkāpitaka.
Mdo kun las btus pa. See SuTRASAMUCCAYA
Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho. (Mipam Jamyang Namgyal Gyatso) (1846-1912). A prominent Tibetan Buddhist scholar of the RNYING MA sect and a leading figure in the RIS MED or so-called nonsectarian movement of eastern Tibet. He is often known as Mi pham rgya mtsho or 'Ju Mi pham in reference to his clan name. As a young child he excelled at study-it is said that he composed his first text at age seven-and quickly mastered a broad range of traditional Buddhist learning, from MAHĀYĀNA sutras to tantric rituals, as well as subjects such as logic, astrology, grammar, medicine, and the arts. His ease in learning a vast body of scriptures was ascribed to his devotion to the BODHISATTVA of wisdom MANJUsRĪ. He is said to have read the entire BKA' 'GYUR seven times. He studied with and received transmission from many of the leading scholars of the day, including DPAL SPRUL RIN PO CHE and 'JAM MGON KONG SPRUL. His principal guru was the luminary 'JAM DBYANGS MKHYEN BRTSE DBANG PO. Unlike many other prominent Rnying ma lamas of his time, he was not actively involved in the discovery and revelation of treasure (GTER MA). He is especially renowned for his strikingly original, and often controversial, commentaries on important Indian treatises-scriptural exegesis of Indian works being relatively rare among his contemporary Rnying ma scholars. These works include his commentary on the ninth chapter of sĀNTIDEVA's BODHICARYĀVATĀRA and his commentary on sĀNTARAKsITA's MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA. In other works, he sought to reveal the philosophical profundity of the RDZOGS CHEN teachings.
moshi. (J. masse; K. malse 末世). In Chinese, the "latter time"; a translation of the Sanskrit term PAsCIMAKĀLA. The term commonly appears in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras to refer to the time following the Buddha's passage into PARINIRVĀnA. In China, this term seems to have served as the basis for the Chinese neologism MOFA, the more common term in East Asia to refer to the final period of the dharma.
Mulamadhyamakakārikā. (T. Dbu ma rtsa ba'i tshig le'u byas pa; C. Zhong lun; J. Churon; K. Chung non 中論). In Sanskrit, "Root Verses on the Middle Way"; the magnum opus of the second-century Indian master NĀGĀRJUNA; also known as the PrajNānāmamulamadhyamakakārikā and the Madhyamakasāstra. (The Chinese analogue of this text is the Zhong lun, which renders the title as MADHYAMAKAsĀSTRA. This Chinese version was edited and translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA. Kumārajīva's edition, however, includes not only Nāgārjuna's verses but also Pingala's commentary to the verses.) The most widely cited and commented upon of Nāgārjuna's works in India, the Mulamadhyamakakārikā, was the subject of detailed commentaries by such figures as BUDDHAPĀLITA, BHĀVAVIVEKA, and CANDRAKĪRTI (with Candrakīrti's critique of Bhāvaviveka's criticism of a passage in Buddhapālita's commentary providing the locus classicus for the later Tibetan division of MADHYAMAKA into *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA). In East Asia, it was one of the three basic texts of the "Three Treatises" school (C. SAN LUN ZONG), and was central to TIANTAI philosophy. Although lost in the original Sanskrit as an independent work, the entire work is preserved within the Sanskrit text of Candrakīrti's commentary, the PRASANNAPADĀ (serving as one reason for the influence of Candrakīrti's commentary in the European reception of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā). The work is composed of 448 verses in twenty-seven chapters. The topics of the chapters (as provided by Candrakīrti) are the analysis of: (1) conditions (PRATYAYA), (2) motion, (3) the eye and the other sense faculties (INDRIYA), (4) aggregates (SKANDHA), (5) elements (DHĀTU), (6) passion and the passionate, (7) the conditioned (in the sense of production, abiding, disintegration), (8) action and agent, (9) prior existence, (10) fire and fuel, (11) the past and future limits of SAMSĀRA, (12) suffering, (13) the conditioned (SAMSKĀRA), (14) contact (saMsarga), (15) intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA), (16) bondage and liberation, (17) action and effect, (18) self, (19) time, (20) assemblage (sāmagrī), (21) arising and dissolving, (22) the TATHĀGATA, (23) error, (24) the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, (25) NIRVĀnA, (26), the twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and (27) views. The tone of the work is set in its famous homage to the Buddha, which opens the work, "I bow down to the perfect Buddha, the best of teachers, who taught that what is dependently arisen is without cessation, without production, without annihilation, without permanence, without coming, without going, without difference, without sameness, pacified of elaboration, at peace." The Mulamadhyamakakārikā offers a relentless examination of many of the most important categories of Buddhist thought, subjecting them to an analysis that reveals the absurd consequences that follow from imagining any of them to be real in the sense of possessing an independent and intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). Nāgārjuna demonstrates repeatedly that these various categories only exist relationally and only function heuristically in a worldly and transactional sense; they do not exist ultimately. Thus, in the first chapter, Nāgārjuna examines production via causes and conditions, one of the hallmarks of Buddhist thought, and declares that a thing is not produced from itself, from something other than itself, from something that is both itself and other, or from something that is neither itself nor the other. He examines the four kinds of conditions, declaring each to lack an intrinsic nature, such that they do not exist because they do not produce anything. In the second chapter, Nāgārjuna examines motion, seeking to determine precisely where motion occurs: on the path already traversed, the path being traversed, or on the path not yet traversed. He concludes that motion is not to be found on any of these three. In the twenty-fifth chapter, he subjects nirvāna to a similar analysis, finding it to be neither existent, nonexistent, both existent and nonexistent, nor neither existent nor nonexistent. (These are the famous CATUsKOtI, the "four alternatives," or tetralemma.) Therefore, nirvāna, like saMsāra and all worldly phenomena, is empty of intrinsic nature, leading Nāgārjuna to declare (at XXV.19), in one of his most famous and widely misinterpreted statements, that there is not the slightest difference between saMsāra and nirvāna. The thoroughgoing negative critique or apophasis in which Nāgārjuna engages leads to charges of nihilism, charges that he faces directly in the text, especially in the twenty-fourth chapter on the four noble truths where he introduces the topic of the two truths (SATYADVAYA)-ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA)-declaring the importance of both in understanding correctly the doctrine of the Buddha. Also in this chapter, he discusses the danger of misunderstanding emptiness (suNYATĀ), and the relation between emptiness and dependent origination ("That which is dependent origination we explain as emptiness. This is a dependent designation; just this is the middle path"). To those who would object that emptiness renders causation and change impossible, he counters that if things existed independently and intrinsically, there could be no transformation; "for whom emptiness is possible, everything is possible." There has been considerable scholarly discussion of Nāgārjuna's target audience for this work, with the consensus being that it is intended for Buddhist monks well versed in ABHIDHARMA literature, especially that associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school; many of the categories to which Nāgārjuna subjects his critique are derived from this school. In the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma, these categories and factors (DHARMA) are posited to be endowed with a certain reality, a reality that Nāgārjuna sees as implying permanence, independence, and autonomy. He seeks to reveal the absurd consequences and hence the impossibility of the substantial existence of these categories and factors. Through his critique, he seeks a new understanding of these fundamental tenets of Buddhist philosophy in light of the doctrine of emptiness as set forth in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs. He does not cite these sutras directly, however, nor does he mention the MAHĀYĀNA, which he extols regularly in other of his works. Instead, he seeks to demonstrate how the central Buddhist doctrine of causation, expressed as dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), necessarily entails emptiness (sunyatā). The understanding of emptiness is essential in order to abandon false views (MITHYĀDṚstI). Nāgārjuna therefore sees his purpose not to reject the standard categories of Buddhist thought but to reinterpret them in such a way that they become conduits for, rather than impediments to, liberation from suffering, in keeping with the Buddha's intent.
Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya. (T. Gzhi thams cad yod par smra ba'i 'dul ba; C. Genben Shuoyiqieyou bu pinaiye; J. Konpon Setsuissaiubu binaya; K. Kŭnbon Sorilch'eyubu pinaeya 根本一切有部毘奈耶). In Sanskrit, the "Monastic Code of the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA," or "Original Monastic Code of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA School"; one of the six extant recensions of the VINAYA. Divergences between their respective monastic codes were one of the principal differentiating characteristics of the various mainstream schools of Indian Buddhism. The attempt to differentiate the Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya from the Sarvāstivāda vinaya (both of which are extant in Chinese translation) may well derive from a polemical claim by the MATHURĀ branch of the Sarvāstivāda school in north-central India that their tradition comprised the "root" or "foundational" monastic code of the school. Whatever the precise denotation of the term, the Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya, is by far the longest of the extant vinayas-by some calculations some four times longer than any of its counterparts. The Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya contains some material that suggests it may belong to one of the earliest strata of the vinaya literature. The text was composed in Sanskrit in the first or second centuries CE, but only a few Sanskrit fragments have been discovered at GILGIT. The code is preserved in full only in Tibetan translation, although there is also a partial (but still massive) Chinese translation made by YIJING (635-713) in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. The code details 253 rules and regulations for fully ordained monks (BHIKsU) and 364 rules for fully ordained nuns (BHIKsUNĪ) as well as precepts for male and female lay practitioners (UPĀSAKA and UPĀSIKĀ), male and female novices (sRĀMAnERA and sRĀMAnERIKĀ), and female probationers (sIKsAMĀnĀ). Because each rule requires an explanation of how it came to be established, the text is a vast source of stories (many of which do not appear in other codes) that provide essential insights into Buddhist monastic life at the time of its composition. The collection also includes discussions of areas of monastic life that receive short shrift in other recensions, such as how to escort images on procession through town or lend the SAMGHA's money with interest to laypeople. The Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya also includes many narratives (AVADĀNA) and stories, including one of the earliest Sanskrit accounts of the life of the Buddha, as well as SuTRAs that in other mainstream traditions appear in the scripture section of the canon (SuTRAPItAKA). Because of its eclectic content, the Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya functions almost as proto-canon (TRIPItAKA). The Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya is the monastic code still followed today in the Tibetan traditions of Buddhism, where it is studied primarily via the summary composed by GUnAPRABHA, entitled the VINAYASuTRA.
Müller, Friedrich Max. (1823-1900). Arguably the most famous Indologist of the nineteenth century, born in Dessau, the capital of the duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, son of the famous Romantic poet Wilhelm Müller. He studied Sanskrit in Leipzig, receiving a doctorate in philology in 1843 at the age of twenty. In Berlin, he attended the lectures of Franz Bopp and Schelling. He went to Paris in 1846 where he studied with EUGÈNE BURNOUF, who suggested the project that would become his life's work, a critical edition of the Ṛgveda. In order to study the available manuscripts, he traveled to London and then settled in Oxford, where he would spend the rest of his life, eventually being appointed to a newly established professorship in comparative philology. Although best known for his work in philology, Indology, and comparative religion, Müller wrote essays and reviews on Buddhism throughout his career. Perhaps his greatest contribution to Buddhist studies came through his role as editor-in-chief of the Sacred Books of the East series, published between 1879 and 1910. Ten of the forty-nine volumes of the series were devoted to Buddhist works. Reflecting the opinion of the day that Pāli texts of the THERAVĀDA tradition represented the most accurate record of what the Buddha taught, seven of these volumes were devoted to Pāli works, with translations by THOMAS W. RHYS DAVIDS and HERMANN OLDENBERG, as well as a translation of the DHAMMAPADA by Müller himself. Among other Indian works, AsVAGHOsA's famous life of the Buddha appeared twice, translated in one volume from Sanskrit by E. B. Cowell and in another from Chinese by SAMUEL BEAL. HENDRIK KERN's translation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") was included in another volume. The final volume of the series, entitled Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts (1894), included such famous works as the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Diamond Sutra"), the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"), and the three major PURE LAND sutras, all Indian works (or at least so regarded at the time) but selected because of their importance for Japanese Buddhism. Müller's choice of these texts was influenced by two Japanese students: TAKAKUSU JUNJIRo and NANJo BUN'Yu, both JoDO SHINSHu adherents who had gone to Oxford in order to study Indology with Müller. Upon their return, they introduced to Japanese academe the philological study of Buddhism from Sanskrit and Pāli sources. The works in Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts were translated by Müller, with the exception of the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING (*Amitāyurdhyānasutra), which was translated by Takakusu. In his final years, with financial support of the King of Siam, Müller began editing the Sacred Books of the Buddhists series, which was taken over by T. W. Rhys Davids upon Müller's death in 1900.
Nadī-Kāsyapa. (P. Nadī-Kassapa; T. Chu klung 'od srungs; C. Nati Jiashe; J. Nadai Kasho; K. Naje Kasop 那提迦葉). One of the three "Kāsyapa brothers" (together with URUVILVĀ-KĀsYAPA and GAYĀ-KĀsYAPA), also known in Pāli as the Tebhātika Jatilas. Prior to their encounter with the Buddha, the three brothers were matted-hair ascetics engaged in fire worship, living with their followers on the banks of the NAIRANJANĀ River. Nadī-Kāsyapa himself had three hundred followers. After his first teachings in the Deer Park (MṚGADĀVA) at SĀRNĀTH and in Vārānasī, the Buddha returned to URUVILVĀ, where he had practiced asceticism prior to this enlightenment. There, he encountered Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa, a famous ascetic (said to be 120 years old) who claimed to be enlightened. The Buddha spent the rains retreat (VARsĀ) with him and his followers, performing some 3,500 miracles. When the Buddha eventually convinced Uruvilva-Kāsyapa that he was not enlightened and that the fire worship that he taught did not lead to enlightenment, Uruvilva-Kāsyapa requested ordination. Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa and his five hundred followers all cut off their long locks and threw them in the river, where the other two brothers and their followers saw them floating by. They came to investigate and also sought ordination. The Buddha taught them the so-called "Fire Sermon" (ĀDITTAPARIYĀYA), at which point they all became ARHATs. They all then traveled to RĀJAGṚHA, where, in the presence of King BIMBISĀRA, the new monks proclaimed their allegiance to the Buddha. The three brothers are often listed among the audience of MAHĀYĀNA sutras.
Nāgārjuna. (T. Klu sgrub; C. Longshu; J. Ryuju; K. Yongsu 龍樹). Indian Buddhist philosopher traditionally regarded as the founder of the MADHYAMAKA [alt. Mādhyamika] school of MAHĀYĀNA Buddhist philosophy. Very little can be said concerning his life; scholars generally place him in South India during the second century CE. Traditional accounts state that he lived four hundred years after the Buddha's PARINIRVĀnA. Some traditional biographies also state that he lived for six hundred years, apparently attempting to identify him with a later Nāgārjuna known for his tantric writings. Two of the works attributed to Nāgārjuna, the RATNĀVALĪ and the SUHṚLLEKHA, are verses of advice to a king, suggesting that he may have achieved some fame during his lifetime. His birth is "prophesied" in a number of works, including the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA. Other sources indicate that he also served as abbot of a monastery. He appears to have been the teacher of ĀRYADEVA, and his works served as the subject of numerous commentaries in India, East Asia, and Tibet. Although Nāgārjuna is best known in the West for his writings on emptiness (suNYATĀ), especially as set forth in his most famous work, the "Verses on the Middle Way" (MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, also known as the MADHYAMAKAsĀSTRA), Nāgārjuna was the author of a number of works (even when questions of attribution are taken into account) on a range of topics, and it is through a broad assessment of these works that an understanding of his thought is best gained. He wrote as a Buddhist monk and as a proponent of the Mahāyāna; in several of his works he defends the Mahāyāna sutras as being BUDDHAVACANA. He compiled an anthology of passages from sixty-eight sutras entitled the "Compendium of Sutras" (SuTRASAMUCCAYA), the majority of which are Mahāyāna sutras; this work provides a useful index for scholars in determining which sutras were extant during his lifetime. Among the Mahāyāna sutras, Nāgārjuna is particularly associated with the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) corpus. According to legend, Nāgārjuna retrieved from the Dragon King's palace at the bottom of the sea the "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines" (sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA), which the Buddha had entrusted to the undersea king of the NĀGAs for safekeeping. He also composed hymns of praise to the Buddha, such as the CATUḤSTAVA, and expositions of Buddhist ethical practice, such as the Ratnāvalī. (Later exegetes classify his works into a YUKTIKĀYA, or "logical corpus," and a STAVAKĀYA, or "devotional corpus.") Nāgārjuna's works are addressed to a variety of audiences. His philosophical texts are sometimes directed against logicians of non-Buddhist schools, but most often offer a critique of the doctrines and assumptions of Buddhist ABHIDHARMA schools, especially the SARVĀSTIVĀDA. Other works are more general expositions of Buddhist practice, directed sometimes to monastic audiences, sometimes to lay audiences. An overriding theme in his works is the bodhisattva's path to buddhahood, and the merit (PUnYA) and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) that the bodhisattva must accumulate over the course of that path in order to achieve enlightenment. By wisdom here, he means the perfection of wisdom (prajNāpāramitā), declared in the sutras to be the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Nāgārjuna is credited with rendering the poetic and sometimes paradoxical declarations concerning emptiness that appear in these and other Mahāyāna sutras into a coherent philosophical system. In his first sermon, the DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA, the Buddha had prescribed a "middle way" between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Nāgārjuna, citing an early sutra, spoke of a middle way between the extremes of existence and nonexistence, sometimes also referred to as the middle way between the extremes of permanence (sĀsVATĀNTA) and annihilation (UCCHEDĀNTA). For Nāgārjuna, the ignorance (AVIDYĀ) that is the source of all suffering is the belief in SVABHĀVA, a term that literally means "own being" and has been variously rendered as "intrinsic existence" and "self-nature." This belief is the mistaken view that things exist autonomously, independently, and permanently; to hold this belief is to fall into the extreme of permanence. It is equally mistaken, however, to hold that nothing exists; this is the extreme of annihilation. Emptiness, which for Nāgārjuna is the true nature of reality, is not the absence of existence, but the absence of self-existence, viz., the absence of svabhāva. Nāgārjuna devotes his Mulamadhyamakakārikā to a thoroughgoing analysis of a wide range of topics (in twenty-seven chapters and 448 verses), including the Buddha, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, and NIRVĀnA, to demonstrate that each lacks the autonomy and independence that are mistakenly ascribed to it. His approach generally is to consider the various ways in which a given entity could exist, and then demonstrate that none of these is tenable because of the absurdities that would be entailed thereby, a form of reasoning often described in Western writings as reductio ad absurdum. In the case of something that is regarded to be the effect of a cause, he shows that the effect cannot be produced from itself (because an effect is the product of a cause), from something other than itself (because there must be a link between cause and effect), from something that is both the same as and different from itself (because the former two options are not possible), or from something that is neither the same as nor different from itself (because no such thing exists). This, in his view, is what is meant in the perfection of wisdom sutras when they state that all phenomena are "unproduced" (ANUTPĀDA). The purpose of such an analysis is to destroy misconceptions (VIKALPA) and encourage the abandonment of all views (DṚstI). Nāgārjuna defined emptiness in terms of the doctrine of PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA, or "dependent origination," understood in its more generic sense as the fact that things are not self-arisen, but are produced in dependence on causes and conditions. This definition allows Nāgārjuna to avoid the claim of nihilism, which he addresses directly in his writings and which his followers would confront over the centuries. Nāgārjuna employs the doctrine of the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA), explaining that everything that exists is ultimately empty of any intrinsic nature but does exist conventionally. The conventional is the necessary means for understanding the ultimate, and the ultimate makes the conventional possible. As Nāgārjuna wrote, "For whom emptiness is possible, everything is possible."
navadharma. In Sanskrit, the "nine dharmas," also known as the NAVAGRANTHA ("nine books"); nine MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAs that are the object of particular devotion in the Newar Buddhist tradition of Nepal. The notion of a collection of nine books seems to have originated in the Newar community, although the nine sutras are all of Indian origin. The nine are the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, LALITAVISTARA, LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA, GAndAVYuHA, Tathāgataguhyasutra, SAMĀDHIRĀJASuTRA, and DAsABHuMIKASuTRA. Of these nine, the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā is granted the highest esteem, having its own cult and its own deity, the goddess PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ. These texts serve an important ritual function in Newar Buddhism, where they are said to represent the entire Mahāyāna corpus of SuTRA, sĀSTRA, and TANTRA. These texts are often recited during the religious services of monasteries, and a recitation of all nine texts is considered to be particularly auspicious. Some Newar Buddhist rituals (vrata) include offerings to the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), in which a priest will make a MAndALA for the GURU, the Buddha, the DHARMA, and the SAMGHA. These sutras of the nine dharmas are used in the creation of the dharmamandala, a powerful ritual symbol in Newar Buddhism. In this MAndALA, the center space is occupied by the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā. The fact that there are nine of these texts may derive from the need to have nine elements in the mandala. Different renditions of the dharmamandala indicate that the texts included in the navadharma may have changed over time; this particular set of nine sutras seems to date from the fifteenth century. Although these texts are held in particularly high regard, they are not the only authoritative texts in Newar Buddhism.
neyārtha. (P. neyyattha; T. drang don; C. buliaoyi; J. furyogi; K. puryoŭi 不了義). In Sanskrit, "provisional," "conventional"; one of the two categories (along with NĪTĀRTHA, "definitive," "absolute") into which the teachings of the SuTRAs may be classified. The terms neyārtha and nītārtha are among several sets of categories employed in the interpretation of scriptures, providing a means of accounting for statements that appear to contradict what is regarded as the Buddha's final position on a topic. The Indian schools differ on what constitutes a provisional statement, with some holding that any statement by the Buddha that cannot be accepted literally is provisional, with others holding instead that any statement that does not describe the final nature of reality is provisional. See also SATYADVAYA; ABHISAMDHI; ABHIPRĀYA.
nidhāna. (T. gter; C. fuzang; J. fukuzo/bukuzo; K. pokchang 伏藏/腹藏). In Sanskrit, "depository" or "hidden container"; ritual container placed in the interior of a Buddhist sculpture or hung above a painting in order to ritually vivify the image or painting. Following the methods described in the "Instructions on Image Making and Iconometry" (S. Sambaddhabhāsitapratimālaksanavivaranī; T. Rdzogs pa'i sangs rgyas kyis gzungs pa'i sku gzugs kyi mtshan nyid kyi rnam 'grel; C. Zaoxiang liangdu jing; J. Zozo ryodo kyo; K. Chosang nyangdo kyong), the insertion of the container was, along with the eye-opening ceremony (KAIYAN; NETRAPRATIstHĀPANA), an important part of the ritual of image consecration, which served as an agency for transforming the inert statue or painting into an object of worship. The contents of these intestinal depositories were often similar to those found in sARĪRA containers: viz., relic fragments, copies of DHĀRAnĪ and SuTRAs, and consecration certificates. But they also could be objects that would serve as a symbolic vivifying and spiritual force, e.g., viscera and entrails made from cloth, as well as five types of grain and five-colored threads. Although it is unknown when the tradition of sewing intestines to deposit in images began, the earliest extant East Asian example is a container found in the UDĀYANA image of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha at Seiryoji in Kyoto, which is dated to 988 CE.
nikāya. (T. sde; C. bu; J. bu; K. pu 部). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. "group" or "collection," a term with two important denotations: (1) Any of the various collections of SuTRAs, such as in the Pāli canon, e.g., the "Long Collection" (DĪGHANIKĀYA), "Middle-Length Collection" (MAJJHIMANIKĀYA), etc. The Sanskrit collections of sutras tend be called instead ĀGAMA. Nikāya is also used as a general term for the collection or "canon." (2) Any of the various groups (in the sense of schools or sects) of "mainstream" (i.e., non-Mahāyāna) Indian Buddhism. Traditional lists enumerate eighteen such groups, although there were in fact more; the names of thirty-four schools have been identified in texts and inscriptions. These groups, divided largely according to which VINAYA they followed, are sometimes referred to collectively as Nikāya Buddhism, a term that more specifically refers to monastic Buddhism after the split that occurred between the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA and STHAVIRA schools. Nikāya Buddhism is also sometimes used as a substitute for the pejorative term HĪNAYĀNA, although it appears that in India the term hīnayāna was sometimes used to refer collectively to all Nikāya schools and sometimes to refer to a specific school, such as the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA. See also MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS.
nītārtha. (P. nītattha; T. nges don; C. liaoyi; J. ryogi; K. yoŭi 了義). In Sanskrit, "definitive," one of the two categories into which statements in the sutras may be classified, along with NEYĀRTHA, or "provisional." Nītārtha and neyārtha are among a number of categories employed in the interpretation of scripture, and provide a means of accounting for statements by the Buddha that appear to contradict the Buddha's presumed final position on a topic. The Indian schools differ on what constitutes a definitive statement. Some hold that any statement that can be accepted literally is definitive. Thus, for those MAHĀYĀNA schools that hold that all beings will eventually achieve buddhahood, the statement in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") that there is only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) would be regarded as a definitive teaching. Based on a statement in the AKsAYAMATINIRDEsASuTRA, others hold that only those statements that describe the ultimate nature of reality are definitive, playing on the literal sense of nītārtha as "definite object" or "definite meaning." Thus, a statement that wealth is the result of charity (DĀNA), while literally true, would be deemed provisional because it does not make reference to the final nature or emptiness (suNYATĀ) of wealth or the act of giving.
nīvarana. [alt. nivarana] (T. sgrib pa; C. gai; J. gai; K. kae 蓋). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "hindrance" or "obstruction," referring specifically to five hindrances to the attainment of the first meditative absorption of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA). Each of these five hindrances specifically obstructs one of the five constituents of absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA) and must therefore be at least temporarily allayed in order for absorption (DHYĀNA) to occur. The five are: (1) "sensual desire" (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders one-pointedness of mind (EKĀGRATĀ); (2) "malice" or "ill will" (VYĀPĀDA), hindering physical rapture (PRĪTI); (3) "sloth and torpor" (STYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering the initial application of thought (VITARKA); (4) "restlessness and worry" (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering mental ease (SUKHA); and (5) "skeptical doubt" (VICIKITSĀ), hindering sustained consideration (VICĀRA). Buddhist sutras and meditation manuals, such as the VISUDDHIMAGGA, provide extensive discussion of various antidotes or counteragents (PRATIPAKsA, see also KAMMAttHĀNA) to these hindrances, such as the contemplation on the decomposition of a corpse (AsUBHABHĀVANĀ) to counter sensual desire; the meditation on loving-kindness (MAITRĪ) to counter malice; the recollection of death to counter sloth and torpor; quietude of mind to counter restlessness and worry; and studying the scriptures to counter skeptical doubt. In addition, the five faculties or dominants (INDRIYA) are also specifically designed to allay the five hindrances: faith (sRADDHĀ) counters malice; effort (VĪRYA) counters sloth and torpor; mindfulness (SMṚTI) counters sensual desire; concentration (SAMĀDHI) counters restlessness and worry; and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) counters skeptical doubt. A similar correlation is made between the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA) and the hindrances. These five hindrances are permanently eliminated at various stages of the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGA): worry (kaukṛtya) and skeptical doubt are permanently overcome at the point of becoming a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA); sensual desire and malice on becoming a nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN); and sloth and torpor and restlessness (auddhatya) on becoming a worthy one (ARHAT).
Nyaya: (Skr.) One of the great systems of Indian philosophy (q.v.) going back to the Nyaya-sutras of Gotama (q.v.) and dealing with the logical approach to reality in a science of reasoning and epistemology designed to accomplish the practical aims of all Indian speculation. Having established perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), and testimony (sabdaq as sources of valid knowledge or truth, a doctrine of logical realism is arrived at in which the objective world is conceived independent of thought and mind. -- K.F.L.
Ouyi Zhixu. (J. Goyaku/Guyaku Chigyoku; K. Uik Chiuk 益智旭) (1599-1655). One of the four eminent monks (si da gaoseng) of the late-Ming dynasty, along with YUNQI ZHUHONG (1535-1615), HANSHAN DEQING (1546-1623), and DAGUAN ZHENKE (1543-1604); renowned for his mastery of a wide swath of Confucian and Buddhist teachings, particularly those associated with the TIANTAI, PURE LAND, and CHAN traditions. In his youth, he studied Confucianism and despised Buddhism, even writing anti-Buddhist tracts. He had a change of heart at the age of seventeen, after reading some of Zhuhong's writings, and burned his previous screeds. According to his autobiography, Zhixu had his first "great awakening" at the age of nineteen while reading the line in the Lunyu ("Confucian Analects") that "the whole world will submit to benevolence" if one restrains oneself and returns to ritual. After his father's death that same year, he fully committed himself to Buddhism, reading sutras and performing recollection of the Buddha's name (NIANFO) until he finally was ordained under the guidance of Xueling (d.u.), a disciple of Hanshan Deqing, at the age of twenty-four. At that time, he began to read extensively in YOGĀCĀRA materials and had another great awakening through Chan meditation, in which he experienced body, mind, and the outer world suddenly disappearing. He next turned his attention to the bodhisattva precepts and the study of vinaya. Following his mother's death when he was twenty-seven, Zhixu rededicated himself to Chan meditation, but after a serious illness he turned to pure land teachings. In his early thirties, he devoted himself to the study of Tiantai materials, through which he attempted to integrate his previous research in Buddhism and began to write commentaries and treaties on Buddhist scriptures and on such Confucian classics as the Zhouyi ("Book of Changes"). In the late-sixteenth century, Jesuit missionaries such as Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) and Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) had reintroduced Christianity to China and sought "to complement Confucianism and to replace Buddhism." This emerging religious challenge led Zhixu to publish his Bixie ji ("Collected Essays Refuting Heterodoxy") as a critique of the teachings of Christianity, raising specifically the issue of theodicy (i.e., why a benevolent and omnipotent god would allow evil to appear in the world); Zhixu advocates instead that good and evil come from human beings and are developed and overcome respectively through personal cultivation. After another illness at the age of fifty-six, his later years were focused mostly on pure land teachings and practice. In distinction to Japanese pure land teachers, such as HoNEN (1133-1212) and SHINRAN (1173-1262), who emphasized exclusively Amitābha's "other-power" (C. tali; J. TARIKI), Zhixu, like most other Chinese pure land teachers, advocated the symbiosis between the other-power of Amitābha and the "self-power" (C. jiri; J. JIRIKI) of the practitioner. This perspective is evident in his equal emphasis on the three trainings in meditation (Chan), doctrine (jiao), and precepts (lü) (cf. TRIsIKsĀ). Ouyi's oeuvre numbers some sixty-two works in 230 rolls, including treatises and commentaries on works ranging from Tiantai, to Chan, to Yogācāra, to pure land. His pure land writings have been especially influential, and his Amituojing yaojie ("Essential Explanations" on the AMITĀBHASuTRA) and Jingtu shiyao ("Ten Essentials on the Pure Land") are regarded as integral to the modern Chinese Pure Land tradition.
PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa; C. Mohe bore boluomi jing; J. Maka hannya haramitsukyo; K. Maha panya paramil kyong 摩訶般若波羅蜜經). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines," one of the three most important of the "large" PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, together with the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in One-Hundred Thousand Lines") and the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines"). The early prajNāpāramitā sutras were named based upon their length. The scholarly consensus is that the earliest of the sutras of this genre was the version in eight thousand lines. Although it is not strictly the case that the two larger sutras are simply prolix expansions of the shorter sutra, there is considerable repetition among the texts, with the larger sutras increasing the number of categories to which various qualifications, including negations, were made. The prajNāpāramitā sutras are said to have an explicit meaning and a hidden meaning: the former is the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), the latter is the structure of the bodhisattva's path (MĀRGA) to this enlightenment. This structure is set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA attributed to MAITREYANĀTHA, one of the most widely commented upon of all Mahāyāna sĀSTRAs in India. Although the text does not explicitly say so, the AbhisamayālaMkāra is said to derive its categories from the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikā. Ārya VIMUKTISENA, Bhadanta Vimuktisena, and HARIBHADRA each wrote commentaries on the AbhisamayālaMkāra, in which they explicitly connect it with the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikā. The DAZHIDU LUN is also considered a commentary on this sutra.
Panini (Sanskrit) Pāṇini The most eminent of all Sanskrit grammarians of whatever age, the author of the Ashtadhyayi, Paniniya, and several other works. Panini was considered a rishi who received his inspiration from the god Siva. Orientalists are not certain in what epoch he lived, some guessing 600 BC, others about 300 AD; he is said to have been born in Salatura in Gandhara, an Indian district west of the Indus. His grammar is composed in the form of 3,996 slokas or sutras arranged in eight chapters, the aphorisms extremely brief, and long study is often required in order to ascertain Panini’s meanings. Grammar with him was a science studied for its own sake, and investigated with the most minute criticism.
paramānu. (T. rdul phra rab; C. jiwei; J. gokumi; K. kŭngmi 極微). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "particle" or "atom"; the smallest unit of matter. Buddhist schools take a variety of positions on the ontological status of such atoms, especially as to whether or not they were divisible or indivisible. Both the SAUTRĀNTIKA and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA schools of mainstream Buddhism, for example, held that each paramānu was an indivisible unit of matter, but differed on the exact nature of the objects formed through the coalescence of these particles. By contrast, the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy rejected any such notion of particles, since it did not accept that there was anything in the universe that possessed independent existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA), and thus the notion of such atoms was simply a convenient fiction. Numerous Mahāyāna SuTRAs, notably the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, extol the ability of a buddha to place entire world systems within a single particle without changing either's size. These Buddhist debates have parallels within both the JAINA and Hindu traditions. Modern Buddhists have also sought to suggest that apparent parallels between the notion of paramānu and modern atomic theory are evidence that Buddhism is consistent with science.
paramārthaviniscayadharmacakra. (T. don dam rnam par nges pa'i chos 'khor). In Sanskrit, "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate," the third of three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA describes three turnings of the wheel of the dharma by the Buddha: in the first, he taught the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni); in the second, he taught emptiness (suNYATĀ); and in the third, he taught what was "well differentiated" (suvibhakta). The third of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma was delivered in VAIsĀLĪ. The sutra identifies it as a teaching for BODHISATTVAs and classifies it as definitive (NĪTĀRTHA); this third turning of the wheel is the teaching of the SaMdhinirmocanasutra itself. According to the commentators, this third wheel accounts for the Buddha's provisional (NEYĀRTHA) statements in the first wheel of the dharma (see CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA), namely, that the four noble truths exist; and his apparently contradictory statement in his second wheel of the dharma in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs (perfection of wisdom sutras) (see ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA) that all dharmas are "unproduced, unceased, primordially peaceful, and naturally passed beyond sorrow." Here, in this third and definitive teaching, also called "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation" (*SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA), he says that dharmas have three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), and each of those in its own way lacks an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The three natures are the PARIKALPITA or imaginary nature of dharmas, the PARATANTRA or dependently arisen nature of dharmas, and the PARINIsPANNA or consummate nature of dharmas. In Tibet, there was a debate that extended over centuries as to whether the paramārthaviniscayadharmacakra, this third turning of the wheel, according to the SaMdhinirmocanasutra, was provisional or definitive. See RANG STONG GZHAN STONG.
pāramitāyāna. (T. phar phyin theg pa). In Sanskrit, "perfection vehicle." In scholastic tantric literature, the MAHĀYĀNA is sometimes divided into the pāramitāyāna and the VAJRAYĀNA, with the former referring to the path of the BODHISATTVA, set forth in Mahāyāna sutras and focused on the practice of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). The vajrayāna is represented as a faster and more effective route, set forth in the tantras, to the same goal of buddhahood. In this way, the Mahāyāna is represented as having both exoteric and esoteric forms. The pāramitāyāna is also called the pāramitānaya, or "perfection mode."
parisuddha. (T. yongs su dag pa; C. qingjing; J. shojo; K. ch'ongjong 清淨). In Sanskrit, "purified" or "cleansed"; a state that is free from afflictions or defilements (KLEsA). In the Buddhist tradition, the term can be applied in a number of ways. The body, speech, and mind of a buddha are described as parisuddha, as are many of the SuTRAs that contain his teaching. The buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA) or PURE LANDs of AMITĀBHA and AKsOBHYA are also described as parisuddha. In doctrinal developments such as those associated with the TATHĀGATAGARBHA tradition, parisuddha is used to characterize the inherent, inviolable nature that underlies the reality of all beings. This term is also used to describe the conduct of those who adhere to the teachings, as in the formulation parisuddhakāyasamācāra, or "purity in bodily conduct." Parisuddha is often coupled with the related term paryavadāta, also meaning "clean" or "pure"; in compound, they are often translated as "bright (or white) and pure."
pascimakāla. (T. phyi ma'i dus; C. moshi; J. masse; K. malse 末世). In Sanskrit, lit. "latter time," a term that occurs especially in the MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAs to describe the time after the Buddha's passage into PARINIRVĀnA. This term does not necessarily connote a final period of the disappearance of the Buddha's dharma, as does the term SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA, but more specifically the period after the Buddha's passing. Since the Mahāyāna sutras were composed long after the Buddha passed away, the author of the sutra will sometimes have the Buddha recommend it in "the latter time" is to suggest the Buddha's approval of the text. In China, the translation of this term, moshi, seems to have served as the basis for the Chinese neologism MOFA, a more common term that in East Asia came to evoke the final period of the dharma.
patanjali. ::: a yogi of ancient India; the author of the Yoga Sutras
Patanjali: The author of the Yogasutras (q.v.), not identical with the famous Hindu grammarian by the same name -- K.F.L.
perfection of wisdom sutras. See PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ.
perfection of wisdom sutras
Phala: Fruit; effect; one of the Shadlingas; the last of the chapters in the Brahma Sutras.
Phap Loa. (法螺) (1284-1330). In Vietnamese, "Dharma Conch"; the second patriarch of the TRÚC LM school of Vietnamese Buddhism. His personal name was Đồng Kien Cương and was a native of Nam Sach (in northern Vietnam). He met TRẦN NHN TÔNG for the first time in 1304 and became his disciple. He received full ordination from Tràn Nhan Tông in 1305 and was given the dharma name Phap Loa. In 1308, he was officially recognized as the second patriarch of the Trúc Lam School. Buddhism prospered under his leadership. In support of Tràn Nhan Tông's goal of a unified SAMGHA, Phap Loa established in 1313 a national monastic hierarchy, according to which all monks had to register and were under his jurisdiction. Every three years, he would organize a collective ordination ceremony. He also oversaw the construction of many monasteries. By 1314, some thirty-three monasteries had been built, several with large libraries. He was also a tireless teacher, who gave frequent lectures on Chan texts and Buddhist scriptures. This was a period when many aristocrats either entered the monastic order or received precepts as lay practitioners and donated vast tracts of land to Buddhist temples. Among his disciples were the kings Tràn Anh Tông and Tràn Minh Tông. In 1311, he oversaw the printing of the complete canon and other Buddhist manuals. He also composed several works, most now lost, including commentaries on several MAHĀYĀNA sutras.
Pilindavatsa. (P. Pilindavaccha; T. Pi lin da ba tsa; C. Bilingqie Pocuo; J. Hitsuryogabasha; K. P'illŭngga Pach'a 畢陵伽婆蹉). An eminent ARHAT declared by the Buddha foremost among monk disciples who are beloved of the gods. According to the Pāli account, he was born to a brāhmana family named Vaccha (S. Vatsa) in the city of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ); Pilinda was his personal name. Pilinda became a hermit and mastered the magical science called cula (or "lesser") gandhāravijjā, which allowed him to make himself invisible and walk through walls. However, in the presence of the Buddha the science was ineffective. Believing the Buddha to have canceled out his power through a mastery of mahā (or "greater") gandhāravijjā (the ability to read the minds of others and fly through the air), he entered the order to learn the Buddha's science. The Buddha instructed him in meditation, by means of which Pilinda became an arhat. In a previous existence, Pilinda had been a righteous ruler who had led many of his subjects to a heavenly rebirth. As a consequence, many of his former subjects, now divinities (DEVA), waited upon Pilinda morning and evening in gratitude. It is for this reason that he earned distinction as the disciple most beloved of the gods. Pilinda had the unfortunate habit of addressing everyone he met with the derogatory epithet of vasala, meaning outcaste. The Buddha explained that this was because he had been born an outcaste for a hundred lives. Once Pilinda inquired of a passerby carrying a bowl of peppers, "What is in the bowl, vasala?" Insulted, the passerby said, "rat dung," whereupon the peppers turned to rat dung. The passerby begged Pilinda to return the contents to their original state, which he did using his powers. Pilinda used his extraordinary powers on several other occasions. Once, he created a crown of gold for an impoverished girl so that her family could partake of a feast day; on another occasion he rescued two girls who had been kidnapped by robbers and returned them to their family. The involvement with females prompted some of his fellow monks to blame him for impropriety, but the Buddha ruled that no misdeed had been committed. He figures in several MAHĀYĀNA sutras, being mentioned as a member of the audience of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and appearing in the *suRAMGAMASuTRA.
pitaka. (T. sde snod; C. zang; J. zo; K. chang 藏). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "basket" (in a figurative sense), or canonical "collection," viz. a collection of scriptures organized by category. (The Chinese translates pitaka as "repository.") The use of the term pitaka to refer to such collections of scriptures may derive from the custom of collecting in baskets the individual bark slips on which the pages of the scriptures were written. The VINAYA, SuTRA, and ABHIDHARMA (alt. sāstra) pitakas together constitute the TRIPItAKA (P. tipitaka), the "three baskets" of the Buddhist canon, a term that is employed in both the mainstream and MAHĀYĀNA schools. The various schools of Indian Buddhism differ, however, on precisely which texts are to be included in these collections. The abhidharma was likely added later, since early texts refer only to monks who are masters of the SuTRAPItAKA and the VINAYAPItAKA. A number of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS seem also to have had a bodhisattvapitaka, which included texts related to the past lives of the BODHISATTVA, such as the JĀTAKA. This term BODHISATTVAPItAKA was adopted in the MAHĀYĀNA, and it was used as the title of a single text, a specific set of Mahāyāna sutras, as well as to refer to the Mahāyāna sutras collectively. With the rise of tantric Buddhism, the term vidyādharapitaka, the pitaka of the "keepers of knowledge" (VIDYĀDHARA), came to be used to refer collectively to the Buddhist TANTRAs. See also DAZANGJING.
Pitāputrasamāgamasutra. (T. Yab dang sras mjal ba'i mdo; C. Pusa jianshi jing/Fuzi heji jing; J. Bosatsu kenjitsukyo/Fushi gojukyo; K. Posal kyonsil kyong/Puja hapchip kyong 菩薩見實經/父子合集經). In Sanskrit, "Sutra on the Meeting of Father and Son," a MAHĀYĀNA scripture found in the RATNAKutASuTRA, often cited in MADHYAMAKA texts, especially for its expositions of emptiness (suNYATĀ) and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). It is quoted in such famous works as NĀGĀRJUNA's SuTRASAMUCCAYA and sĀNTIDEVA's sIKsĀSAMUCCAYA. The Pitāputrasamāgamasutra was translated into Chinese by Rajendrayasas in 568 as the Pusa jianshi jing and was included in the massive Dabaoji jing (Ratnakutasutra) compilation. It was subsequently retranslated in the eleventh century by Richeng and others as the Fuzi heji jing.
PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i snying po'i mdo; C. Bore boluomiduo xin jing; J. Hannya haramitta shingyo; K. Panya paramilta sim kyong 般若波羅蜜多心經). In English, the "Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra" (or, in other interpretations, the "DHĀRAnĪ-Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom"); a work known in English simply as the "Heart Sutra"; one of only a handful of Buddhist SuTRAs (including the "Lotus Sutra" and the "Diamond Sutra") to be widely known by an English title. The "Heart Sutra" is perhaps the most famous, and certainly the most widely recited, of all Buddhist sutras across all Mahāyāna traditions. It is also one of the most commented upon, eliciting more Indian commentaries than any Mahāyāna sutra (eight), including works by such luminaries as KAMALAsĪLA, VIMALAMITRA, and ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA, as well as such important East Asian figures as FAZANG, KuKAI, and HAKUIN EKAKU. As its title suggests, the scripture purports to be the quintessence or heart (hṛdaya) of the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), in its denotations as both supreme wisdom and the eponymous genre of scriptures. The sutra exists in long and short versions-with the longer version better known in India and the short version better known in East Asia-but even the long version is remarkably brief, requiring only a single page in translation. The short version, which is probably the earlier of the two recensions, is best known through its Chinese translation by XUANZANG made c. 649 CE. There has been speculation that the Chinese version may be a redaction of sections of the Chinese recension of the MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA (also translated by Xuanzang) as a mnemonic encoding (dhāranī) of the massive perfection of wisdom literature, which was then subsequently translated back into Sanskrit, perhaps by Xuanzang himself. Although there is as yet no scholarly consensus on the provenance of the text, if this argument is correct, this would make the "Heart Sutra" by far the most influential of all indigenous Chinese scriptures (see APOCRYPHA). The long version of the text, set on Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA) outside RĀJAGṚHA, begins with the Buddha entering SAMĀDHI. At that point, the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA (who rarely appears as an interlocutor in the prajNāpāramitā sutras) contemplates the perfection of wisdom and sees that the five aggregates (SKANDHA) are empty of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The monk sĀRIPUTRA, considered the wisest of the Buddha's sRĀVAKA disciples, is inspired by the Buddha to ask Avalokitesvara how one should train in the perfection of wisdom. Avalokitesvara's answer constitutes the remainder of the sutra (apart from a brief epilogue in the longer version of the text). That answer, which consists essentially of a litany of negations of the major categories of Buddhist thought-including such seminal lists as the five aggregates (skandha), twelve sense-fields (ĀYATANA), twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS-contains two celebrated statements. The first, made in reference to the first of the five aggregates, is "form (RuPA) is emptiness (suNYATĀ); emptiness is form" (RuPAM suNYATĀ sUNYATAIVA RuPAM). This is one of the most widely quoted and commented upon statements in the entire corpus of Mahāyāna sutras and thus is not easily amenable to succinct explication. In brief, however, the line suggests that emptiness, as the nature of ultimate reality, is not located in some rarified realm, but rather is found in the ordinary objects of everyday experience. The other celebrated statement is the spell (MANTRA) that concludes Avalokitesvara's discourse-GATE GATE PĀRAGATE PĀRASAMGATE BODHI SVĀHĀ-which, unlike many mantras, is amenable to translation: "gone, gone, gone beyond, gone completely beyond, enlightenment, svāha." This mantra has also been widely commented upon. The presence of the mantra in the sutra has led to its classification as a TANTRA rather than a sutra in some Tibetan catalogues; it also forms the basis of Indian tantric SĀDHANAs. The brevity of the text has given it a talismanic quality, being recited on all manner of occasions (it is commonly used as an exorcistic text in Tibet) and inscribed on all manner of objects, including fans, teacups, and neckties in modern Japan.
prajNāpāramitā. (P. paNNāpāramī; T. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa; C. bore boluomiduo/zhidu; J. hannya haramitta/chido; K. panya paramilta/chido 般若波羅蜜多/智度). In Sanskrit, "perfection of wisdom" or "perfect wisdom"; a polysemous term, which appears in Pāli accounts of the Buddha's prior training as a BODHISATTVA (P. bodhisatta), but is widely used in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism. ¶ PrajNāpāramitā refers to a level of understanding beyond that of ordinary wisdom, especially referring to the the wisdom associated with, or required to achieve, buddhahood. The term receives a variety of interpretations, but it is often said to be the wisdom that does not conceive of an agent, an object, or an action as being ultimately real. The perfection of wisdom is also sometimes defined as the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ). ¶ As the wisdom associated with buddhahood, prajNāpāramitā is the sixth of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) that are practiced on the bodhisattva path. When the practice of the six perfections is aligned with the ten bodhisattva bhumis, the perfection of wisdom is practiced on the sixth BHuMI, called ABHIMUKHĪ. ¶ PrajNāpāramitā is also used to designate the genre of Mahāyāna sutras that sets forth the perfection of wisdom. These texts are considered to be among the earliest of the Mahāyāna sutras, with the first texts appearing sometime between the first century BCE and the first century CE. Here, the title "perfection of wisdom" may have a polemical meaning, claiming to possess a wisdom beyond that taught in the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. In addition to numerous descriptions of, and paeans to, emptiness, the perfection of wisdom sutras also extol the practice of the bodhisattva path as the superior form of Buddhist practice. Although emptiness is said to be the chief topic of the sutras, their "hidden meaning" is said to be the detailed structure of the bodhisattva path. A number of later commentaries, most notably the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, extracted terminology from these sutras in order to systematize the presentation of the bodhisattva path. There are numerous sutras with prajNāpāramitā in their titles, the earliest of which are designated simply by their length as measured in sLOKAs, a unit of metrical verse in traditional Sanskrit literature that is typically rendered in English as "stanza," "verse," or "line." Scholars speculate that there was a core text, which was then expanded. Hence, for example, the prajNāpāramitā sutra in eight thousand lines (AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) is often thought to be one of the earliest of the genre, later followed by twenty-five thousand lines (PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA), and one hundred thousand lines (sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), as well as compilations many times longer, such as XUANZANG's translation of the MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA. The texts known in English as the "Heart Sutra" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA) and the "Diamond Sutra" (VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) are both much shorter versions of these prajNāpāramitā sutras. ¶ Perhaps because the Sanskrit term prajNāpāramitā is in the feminine gender, PrajNāpāramitā also became the name of a goddess, referred to as the mother of all buddhas, who is the embodiment of the perfection of wisdom. ¶ In the traditional Tibetan monastic curriculum, prajNāpāramitā is one of the primary topics of study, based on the AbhisamayālaMkāra of MAITREYANĀTHA and its commentaries.
PrajNāpāramitāsarvatathāgatamātā-Ekāksarā. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa de bzhin gshegs pa thams cad kyi yum yi ge gcig ma). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in One Letter, the Mother of All Tathāgatas." The shortest of all the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, it reads in its entirety: "Thus have I heard. At one time, the Lord (BHAGAVAT) was dwelling on Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA) with a great assembly of 1,250 monks and many millions of bodhisattvas. At that time, the Lord said this to the venerable ĀNANDA: 'Ānanda, keep this perfection of wisdom in one letter for the benefit and happiness of sentient beings. It is thus: A.' So spoke the Lord and everyone-Ānanda, the monks, the BODHISATTVA-MAHĀSATTVAs-having understood and admired the perfection of wisdom, praised what the Lord had said." "The Perfection of Wisdom in One Letter" thus refers to the letter "a," the first letter of the Indic alphabet. See also A; AJIKAN.
Prakrti: (Skr.) Primary matter or substance, nature, with purusa (q.v.) one of the two eternal bases of the world according to the Sankhya and the Yogasutras. It is the unconscious yet subtle cause of all material phenomena having three gunas (q.v.), sativa, rajas, tamas. Modifications of this view may be met throughout Indian philosophy. -- K.F.L.
prāpti. (T. 'thob pa; C. de; J. toku; K. tŭk 得). In Sanskrit, "possession," "acquisition"; the first of the fourteen "conditioned forces dissociated from thought" (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA) listed in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA-VAIBHĀsIKA ABHIDHARMA and in the YOGĀCĀRA system. The function of prāpti is to serve as a kind of glue that causes the various independent constituents of existence (DHARMA) to adhere in seemingly permanent constructs. The leap the Sarvāstivāda school made was to assert that this factor of "possession" was a real dharma (DRAVYADHARMA), in distinction to other schools, which asserted that the notion of possession was simply an imputed designation (PRAJNAPTI). Prāpti is the conditioned force that attaches a specific affliction, action, or dharma to the mental continuum (SAMTĀNA) of the individual, thus helping to maintain the semblance of the continuity of the person. Prāpti also receives and retains the effects of positive and negative volitional actions (KARMAN) and thus ensures karmic continuity. This same notion of prāpti is also deployed to clarify how the afflictions (KLEsA) can be eradicated in a cognition of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni): viz., that cognition brings to an end the "possession" of the afflictions, thus ensuring that they may never arise again. This factor is the opposite of the related dissociated force of "dispossession" (APRĀPTI). The PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras vehemently rejected any such notion of "possession," even of NIRVĀnA itself, which they claimed could neither be attained nor possessed.
Prasannapadā. (T. Tshig gsal). In Sanskrit, "Clear Words," the commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ by the seventh-century Indian master CANDRAKĪRTI; its full title is Mulamadhyamakavṛtti-Prasannapadā. Among Candrakīrti's major works, it is regarded as second in importance only to his independent treatise, the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA, which was composed earlier. Apart from its importance as a commentary on Nāgārjuna's text, Candrakīrti's work is also important as the locus classicus for the division of Madhyamaka into the *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA. Candrakīrti's was the third in an influential series of commentaries. The first was that of BUDDHAPĀLITA. The second was the PRAJNĀPRADĪPA of BHĀVAVIVEKA, who criticized Buddhapālita's commentary on the first chapter of Nāgārjuna's text, specifically the section in which Buddhapālita refutes the SāMkhya position that an effect is produced from a cause that is the same nature as itself. In the Prasannapadā, Candrakīrti defended Buddhapālita and attacked Bhāvaviveka. It is based largely on these exchanges that later Tibetan scholars came to designate Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti as *Prāsangikas and Bhāvaviveka as a *Svātantrika. Candrakīrti's commentary is also valued by scholars for its many citations from Mahāyāna sutras. The Prasannapadā has attracted the attention of modern scholars, in part because, unlike the commentaries of Buddhapālita and Bhāvaviveka, for example, it has been preserved in Sanskrit.
Prasthanatraya (Sanskrit) Prasthānatraya [from prasthāna course, system + traya threefold] A collection composed of the Bhagavad-Gita, ten principal Upanishads, and the Brahmasutras, an authority upon which certain schools of ancient philosophy relied.
Prasthanatraya: The three authoritative landmarks in spiritual literature, viz., the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, on which the entire Vedanta philosophy is based.
pratyekabuddhayāna. (T. rang rgyal gyi theg pa; C. yuanjue sheng; J. engakujo; K. yon'gak sŭng 覺乘). In Sanskrit, "pratyekabuddha vehicle"; one of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA), along with the sRĀVAKAYĀNA and the BODHISATTAYĀNA. MAHĀYĀNA sutras and treatises classify the pratyekabuddhayāna as a form of the HĪNAYĀNA. Like the srāvakayāna, the path of the PRATYEKABUDDHA culminates in achieving the enlightenment of an ARHAT, although according to some sources the path of the pratyekabuddha takes longer because he must master that path on his own, without instruction from a buddha in his final lifetime. In the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, pratyekabuddhas are said to eliminate the misconception of objects (grāhyavikalpa), but to be unable to eliminate the misconception of a subject (grāhakavikalpa); see GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA.
PratyutpannabuddhasaMmukhāvasthitasamādhisutra. (T. Da ltar gyi sangs rgyas mngon sum du bzhugs pa'i ting nge 'dzin gyi mdo; C. Banzhou sanmei jing; J. Hanju zanmaikyo; K. Panju sammae kyong 般舟三昧經). In Sanskrit, "Sutra on the SAMĀDHI for Encountering Face-to-Face the Buddhas of the Present," often known by its abbreviated title Pratyutpannasamādhisutra; one of the earliest MAHĀYĀNA SuTRAs, and one of the very first Mahāyāna sutras to be translated into Chinese, by the Indo-Scythian monk LOKAKsEMA in 179 CE. (There are also three other Chinese translations, as well as Tibetan and Mongolian recensions.) The sutra sets forth a meditation and visualization practice (which seems related to the traditional "recollection of the Buddha," or BUDDHĀNUSMṚTI), whereby one is able to come directly into the presence of the buddhas of the present in various world systems. An adept was to sit in meditation for up to seven days, facing the direction of his or her preferred buddha and visualizing that buddha's thirty-two major marks (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA) and his eighty minor characteristics (ANUVYANJANA) until he had a vision of that buddha in his world system. Through this visualization, one could receive the teachings of one's preferred buddha, transmit those teachings to others, and then be reborn in that buddha's realm (BUDDHAKsETRA). Because AMITĀBHA is used as an example of how to apply this technique, this sutra is retrospectively associated in East Asia with PURE LAND traditions. The sutra also contains expositions of the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), in which the insubstantiality of meditative experiences can be extended to all phenomena, a perspective that seems to adumbrate later YOGĀCĀRA views on the projection of external phenomena by the mind. Like many other early Mahāyāna sutras, the text also extols both lay and monastic practice, the worship of STuPAs, the making of buddha images, and the veneration of texts. Because the sutra describes a technique for hearing (viz. learning) new Buddhist teachings even after sĀKYAMUNI Buddha has passed into PARINIRVĀnA, this technique might have been employed to authenticate the production of new Mahāyāna sutras.
Purana-Kāsyapa. (P. Purana-Kassapa; T. 'Od srung rdzogs byed; C. Fulanna Jiashe; J. Furannakasho; K. Puranna Kasop 富蘭那迦葉). One of the so-called "six heterodox teachers" (TĪRTHIKA) often mentioned in Buddhist sutras and criticized by the Buddha. (The other five are MASKARIN GOsĀLĪPUTRA, AJITA KEsAKAMBHALA, KAKUDA KĀTYĀYANA, SANJAYA VAIRĀtĪPUTRA, and NIRGRANTHA JNĀTĪPUTRA.) Purana-Kāsyapa is said to have propounded the view of akiriyavāda, literally "nonaction," a kind of antinomianism that denied the law of moral cause and effect (KARMAN). Purana claimed that, since there was no ultimate distinction between good and evil because actions did not have any effects, there was hence no harm in killing and stealing and no benefit in giving gifts and speaking truthfully. He also appears in accounts of the miracles the Buddha's performed at sRĀVASTĪ (i.e., the YAMAKAPRĀTIHĀRYA, or "dual miracle," and the MAHĀPRĀTIHĀRYA or "great miracle") as one of the heterodox teachers who challenges the Buddha to a miracle contest. After the Buddha defeats the tīrthikas, Purana-Kāsyapa withdraws in despair and is said to have drowned himself in Lake Anavatapta.
pure land. (C. jingtu; J. jodo; K. chongt'o 浄土). An English term with no direct equivalent in Sanskrit that is used to translate the Chinese JINGTU (more literally, "purified ground"); the Chinese term may be related to the term PARIsUDDHABUDDHAKsETRA (although this latter term does not appear in the SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the text most closely aligned with pure land thought). The term "pure land" has several denotations in English, which have led to some confusion in its use. These include (1) a buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) purified of transgressions and suffering by a buddha and thus deemed an auspicious place in which to take rebirth; (2) the specific (and most famous) of these purified fields, that of the buddha AMITĀBHA, named SUKHĀVATĪ; (3) the tradition of texts and practices in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism dedicated to the description of a number of buddha-fields, including that of Amitābha, and the practices to ensure rebirth there; (4) a tradition of texts and practice in East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, associated specifically with the goal of rebirth in the purified buddha-field of Amitābha; (5) the JoDOSHu and JoDO SHINSHu schools of Japanese Buddhism, deriving from the teachings of HoNEN and SHINRAN, which set forth a "single practice" for rebirth in sukhāvatī. It is important to note that, although the Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra (and other sutras describing other buddha-fields) originated in India, there was no "pure land school" in Indian Buddhism; rebirth in a buddha-field, and especially that of sukhāvatī, was one of the many generalized goals of Mahāyāna practice. Although there was an extensive tradition in China of scriptural exegesis of the major pure land sutras, this was not enough in itself to constitute a self-consciously "pure land school"; indeed, techniques for rebirth in sukhāvatī became popular in many strands of Chinese Buddhism (see NIANFO), especially in light of theories of the disappearance of the dharma (see MOFA). Finally, it is important to note that the goal of rebirth in sukhāvatī was an important practice in Japan prior to the advent of Honen, and remained so in schools other than Jodoshu and Jodo Shinshu.
Purva-mimansa (Sanskrit) Pūrva-mīmāṃsā [from pūrva prior + mīmāṃsā profound or striving thought or meditation from the verbal root man to think] Inquiry into the first portion of the Veda — the matra portion; the fifth of the six Darsanas or schools of Hindu philosophy. The school of philosophy in our days considered to be chiefly concerned with the correct interpretation of the Vedic texts; hence sometimes called the First Vedantic School. Jaimini is reputed to be its founder, as well as the author of the Mimansa-darsana, the sutras or aphorisms which constitute its chief doctrinal authority. This school is also sometimes termed Karma-mimansa because of the doctrine advocated that by its teaching one can be more or less freed from the making of new karma.
purvanivāsānusmṛti. (P. pubbenivāsānussati; T. sngon gyi gnas rjes su dran pa; C. suzhu suinian; J. shukujuzuinen; K. sukchu sunyom 宿住隨念). In Sanskrit, lit. "recollection of former abodes," viz., "memory of past lives."; a cardinal teaching of all schools of Buddhism and an element of meditative attainment in many Buddhist traditions. The term occurs most commonly as a component of one or another list, such as the superknowledges (ABHIJNĀ), knowledges (VIDYĀ), or powers (BALA). Although lists of five, six, and seven abhijNā appear in Buddhist literature, the most common listing is of six, with the memory of past lives being fourth. The same memory of former abodes is sometimes called the first of the three knowledges (TRIVIDYĀ) that are realized at the point of enlightenment, the other two being the divine eye (DIVYACAKsUS) and the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (ĀSRAVAKsAYA). In addition, the memory of former abodes occurs as the eighth of the ten powers (bala) of the TATHĀGATA. ¶ In situating the memory of former abodes within broader descriptions of the practice of the path (MĀRGA), one general account describes the path of an average monk, while in another the Buddha relates his own experience. In the SĀMANNAPHALASUTTA of the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA, for example, the Buddha describes the benefits of the life of mendicancy, providing a chronological catalogue of the attainments of one who follows the path, starting from the occasion of first hearing the dharma and proceeding to the attainment of NIRVĀnA. Among those attainments are the six abhiNNā/abhijNā, including memory of past lives and culminating with the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. Yet another variety of the arhat path is described in great detail in the CulAHATTHIPADOPAMASUTTA of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA. This account differs from that in the Dīgha with respect to the superknowledges, in that here, having attained the fourth meditative absorption (P. jhāna, S. DHYĀNA), the monk achieves only the last three of the abhiNNā: the knowledge of former abodes, the divine eye, and the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. Elsewhere, these three experiences are referred to as the three types of knowledge. In the VISUDDHIMAGGA, BUDDHAGHOSA describes a regimen in which the meditator recalls his or her life in reverse order, beginning with the most recent act of sitting down to meditate, tracing the events of this life back to the moment of conception and back to the moment of death in the previous existence and so on through the eons. Non-Buddhists are said to be able to recollect as far back as forty eons, ordinary sRĀVAKAs one thousand eons, the eighty great srāvakas one hundred thousand eons, sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA an incalculable age plus one hundred thousand eons, PRATYEKABUDDHAs two incalculable eons plus one hundred thousand eons, and buddhas limitless past lives. In the more detailed "autobiographical" narratives of the Buddha's enlightenment in mainstream sources, the bodhisattva becomes the Buddha by gaining the three types of knowledge: in the first watch of the night, the knowledge of former abodes; in the second watch, the divine eye; and in the third watch of the night, the knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants. In the second watch, he remembers his name, his clan, his caste, his food, his pleasure and pain, and his life span for individual lives over the incalculable past. In general, the achievement of the knowledge of former lives is described as the product of deep states of concentration and, as such, is accessible also to non-Buddhist YOGINs; for this reason it is considered a worldly or mundane (laukika) knowledge. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, similar descriptions of the six abhijNā and three vidyā are found. However, the memory of former lives also occurs simply as the product of a certain meritorious deeds. The memory of past lives typically causes the person to practice virtue in order to avoid an unfortunate rebirth. In the SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, it is said that all beings reborn in AMITĀBHA's PURE LAND will be endowed with memory of their former abodes going back trillions of eons.
Pusa yingluo benye jing. (J. Bosatsu yoraku hongokyo; K. Posal yongnak ponop kyong 菩薩瓔珞本業經). In Chinese, "Book of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva," in two rolls, translation attributed to ZHU FONIAN (fl. c. 390); a Chinese indigenous sutra (see APOCRYPHA) often known by its abbreviated title of Yingluo jing. The Yingluo jing was particularly influential in the writings of CHAN and TIANTAI exegetes, including such seminal scholastic figures as TIANTAI ZHIYI, who cited the sutra especially in conjunction with discussions of the BODHISATTVA MĀRGA and Mahāyāna VINAYA. The Yingluo jing is perhaps best known for its attempt to synthesize the variant schemata of the Buddhist path (mārga) into a comprehensive regimen of fifty-two BODHISATTVA stages: the ten faiths, the ten abidings, the ten practices, the ten transferences, and the ten grounds (see C. DAsABHuMI; BHuMI); these then culminate in the two stages of buddhahood, virtual or equal enlightenment (dengjue) and sublime enlightenment (miaojue), which the Yingluo jing calls respectively the immaculate stage (wugou di, S. *amalabhumi) and the sublime-training stage (miaoxue di). The Yingluo jing is one of the first texts formally to include the ten faiths in its prescribed mārga schema, as a preliminary level prior to the initiation onto the bodhisattva path proper, which is said to occur at the time of the first arousal of the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) on the first level of the ten abidings. The text therefore adds an additional ten steps to the forty-two named stages of the path outlined in the AVATAMSAKASuTRA (C. Huayan jing), providing a complete fifty-two-stage path, one of the most comprehensive accounts of the mārga to be found in East Asian Buddhist literature. The Yingluo jing also offers one of the most widely cited descriptions of the threefold classification of Buddhist morality (C. sanju jingji; S. sĪLATRAYA), a categorization of precepts found typically in YOGĀCĀRA-oriented materials. The Yingluo jing describes these as (1) the moral code that maintains both the discipline and the deportments (= S. SAMVARAsĪLA) through the ten perfections (PĀRAMITĀ); (2) the moral code that accumulates wholesome dharmas (= S. kusaladharmasaMgrāhaka) through the eighty-four thousand teachings; and (3) the moral code that aids all sentient beings (= S. SATTVĀRTHAKRIYĀ), through exercising loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity (viz. the four BRAHMAVIHĀRA). The Yingluo jing specifies that these three categories of precepts are the foundation of morality for all bodhisattvas. The provenance and authorship of the Pusa yingluo benye jing have long been matters of controversy. In the fifth-century Buddhist catalogue CHU SANZANG JI JI, the compiler Sengyou lists the Pusa yingluo benye jing among miscellaneous works by anonymous translators. In the 594 scriptural catalogue Zhongjing mulu, the scripture is ascribed to Zhu Fonian, while the LIDAI SANBAO JI instead claims that the text was translated by the dhyāna master Zhiyan in 427. Later cataloguers generally accept the attribution to Zhu Fonian, though some note that the translation style differs markedly from that found in other of his renderings. The attribution to Zhu Fonian is also suspect because it includes passages and doctrines that seem to derive from other indigenous Chinese sutras, such as the RENWANG JING, FANWANG JING, etc., as well as passages that appear in earlier Chinese translations of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, PUSA BENYE JING, SHENGMAN JING, Pusa dichi jing, and DA ZHIDU LUN. Both internal and external evidence therefore suggests that the Yingluo jing is a Chinese apocryphon from the fifth century. ¶ The Pusa yingluo benye jing should be distinguished from the Pusa benye jing ("Basic Endeavors of the Bodhisattvas"), translated by ZHI QIAN (fl. c. 220-252), an authentic translation that offers one of the earliest accounts of the ten stages (S. dasavihāra, DAsABHuMI) translated into Chinese. (It is usually known by its abbreviated title of Benye jing.) This text seems to combine the accounts of the ten bodhisattva stages found in the GAndAVYuHA (viz., AvataMsakasutra) and the MAHĀVASTU and may have been the inspiration for the composition of this indigenous Chinese sutra. (Zhu Fonian also translated a Pusa yingluo jing, which may be how his name became associated with this apocryphal Pusa yingluo benye jing.)
Rāhula. (T. Sgra gcan 'dzin; C. Luohouluo; J. Ragora; K. Rahura 羅睺羅). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "Fetter"; proper name of the ARHAT who was the Buddha's only child, born on the day his father renounced the world. According to the Pāli account, as soon as Prince SIDDHARTHA learned of the birth of his son, he immediately chose to become a mendicant, for he saw his son as a "fetter" binding him ever more tightly to the household life. In a famous scene, the prince looks at his sleeping wife and infant son before departing from the palace to seek enlightenment. He wishes to hold his son one last time but fears that he will awaken his wife and lose his resolve. In the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA version of the story, Rāhula was conceived on the night of his father's departure from the palace and remained in gestation for a full six years, being born on the night that his father achieved buddhahood. After his enlightenment, when the Buddha accepted an invitation to visit his father's palace, Rāhula's mother (RĀHULAMĀTĀ) YAsODHARĀ sent her son to her former husband to ask for his inheritance, whereupon the Buddha ordered sĀRIPUTRA to ordain the boy. Rāhula thus became the first novice (sRĀMAnERA) to enter the order. Knowing Yasodharā's grief at the loss of her son, the Buddha's father, King sUDDHODANA, requested that in the future no child should be ordained without the consent of his parents; the Buddha accepted his request and a question about parental consent was incorporated into the ordination procedure. Rāhula is described as dutiful and always in search of instruction. In one sermon to the young boy, the Buddha warns him never to lie, even in jest. Rāhula often accompanied the Buddha or sāriputra on their alms rounds (PIndAPĀTA). The meditation topic the Buddha assigned to Rāhula was intended to counter the novice's strong carnal nature. When his mind was ready, the Buddha taught him the Cula-Rāhulovādasutta, at the end of which Rāhula attained arhatship. Rāhula was meticulous in his observation of the monastic regulations, and the Buddha declared him foremost among his disciples in his eagerness for training. According to Chinese sources, Rāhula was also renowned for his patience. One day in sRĀVASTĪ, he was harshly beaten and was bleeding badly from a head wound, but he bore his injury with composure and equanimity, which led the Buddha to praise him. Rāhula was also foremost in "practicing with discretion" (C. mixing diyi), meaning that he applied himself at all times in religious practice but without making a display of it. Rāhula passed away before both sāriputra and the Buddha during a sojourn in TRĀYASTRIMsA heaven. In previous lives, Rāhula had many times been the son of the bodhisattva. He was called "lucky Rāhula" by his friends and Rāhula himself acknowledged his good fortune both for being the Buddha's son and for attaining arhatship. In the MAHĀYĀNA, Rāhula appears in a number of sutras, such as the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, where his father predicts that he will become a buddha. Rāhula is also traditionally listed as eleventh of the sixteen ARHAT elders (sOdAsASTHAVIRA), who were charged by the Buddha with protecting his dispensation until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA. He is said to reside in Biliyangqu zhou (a Sanskrit transcription that supposedly means "land of chestnuts and grains") with 1,100 disciples. In CHANYUE GUANXIU's standard Chinese depiction, Rāhula is portrayed sitting on a rock in wide-eyed meditation, with his right finger held above his chest, pointing outward, and his left hand resting on his left knee.
Rājagṛha. (P. Rājagaha; T. Rgyal po'i khab; C. Wangshe cheng; J. oshajo; K. Wangsa song 王舍城). Sanskrit name for the capital of the kingdom of MAGADHA during the time of the Buddha. Rājagṛha was known by several other names, including Girivraja, Vasumati, Bṛhadrathapura, Kusāgarapura, Magadhapura, and Bimbisārapura. During the Buddha's lifetime, Rājagṛha was the capital city of King BIMBISĀRA, the ruler of Magadha and the first royal patron of the Buddha and his SAMGHA. The Buddha's first visit occurred prior to his enlightenment, when he passed through the city shortly after his renunciation. He was watched on his alms round by Bimbisāra, who offered him half of his kingdom. The prince refused but promised to visit the city after he achieved his goal. When the Buddha returned to the city in the first year after his enlightenment, Bimbisāra donated a grove for the use of the Buddha and his monks during the rains retreat (VARsĀ). It was called VEnUVANAVIHĀRA, or "Bamboo Grove Monastery," and the Buddha spent several rains retreats after his enlightenment there (according to several sources, he spent his second, third, fourth, seventeenth, and twentieth rains retreat there). The Buddha received sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA into the order in Rājagṛha. GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA, or "Vulture Peak," the site where the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, among many others, were delivered, was located outside the city. Together with sRĀVASTĪ, Rājagṛha was one of the two most important centers of the Buddha's activities. The Buddha made a final visit to the city shortly before his death. After his cremation, the city received a share of the Buddha's relics (sARĪRA) and AJĀTAsATRU, Bimbisāra's son and successor, erected a STuPA to house them. It is said that Ajātasatru later gathered seven of the shares of the Buddha's relics and enshrined them in a single stupa, from which AsOKA later obtained the relics for the eighty-four thousand stupas he is said to have erected. The first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST) took place at Rājagṛha, during the first rains retreat immediately following the death of the Buddha. The great monastic university of NĀLANDĀ was located on the outskirts of Rājagṛha. Rājagṛha was in a dilapidated condition by the time the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG visited the area in the seventh century CE.
rang stong gzhan stong. (rang dong shen dong). In Tibetan, lit. "self-emptiness, other-emptiness," an important and persistent philosophical debate in Tibetan Buddhism, dating to the fifteenth century. The opposing factions are the DGE LUGS sect on one side and the JO NANG sect on the other, with support from certain BKA' BRGYUD and RNYING MA authors. The debate concerns issues fundamental to their understanding of what constituted enlightenment and the path to its achievement. For the Dge lugs, the most profound of all Buddhist doctrines is that all phenomena in the universe are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA), that the constituents of experience are not naturally endowed with a defining characteristic. Emptiness (suNYATĀ) for the Dge lugs is the fact that phenomena do not exist in and of themselves; emptiness is instead the lack of intrinsic existence. The Dge lugs then, are proponents of "self-emptiness," and argue that the hypostatized factor that an object in reality lacks (i.e., is empty of) is wrongly believed by the unenlightened to be intrinsic to the object itself. Everything, from physical forms to the omniscient mind of the Buddha, is thus equally empty. This emptiness is described by the Dge lugs as a non-affirming or simple negation (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA), an absence with nothing else implied in its place. From this perspective, the Dge lugs judge the sutras of the second of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma as described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, "the dharma wheel of signlessness" (ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA), to contain the definitive expression of the Buddha's most profound intention. By contrast, the Jo nang look for inspiration to the third turning of the wheel, "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate" (PARAMĀRTHAVINIsCAYADHARMACAKRA; see also *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA), especially to those statements that describe the nonduality of subject and object to be the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) and the understanding of that nonduality to be the highest wisdom. They describe this wisdom in substantialist terms, calling it eternal, self-arisen, and truly established. This wisdom consciousness exists autonomously and is thus not empty in the way that emptiness is understood by the Dge lugs. Instead, this wisdom consciousness is empty in the sense that it is devoid of all afflictions and conventional factors, which are extraneous to its true nature. Hence, the Jo nang speak of the "emptiness of the other," the absence of extrinsic and extraneous qualities. The Dge lugs cannot deny the presence of statements in the MAHĀYĀNA canon that speak of the TATHĀGATAGARBHA as permanent, pure, blissful, and endowed with self. But they argue that such statements are provisional, another example of the Buddha's expedient means of attracting to the faith those who find such a description appealing. The true tathāgatagarbha, they claim, is the emptiness of the mind; it is this factor, present in all sentient beings, that offers the possibility of transformation into an enlightened buddha. This is the view of CANDRAKĪRTI, they say, whom they regard as the supreme interpreter of the doctrine of emptiness. The Jo nang do not deny that this is Candrakīrti's view, but they deny Candrakīrti the rank of premier expositor of NĀGĀRJUNA's thought. For them, Candrakīrti teaches an emptiness which is a mere negation of true existence, which they equate with nihilism, or else a preliminary stage of negation that precedes an understanding of the highest wisdom. Nor do they deny that such an exposition is also to be found in Nāgārjuna's philosophical corpus (YUKTIKĀYA). But those texts, they claim, do not represent Nāgārjuna's final view, which is expressed instead in his devotional corpus (STAVAKĀYA), notably the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA ("Praise of the Sphere of Reality"), with its more positive exposition of the nature of reality. Those who would deny its ultimate existence, such as Candrakīrti, they classify as "one-sided Madhyamakas" (phyogs gcig pa'i dbu ma pa) as opposed to the "great Madhyamakas" (DBU MA PA CHEN PO), among whom they would include the Nāgārjuna of the four hymns and ĀRYADEVA, as well as thinkers whom the Dge lugs classify as YOGĀCĀRA or SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA: e.g., ASAnGA, VASUBANDHU, MAITREYANĀTHA, and sĀNTARAKsITA. The Dge lugs attempt to demonstrate that the nature of reality praised by Nāgārjuna in his hymns is the same emptiness that he describes in his philosophical writings.
Rāstrapālaparipṛcchā. (T. Yul 'khor skyong gis zhus pa; C. Huguo pusahui [jing]; J. Gokoku bosatsue[kyo]; K. Hoguk posal hoe [kyong] 護國菩薩會[經]). In Sanskrit, "The Questions of RĀstRAPĀLA," one of the earliest MAHĀYĀNA sutras; the terminus ad quem for its composition is the third century CE, when DHARMARAKsA (c. 233-310) translated the sutra into Chinese (c. 270 CE), probably following a manuscript from the GANDHĀRA region in the KHAROstHĪ script. (The extant Sanskrit recension is much later.) There are also two later Chinese translations, one made c. 585-600 by JNĀNAGUPTA and other c. 980 by DĀNAPĀLA. The Rastrapāla represents a strand of early MAHĀYĀNA (found also in such sutras as the KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA and the UGRAPARIPṚCCHĀ) that viewed the large urban monasteries as being ill-suited to serious spiritual cultivation because of their need for constant fund-raising from the laity and their excessive entanglements in local politics. The Rāstrapāla strand of early Mahāyāna instead dedicated itself to forest dwelling (see ARANNAVĀSI) away from the cities, like the "rhinoceros" (KHAdGAVIsĀnA), and advocated a return to the rigorous asceticism (S. DHuTAGUnA; see P. DHUTAnGA) that was thought to characterize the early SAMGHA. To the Rāstrapāla author(s), the Buddha's own infinitely long career as a bodhisattva was an exercise in self-sacrifice and physical endurance, which they in turn sought to emulate through their own asceticism. The physical perfection the Buddha achieved through this long training, as evidenced in his acquisition of the thirty-two major marks of the superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA), receives special attention in the sutra. This approach is in marked contrast to other early Mahāyāna sutras, such as the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, which were suspicious of the motives of forest dwellers and supportive of cenobitic monasticism in the towns and cities, where monks and nuns would be in a better position to serve the laity by preaching the dharma to them.
Ratnagotravibhāga. [alt. Ratnagotravibhanga] (T. Dkon mchog gi rigs rnam par dbye ba; C. Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun; J. Kukyo ichijo hoshoron; K. Kugyong ilsŭng posong non 究竟一乘寶性論). In Sanskrit, "Analysis of the Lineage of the [Three] Jewels," a seminal Indian MAHĀYĀNA sĀSTRA on the doctrine of the "embryo of the tathāgatas" (TATHĀGATAGARBHA), probably dating from the fourth century CE. Its full title is Ratnagotravibhāga-Mahāyāna-Uttaratantra and the treatise is often referred to simply as the Uttaratantra, or "Sublime Continuation." The Sanskrit recension is extant, along with Chinese and Tibetan translations. (RATNAMATI's Chinese translation was finished in 508.) The Chinese tradition attributes the work to Sāramati (C. Jianyi), while the Tibetan tradition attributes the core verses of the text to MAITREYA/MAITREYANĀTHA and its prose commentary entitled the Uttaratantravyākhyā to ASAnGA. It is one of the "five books of Maitreya," which, according to legend, were presented by the future buddha Maitreya to Asanga during the latter's visit to the TUsITA heaven. The primary subject of the Ratnagotravibhāga is the tathāgatagarbha or buddha-nature; this is the element (DHĀTU) or lineage (GOTRA) of the buddhas, which is present in all beings. The text offers an extensive overview of the tathāgatagarbha doctrine as set forth in such sutras as the TATHĀGATAGARBHASuTRA and the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA. Like the srīmālā Sutra, the treatise describes the tathāgatagarbha as being both empty (sunya) of the afflictions (KLEsA) but nonempty (asunya) of the buddhas' infinite virtues. In ordinary beings, the tathāgatagarbha may be obscured by adventitious defilements, but when those defilements are removed, the state of enlightenment is restored. In proving this claim, the treatise examines in detail the "body of the tathāgata," an alternate name for the buddha-nature, which is said to have four perfect virtues (GUnAPĀRAMITĀ): permanence, bliss, selfhood, and purity. Those who have not realized the buddha-nature make two fundamental mistakes about emptiness (suNYATĀ): either viewing emptiness as annihilation (see UCCHEDADṚstI), assuming that the experience of NIRVĀnA requires the extinction of the phenomenal world; or substantiating emptiness by presuming that it is something distinct from materiality (RuPA). Instead, the Ratnagotravibhāga asserts that the tathāgatagarbha is free from all the various types of afflictions, but fully contains the myriad inconceivable attributes of a buddha. The treatise also examines the specific deeds the buddhas perform for the welfare of all sentient beings. See also FOXING.
RatnagunasaMcayagāthā. (T. Yon tan rin po che sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa; C. Fomu baodezang bore boluomi jing; J. Butsumo hotokuzo hannya haramitsukyo; K. Pulmo podokchang panya paramil kyong 佛母寶德藏般若波羅蜜經). In Sanskrit, "Verses on the Collection of Precious Qualities," the longer title is PrajNāpāramitāratnagunasaMcayagāthā, or "Verses on the Collection of the Precious Qualities of the Perfection of Wisdom." The RatnagunasaMcayagāthā epitomizes the early MAHĀYĀNA in its emphasis on the emptiness (suNYATĀ) of the aggregates (SKANDHA) and its praise of the path of the BODHISATTVA over that of the ARHAT. The text is considered to be of particular importance in the history of the Mahāyāna because many of its verses, particularly those that appear early in the text, may represent some of the earliest expressions of Mahāyāna philosophy and may date as far back as 100 BCE. Another indication of the text's antiquity is that it was translated into Chinese as early as the second century CE. The only extant Sanskrit version is that edited in the eighth century by HARIBHADRA to conform to the structure of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, making the precise order of the original verses difficult to determine. Many Mahāyāna sutras are composed of alternating verse and prose. The verses of the RatnagunasaMcayagāthā are written in an ancient meter, suggesting to some that they constitute part of an original sutra, with the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ ("Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines") supplying the prose section. However, because the verses that appear in the RatnagunasaMcayagāthā are not in all cases identical to those in the Astasāhasrikā, the RatnagunasaMcayagāthā may have originally been a separate work. It appears as the verse recapitulations in the Chinese translation of the Astasāhasrikā and as the eighty-fourth chapter of the Astadasasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā ("Perfection of Wisdom in Eighteen Thousand Lines") in its Tibetan translation.
Ratnākarasānti. (T. Shān ti pa/Rin chen 'byung gnas zhi ba) (c. late-tenth to early-eleventh century). Sanskrit proper name of an Indian scholar philosophically affiliated with the YOGĀCĀRA school, who resided and later taught at the monastic university of VIKRAMAsĪLA in the northern region of ancient MAGADHA (modern Bengal). At Vikramasīla, he studied under RATNAKĪRTI and JITĀRI and eventually become a prolific scholar of enormous breadth, who wrote significant works on logic, MADHYAMAKA and PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, Yogācāra, and TANTRA. Ratnākarasānti composed at least thirteen works in Sanskrit. His writings on tantra are particularly noteworthy for their attempt to present a systematic view of tantric philosophy and practice from the perspective of Buddhist scholasticism. His works on logic include the Antarvyāptisamarthana, on "pervasion" or "concomitance" (VYĀPTI). He wrote commentaries on the eight-thousand- and twenty-five-thousand-line PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs (entitled Sārottamā and suddhamati, respectively). His tantric works included commentaries on both the HEVAJRATANTRA and GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, as well as a work on the three vehicles, the Triyānavyavasthāna. During his tenure as a teacher at Vikramasīla, he held the position of eastern gatekeeper. He was a teacher of ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA, and he offered instruction to Tibetan students, including the translator 'BROG MI SHĀKYA YE SHES, who transmitted the LAM 'BRAS (path and result) teachings to the 'Khon family, who founded the SA SKYA sect. Ratnākarasānti's fame was so widespread that he was even invited by the Sinhalese king to travel to Sri Lanka and preach. In Tibetan sources, a Shānti pa (a common Tibetan abbreviation of the name Ratnākarasānti) is reported to have been a student of the renowned tantric adept and scholar NĀROPA (1016-1100), and is listed as one of the eighty-four masters (SIDDHAs) in the CATURAsĪTISIDDHAPRAVṚTTI ("History of the Eighty-Four Siddhas").
Ratnakutasutra. (T. Dkon mchog brtsegs pa'i mdo; C. Dabaoji jing; J. Daihoshakukyo; K. Taebojok kyong 大寶積經). In Sanskrit, "The Jewel-Heap Sutra"; often known also as the Mahāratnakutasutra, or "The Great Jewel-Heap Sutra." Despite its title, this is actually not one SuTRA but rather an early collection of forty-nine independent MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The texts contained in this collection cover a broad range of important MAHĀYĀNA topics, including detailed discussions of emptiness (suNYATĀ), PURE LAND practices, skillful means (UPĀYA), the importance of cultivating both compassion (KARUnĀ) and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), and other significant subjects. Many of the texts embedded in the collection are seminal to the Mahāyāna tradition. In this collection, we find treated such influential figures as the buddhas AMITĀBHA and AKsOBHYA, the BODHISATTVA MAÑJUsRĪ, and the ARHAT MAHĀKĀsYAPA. Its KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA chapter was widely cited in MADHYAMAKA treatises. The collections also contain pure land texts, including the longer SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA as well as the AKsOBHYATATHĀGATASYAVYuHA on the pure land of Aksobhya. The TrisaMvaranirdesaparivarta explains the bodhisattva VINAYA and how it differs from the vinaya of the sRĀVAKAs. Excerpts from the Ratnakutasutra were translated into Chinese as early as the second century CE. While the entire collection is available in Chinese and Tibetan, only portions of it survive in Sanskrit. The Ratnakutasutra occupies six volumes of the Tibetan canon (BKA' 'GYUR) (with fifty-two separate works in the SDE DGE edition, some with the same title but different content). In Chinese, the best-known recension of the Ratnakutasutra is a massive 120-roll translation made by BODHIRUCI between 703 and 716 during the Tang dynasty; it incorporates in the collection some earlier translations of individual texts by DHARMARAKsA, KUMĀRAJĪVA, sIKsĀNANDA, etc. There are also two shorter renderings of portions of the text, one attributed to AN SHIGAO in the latter half of the second century CE, the second to JNānagupta (523-600) in 595 CE, both in only one roll.
Ratnamati. (Rin chen blo gros; C. Lenamoti; J. Rokunamadai; K. Nŭngnamaje 勒那摩提) (fl. c. 508 CE). In Sanskrit, "Bejeweled Intelligence," name of an Indian scholar and Chinese translator who lived during the fifth and sixth centuries CE. He was especially renowned for his prodigious memory of a great many SuTRA verses. In 508 CE, Ratnamati traveled from India to the Northern Wei capital of Luoyang, where he began to work on a translation of VASUBHANDU's "Treatise on the Ten Stages" (S. DAsABHuMIVYĀKHYĀNA; C. SHIDIJING LUN) with BODHIRUCI and Buddhasānta (d.u.). However, disagreements between the collaborators over the nature of the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA (viz., whether it was pure, impure, or both) led them to produce different translations. Those who studied Bodhiruci's rendering came to be known as the Northern DI LUN ZONG, while the followers of Ratnamati's version were known as the Southern Di lun zong. The Southern Di lun school was represented by Ratnamati's foremost pupil, Huiguang (468-537), who advocated that the ālayavijNāna was an ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and coextensive with the buddha-nature (FOXING), which thus was in fact innate. Ratnamati subsequently went on to collaborate with other scholars on the translation of other works, including the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, and the Saddharmapundarīkopadesa attributed to VASUBANDHU. ¶ Ratnamati is also the name of a bodhisattva who appears in various MAHĀYĀNA sutras.
Rdo rje gling pa. (Dorje Lingpa) (1346-1405). A Tibetan Buddhist master, identified as the third of the five kingly treasure revealers (GTER STON RGYAL PO LNGA), and considered to be an emanation of the Tibetan king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN. As a youth, he took monastic ordination and studied both the ancient (RNYING MA) and new (GSAR MA) traditions of the sutras and tantras. At age thirteen he discovered his first treasure text (GTER MA) behind a miracle-performing image of TĀRĀ in the KHRA 'BRUG temple. He considered himself to be the incarnation of the translator VAIROCANA and was guided by visions of him. When doubts were raised about the authenticity of his treasures, he began discovering texts and sacred objects in public settings. In addition to his discoveries, he was famous for his eccentric behavior and spontaneous songs. Rdo rje gling pa is said to have unearthed forty-three sets of treasure, foremost of which was the Bla rdzogs thugs gsum ("Trio of the Guru, Great Perfection, and Great Compassionate One").
Renwang jing. (J. Ninnogyo; K. Inwang kyong 仁王經). In Chinese, "Scripture for Humane Kings"; an influential indigenous Chinese scripture (see APOCRYPHA), known especially for its role in "state protection Buddhism" (HUGUO FOJIAO) and for its comprehensive outline of the Buddhist path of practice (MĀRGA). Its full title (infra) suggests that the scripture belongs to the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) genre of literature, but it includes also elements drawn from both the YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATAGARBHA traditions. The text's audience and interlocutors are not the typical sRĀVAKAs and BODHISATTVAs but instead kings hailing from the sixteen ancient regions of India, who beseech the Buddha to speak this sutra in order to protect both their states and their subjects from the chaos attending the extinction of the dharma (MOFA; SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA). By having kings rather than spiritual mentors serve as the interlocutors, the scripture thus focuses on those qualities thought to be essential to governing a state founded on Buddhist principles. The text's concepts of authority, the path, and the world draw analogies with the "humane kings" of this world who serve and venerate the transcendent monks and bodhisattvas. The service and worship rendered by the kings turns them into bodhisattvas, while the soteriological vocation of the monks and bodhisattvas conversely renders them kings. Thus, the relationship between the state and the religion is symbiotic. The sutra is now generally presumed to be an indigenous Chinese scripture that was composed to buttress imperial authority by exalting the benevolent ruler as a defender of the dharma. The Renwang jing is also known for including the ten levels of faith (sRADDHĀ) as a preliminary stage of the Buddhist path prior to the arousal of the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA). It is one of a number of Chinese Buddhist apocrypha that seek to provide a comprehensive elaboration of all fifty-two stages of the path, including the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING and the YUANJUE JING. The Renwang jing is not known in Sanskrit sources, but there are two recensions of the Chinese text. The first, Renwang bore boluomi jing, is purported to have been translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA and is dated to c. 402, and the latter, titled Renwang huguo bore boluomiduo jing, is attributed to AMOGHAVAJRA and dated to 765. The Amoghavajra recension is based substantially on the Kumārajīva text, but includes additional teachings on MAndALA, MANTRA, and DHĀRAnĪ, additions that reflect Amoghavajra's place in the Chinese esoteric Buddhist tradition. Furthermore, because Amoghavajra was an advisor to three Tang-dynasty rulers, his involvement in contemporary politics may also have helped to shape the later version. Chinese scriptural catalogues (JINGLU) were already suspicious about the authenticity of the Renwang jing as least as early as Fajing's 594 Zhongjing mulu; Fajing lists the text together with twenty-one other scriptures of doubtful authenticity (YIJING), because its content and diction do not resemble those of the ascribed translator. Modern scholars have also recognized these content issues. One of the more egregious examples is the RENWANG JING's reference to four different perfection of wisdom (prajNāpāramitā) sutras that the Buddha is said to have proclaimed; two of the sutras listed are, however, simply different Chinese translations of the same text, the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, a blunder that an Indian author could obviously not have committed. Another example is the scripture's discussion of a three-truth SAMĀDHI (sandi sanmei), in which these three types of concentrations are named worldly truth (shidi), authentic truth (zhendi), and supreme-meaning truth (diyiyidi). This schema is peculiar, and betrays its Chinese origins, because "authentic truth" and "supreme-meaning truth" are actually just different Chinese renderings of the same Sanskrit term, PARAMĀTHASATYA. Based on other internal evidence, scholars have dated the composition of the sutra to sometime around the middle of the fifth century. Whatever its provenance, the text is ultimately reclassified as an authentic translation in the 602 catalogue Zongjing mulu by Yancong and continues to be so listed in all subsequent East Asian catalogues. See also APOCRYPHA; SANDI.
Rin chen bzang po. [alt. Lo tsā ba chen po, Lo chen] (Rinchen Sangpo) (958-1055). A Tibetan translator of Sanskrit Buddhist texts who helped to initiate the revival of Buddhism in Tibet known as the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of the dharma. He was born in the western Tibetan region of GU GE. According to traditional histories, at the age of seventeen, he was sent to India together with a group of twenty other youths by King YE SHES 'OD to study Sanskrit and Indian vernacular languages. Rin chen bzang po made several trips to India, spending a total of seventeen years in Kashmir and the monastic university of VIKRAMAsĪLA before returning the Tibet. During the last years of his life, he collaborated with the Bengali master ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA at THO LING monastery. Rin chen bzang po's literary career concentrated on new and revised translations of important Indian Buddhist works; he is credited with 178 translations spanning the SuTRAs, TANTRAs, and commentarial literature. Apart from his literary activities, he also brought with him numerous artisans and craftsmen from Kashmir and, with their aid, was highly active in the construction of new monasteries, temples, and shrines across western Tibet. These institutions, and the artwork they house, were strongly influenced by the artistic styles and religious practices of northwest India and now serve as important records of a tradition otherwise nearly lost. Most important among these temples are Tho ling, KHA CHAR, and NYAR MA, although tradition ascribes him with founding 108 buildings in all. Rin chen bzang po is still considered a local hero in the regions of western Tibet, Ladakh, Lahul, Spiti, and Kinnaur, and the current reincarnation, LO CHEN SPRUL SKU, maintains his monastic seat at Kyi monastery in Spiti.
Rngog Blo ldan shes rab. (Ngok Loden Sherap) (1059-1110). A Tibetan scholar and translator, nephew of RNGOG LEGS PA'I SHES RAB. After studying under his uncle and participating in the "Council of THO LING" in GU GE, he left for India at the age of eighteen with a group of companions, including RWA LO TSĀ BA. He spent seventeen years pursuing the study of Buddhist texts, including the SuTRAS, TANTRAS, and Buddhist sciences; his main teacher of PRAMĀnA was the Kashmiri logician Bhavyarāja. At the age of thirty-five, he returned to Tibet to become the second abbot of GSANG PHU NE'U THOG monastery near LHA SA. He translated numerous works still found in the BKA' 'GYUR and BSTAN 'GYUR sections of the Tibetan Buddhist canon. These include the PRAMĀnAVINIsCAYA of DHARMAKĪRTI, the five works of MAITREYA, and the major works of what would be dubbed the YOGĀCĀRA SVĀTANTRIKA school. He also composed a number of works himself, which do not seem to have survived. Along with RIN CHEN BZANG PO, he is often referred to as a "great translator" (lo chen); in later works sometimes simply as bdag nyid chen po (S. mahātma). Because of the influence of his translations and his own substantial writings, he is considered along with SA SKYA PAndITA to be a founding figure of Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism.
rupaM sunyatā sunyataiva rupam. (T. gzugs stong pa'o stong pa nyid gzugs so; C. se jishi kong kong jishi se; J. shikisokuzeku kusokuzeshiki; K. saek chŭksi kong kong chŭksi saek 色即是空空即是色). In Sanskrit, "form is emptiness, emptiness is form"; a famous line from PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, known particularly from the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). The line is widely commented upon in India, Tibet, and East Asia, but is generally presumed to describe the relationship between the objects of ordinary experience (represented by "form," or RuPA, the first of the five aggregates, or SKANDHA; see RuPASKANDHA) and ultimate reality (here "emptiness," or suNYATĀ). Some Sanskrit editions of the sutra read the first phrase as "form is empty," a reading reflected also in the Tibetan translation. In brief, the line might be interpreted to mean that the nature of the objects of ordinary experience is emptiness and that the ultimate truth cum emptiness is to be found in the objects of ordinary experience.
rupa. (T. gzugs; C. se; J. shiki; K. saek 色). In Sankrit and Pāli, "body," "form," or "materiality," viz., that which has shape and is composed of matter. The term has two primary doctrinal denotations. More generally, rupa refers to materiality, which serves as objects of the five sensory consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA): visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile. This is the meaning of rupa as the first of the five aggregates (SKANDHA), where it includes all the physical constituents of the person. The second sense is more limited; the colors and shapes that serve as objects of the visual consciousness (CAKsURVIJNĀNA) are designated as rupa (and this accounts for the Chinese translation of the term as "color"); this second denotation is a subset of the first, and much more limited, referring only to the objects of the visual consciousness (CAKsURVIJNĀNA). It is in this second sense that rupa is counted among the twelve ĀYATANA and eighteen DHĀTU. In formulations of the person as "name and form" (NĀMARuPA), viz., an individual's mental and physical constituents, "name" (NĀMA) subsumes the four mental aggregrates (SKANDHA) of sensation (VEDANĀ), perception (SAMJNĀ), conditioning factors (SAMSKĀRA), and consciousness (VIJNĀNA), while "form" (rupa) refers to the materiality aggregate (RuPASKANDHA), viz., the physical body. In some MAHĀYĀNA sutras, rupādi ("form, and so on") means all dharmas because form is the first in the all-inclusive list of SAMKLIstA and VYAVADĀNA dharmas that are declared to be empty of an essential identity (SVABHĀVA).
Sadāparibhuta. (T. Rtag tu mi brnyas pa; C. Changbuqing pusa; J. Jofukyo bosatsu; K. Sangbulgyong posal 常不輕菩薩). In Sanskrit, "Never Disparaging," the name of a BODHISATTVA described in the eponymous nineteenth or twentieth chapter (depending on the version) of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"). The Buddha explains that long ago there was a bodhisattva named Sadāparibhuta who did not study or recite the sutras. Whenever he saw a monk (BHIKsU), nun (BHIKsUnĪ), male lay disciple (UPĀSAKA), or female lay disciple (UPĀSIKĀ), he would say, "I dare not belittle you because you will all become buddhas." Arrogant monks, nuns, and male and female lay disciples began to sarcastically refer to him as "Never Disparaging." When the bodhisattva was about to die, he heard millions of verses of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra in the sky and as a result his life span was increased by many eons, during which he taught the sutra. Those who had mocked him were reborn in AVĪCI hell, but were eventually reborn as his disciples and later became the five hundred bodhisattvas in the assembly of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. The Buddha reveals that he had been the bodhisattva Sadāparibhuta in a previous life. The bodhisattva's famous statement, "I dare not belittle you because you will all become buddhas," came to be known as the "twenty-four character 'Lotus Sutra'" because in KUMĀRAJĪVA's translation, the line is twenty-four Sinographs long. The chapter was especially important to the Japanese reformer NICHIREN, who noted the importance of developing even a negative relationship with the true teaching, as evidenced by the fact that those who slandered Sadāparibhuta eventually became bodhisattvas themselves.
Saddharmapundarīkasutra. (T. Dam pa'i chos padma dkar po'i mdo; C. Miaofa lianhua jing/Fahua jing; J. Myohorengekyo/Hokekyo; K. Myobop yonhwa kyong/Pophwa kyong 妙法蓮華經/法華經). In Sanskrit, "Sutra of the White Lotus of the True Dharma," and known in English simply as the "Lotus Sutra"; perhaps the most influential of all MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The earliest portions of the text were probably composed as early as the first or second centuries of the Common Era; the text gained sufficient renown in India that a number of chapters were later interpolated into it. The sutra was translated into Chinese six times and three of those translations are extant. The earliest of those is that made by DHARMARAKsA, completed in 286. The most popular is that of KUMĀRAJĪVA in twenty-eight chapters, completed in 406. The sutra was translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Its first translation into a European language was that of EUGÈNE BURNOUF into French in 1852. The Saddharmapundarīkasutra is perhaps most famous for its parables, which present, in various versions, two of the sutra's most significant doctrines: skill-in-means (UPĀYA) and the immortality of the Buddha. In the parable of the burning house, a father lures his children from a conflagration by promising them three different carts, but when they emerge they find instead a single, magnificent cart. The three carts symbolize the sRĀVAKA vehicle, the PRATYEKABUDDHA vehicle, and the BODHISATTVA vehicle, while the one cart is the "one vehicle" (EKAYĀNA), the buddha vehicle (BUDDHAYĀNA). This parable indicates that the Buddha's previous teaching of three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) was a case of upāya, an "expedient device" or "skillful method" designed to attract persons of differing capacities to the dharma. In fact, there is only one vehicle, the vehicle whereby all beings proceed to buddhahood. In the parable of the conjured city, a group of weary travelers take rest in a magnificent city, only to be told later that it is a magical creation. This conjured city symbolizes the NIRVĀnA of the ARHAT; there is in fact no such nirvāna as a final goal in Buddhism, since all will eventually follow the bodhisattva's path to buddhahood. The apparently universalistic doctrine articulated by the sutra must be understood within the context of the sectarian polemics in which the sutra seems to have been written. The doctrine of upāya is intended in part to explain the apparent contradiction between the teachings that appear in earlier sutras and those of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. The former are relegated to the category of mere expedients, with those who fail to accept the consummate teaching of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra as the authentic word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) repeatedly excoriated by the text itself. In a device common in Mahāyāna sutras, the sutra itself describes both the myriad benefits that accrue to those who recite, copy, and revere the sutra, as well as the misfortune that will befall those who fail to do so. The immortality of the Buddha is portrayed in the parable of the physician, in which a father feigns death in order to induce his sons to commit to memory an antidote to poison. The apparent death of the father is compared to the Buddha's entry into nirvāna, something which he only pretended to do in order to inspire his followers. Elsewhere in the sutra, the Buddha reveals that he did not achieve enlightenment as the prince Siddhārtha who left his palace, but in fact had achieved enlightenment eons before; the well-known version of his departure from the palace and successful quest for enlightenment were merely a display meant to inspire the world. The immortality of the Buddha (and other buddhas) is also demonstrated when a great STuPA emerges from the earth. When the door to the funerary reliquary is opened, ashes and bones are not found, as would be expected, but instead the living buddha PRABHuTARATNA, who appears in his stupa whenever the Saddharmapundarīkasutra is taught. sĀKYAMUNI joins him on his seat, demonstrating another central Mahāyāna doctrine, the simultaneous existence of multiple buddhas. Other famous events described in the sutra include the miraculous transformation of a NĀGA princess into a buddha after she presents a gem to sākyamuni and the tale of a bodhisattva who immolates himself in tribute to a previous buddha. The sutra contains several chapters that function as self-contained texts; the most popular of these is the chapter devoted to the bodhisattva AVALOKITEsVARA, which details his ability to rescue the faithful from various dangers. The Saddharmapundarīkasutra was highly influential in East Asia, inspiring both a range of devotional practices as well as the creation of new Buddhist schools that had no Indian analogues. The devotional practices include those extolled by the sutra itself: receiving and keeping the sutra, reading it, memorizing and reciting it, copying it, and explicating it. In East Asia, there are numerous tales of the miraculous benefits of each of these practices. The practice of copying the sutra (or having it copied) was a particularly popular form of merit-making either for oneself or for departed family members. Also important, especially in China, was the practice of burning either a finger or one's entire body as an offering to the Buddha, emulating the self-immolation of the bodhisattva BHAIsAJYARĀJA in the twenty-third chapter (see SHESHEN). In the domain of doctrinal developments, the Saddharmapundarīkasutra was highly influential across East Asia, its doctrine of upāya providing the rationale for the systems of doctrinal taxonomies (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI) that are pervasive in East Asian Buddhist schools. In China, the sutra was the central text of the TIANTAI ZONG, where it received detailed exegesis by a number of important figures. The school's founder, TIANTAI ZHIYI, divided the sutra into two equal parts. In the first fourteen chapters, which he called the "trace teaching" (C. jimen, J. SHAKUMON), sākyamuni appears as the historical buddha. In the remaining fourteen chapters, which Zhiyi called the "origin teaching" (C. benmen, J. HONMON), sākyamuni reveals his true nature as the primordial buddha who achieved enlightenment many eons ago. Zhiyi also drew on the Saddharmapundarīkasutra in elucidating two of his most famous doctrines: the three truths (SANDI, viz., emptiness, the provisional, and the mean) and the notion of YINIAN SANQIAN, or "the trichiliocosm in an instant of thought." In the TENDAISHu, the Japanese form of Tiantai, the sutra remained supremely important, providing the scriptural basis for the central doctrine of original enlightenment (HONGAKU) and the doctrine of "achieving buddhahood in this very body" (SOKUSHIN JoBUTSU); in TAIMITSU, the tantric form of Tendai, sākyamuni Buddha was identified with MAHĀVAIROCANA. For the NICHIREN schools (and their offshoots, including SoKA GAKKAI), the Saddharmapundarīkasutra is not only its central text but is also considered to be the only valid Buddhist sutra for the degenerate age (J. mappo; see C. MOFA); the recitation of the sutra's title is the central practice in Nichiren (see NAMU MYoHoRENGEKYo). See also SADĀPARIBHuTA.
saddharmavipralopa. (T. dam pa'i chos rab tu rnam par 'jig pa; C. mofa; J. mappo; K. malpop 末法). In Sanskrit, "disappearance of the true dharma," the predicted demise of the Buddha's dispensation (sĀSANA) from the world. Mainstream Buddhist doctrine holds that all evidence of the teaching of the previous buddha must vanish before the next buddha can appear in the world. The precise length of the duration of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha's dispensation is a persistent issue in Buddhist literature. The most common, and probably the oldest, of these predictions occurs in the accounts of the Buddha's decision to permit the ordination of women, where he says that if he had not ordained women, the true dharma (SADDHARMA) would have endured for one thousand years; however, because of his decision to ordain women, it will only last five hundred years (see MAHĀPRAJĀPATĪ). A variety of other predictions for the decline and disappearance of the dharma appear in various sutras, with the period of the duration of the dharma ranging from as short as five hundred years to as long as twelve thousand years (in some Chinese sources); other figures include seven hundred, one thousand, one thousand five hundred, two thousand, two thousand five hundred, and five thousand years. The majority of periods involving one thousand years or more occur in MAHĀYĀNA sutras. However, in BUDDHAGHOSA's MANORATHAPuRAnĪ, a chronology of five thousand years is provided, in which the dharma gradually disappears over five periods of one thousand years each. During the first millennium after the Buddha's demise, there will be a disappearance of the attainments (P. ADHIGAMA), at the end of which no disciple will have the capacity to attain the rank of stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA). During the second millennium, there will be a disappearance of practice (P. PAtIPATTI) at the end of which no disciple will be able to attain meditative states or maintain the precepts. During the third millennium, there will be a disappearance of learning (P. PARIYATTI), at the end of which all books of the tipitaka (S. TRIPItAKA) will be lost. During the fourth millennium, the indicators or signs (NIMITTA) of monastic life will begin to vanish, at the end of which all monks will stop wearing saffron robes and will return to lay life. During the fifth and final millennium, there will be a disappearance of the relics (DHĀTU, see sARĪRA), at the end of which the relics of the Buddha will reassemble and, after being worshipped by the divinities, will burst into flame and vanish. Buddhaghosa's five thousand-year timetable has become standard in the Pāli tradition. The doctrine of the disappearance of the dharma is central to the various East Asian theories of decline. See also MOFA; ANTARADHĀNA.
sāgaramudrāsamādhi. (T. rgya mtsho'i phyag rgya ting nge 'dzin; C. haiyin sanmei; J. kaiin zanmai; K. haein sammae 海印三昧). In Sanskrit, "ocean-seal samādhi," or "oceanic reflection samādhi," a concentration (SAMĀDHI) often treated as emblematic of the HUAYAN ZONG's most profound vision of reality. "Ocean seal" is a metaphor for the pure and still mind that is able to reflect all phenomena while remaining perpetually unaffected by them, just as the calm surface of the ocean is said to be able to reflect all the phenomena in the universe. The AVATAMSAKASuTRA includes the sāgaramudrāsamādhi among several other types of samādhi that it mentions. In the "SAMANTABHADRA Bodhisattva Chapter" (Puxian pusa pin), the first of the ten samādhis taught by this bodhisattva is the sāgaramudrāsamādhi; through its power, a buddha is enabled to perform all types of works to rescue sentient beings, such as manifesting himself as a buddha and using numerous skillful means (UPĀYA) in order to guide them. The "Ten Bhumis Chapter" (Shidi pin) mentions sāgaramudrāsamādhi as one of a list of eleven samādhis that occur to bodhisattvas who reach the tenth stage (BHuMI) on the path. The "Manifestation of the Tathāgata Chapter" (Rulai chuxian pin) says that sāgaramudrāsamādhi is so named because it is like the ocean that reflects the images of all sentient beings. In the Huayan scholastic tradition, sāgaramudrāsamādhi is raised to pride of place within its doctrinal system. Sāgaramudrāsamādhi is considered to be the generic samādhi (zongding) that the Buddha enters prior to beginning the elucidation of the various assemblies recounted in the AvataMsakasutra itself; the seven subsequent samādhis that the Buddha enters as he preaches the teaching of the AvataMsakasutra at each of the eight assemblies (hui) (there is no samādhi prior to the second assembly) are regarded instead as specific types of samādhis (bieding). ZHIYAN (602-668), the second Huayan patriarch, associated sāgaramudrāsamādhi with the teaching of one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) in his KONGMU ZHANG, where he says that the common and distinctive teachings of the one vehicle (yisheng tongbie) are revealed through the "ocean-seal" samādhi, while the teachings of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) are revealed through the subsequently obtained wisdom (C. houde zhi; S. PṚstHALABDHAJNĀNA). FAZANG (643-712), the third Huayan patriarch, following his teacher Zhiyan's view, declares at the beginning of his HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG that his work was written to reveal the teaching of the one vehicle that the Buddha attained through the "ocean-seal" samādhi. It is Fazang who formalized the place of the sāgaramudrāsamādhi in the Huayan doctrinal system. In his XIU HUAYAN AOZHI WANGJIN HUANYUAN GUAN, Fazang noted that the "ocean-seal" samādhi and the Huayan samādhi (C. Huayan sanmei), both mentioned among the ten samādhis in the Xianshou pusa pin of the AvataMsakasutra, correspond to the "two functions" (er YONG): respectively, to the "function of the eternal abiding of all things reflected on the ocean" (haiyin senluo changzhu yong) and the "function of the autonomy of the perfect luminosity of the DHARMADHĀTU" (fajie yuanming zizai yong). Both of these types of functions were subordinated to the highest category of the "one essence" (yi TI), viz., the "essence of the pure and perfect luminosity of the self-nature" (zixing qingjing yuanming ti). The first type of function, which was associated with the sāgaramudrāsamādhi, was the perfect reflection of all things in the pure mind; like the unsullied ocean that reflected all phenomena, it also was freed from any type of delusion or falsity. For Fazang, "ocean seal" (haiyin) was interpreted to mean the "original enlightenment of true thusness" (ZHENRU BENJUE) by correlating this function with the "ocean of the thusness of the dharma nature" (faxing zhenru hai) as mentioned in the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna"). In Fazang's Huayan youxin fajie ji, the "ocean-seal" samādhi was classified as a cause and the Huayan samādhi as a fruition. Elsewhere, in his HUAYAN JING TANXUAN JI, Fazang additionally differentiates the ocean-seal samādhi itself into two phases of cause and fruition: the stage of the cause is attained by the bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA at the tenth of the ten stages of faith, while the fruition stage corresponds to the samādhi of a tathāgata. In addition to its importance in the AvataMsakasutra and the Huayan school, there are several other sutras that also mention the sāgaramudrāsamādhi. For example, the MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA says that the sāgaramudrāsamādhi incorporates all other samādhis. The RATNAKutASuTRA states that one should abide in sāgaramudrāsamādhi in order to obtain complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI). Finally, the MAHĀSAMNIPĀTASuTRA says that one can see all sentient beings' mental functions and gain the knowledge of all teaching devices (DHARMAPARYĀYA) through the sāgaramudrāsamādhi.
sakra. (P. Sakka; T. Brgya byin; C. Di-Shi; J. Taishaku; K. Che-Sok 帝釋). Sanskrit name of a divinity who is often identified with the Vedic god INDRA (with whom he shares many epithets), although it is perhaps more accurate to describe him as a Buddhist (and less bellicose) version of Indra. Typically described in Buddhist texts by his full name and title as "sakra, the king of the gods" (sAKRO DEVĀNĀM INDRAḤ), he is the divinity (DEVA) who appears most regularly in Buddhist texts. sakra is chief of the gods of the heaven of the thirty-three (TRĀYASTRIMsA), located on the summit of Mount SUMERU. As such, he is a god of great power and long life, but is also subject to death and rebirth; the Buddha details in various discourses the specific virtues that result in rebirth as sakra. In both the Pāli canon and the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sakra is depicted as the most devoted of the divine followers of the Buddha, descending from his heaven to listen to the Buddha's teachings and to ask him questions (and according to some accounts, eventually achieving the state of stream-enterer), and rendering all manner of assistance to the Buddha and his followers. In the case of the Buddha, this assistance was extended prior to his achievement of buddhahood, both in his previous lives (as in the story of Vessantara in the VESSANTARA JĀTAKA) and in his last lifetime as Prince SIDDHĀRTHA; when the prince cuts off his royal locks and throws them into the sky, proclaiming that he will achieve buddhahood if his locks remain there, it is sakra who catches them and installs them in a shrine in the heaven of the thirty-three. When the Buddha later visited the heaven of the thirty-three to teach the ABHIDHARMA to his mother MĀYĀ (who had been reborn there), sakra provided the magnificent ladder for his celebrated descent to JAMBUDVĪPA that took place at SĀMKĀsYA. When the Buddha was sick with dysentery near the end of his life, sakra carried his chamber pot. sakra often descends to earth disguised as a brāhmana in order to test the virtue of the Buddha's disciples, both monastic and lay, offering all manner of miraculous boons to those who pass the test. In the Pāli canon, a section of the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA consists of twenty-five short suttas devoted to him.
sākyamuni. (P. Sakkamuni; T. Shākya thub pa; C. Shijiamouni; J. Shakamuni; K. Sokkamoni 釋迦牟尼). In Sanskrit, "Sage of the sĀKYA Clan," one of the most common epithets of GAUTAMA Buddha, especially in the MAHĀYĀNA traditions, where the name sĀKYAMUNI is used to distinguish the historical buddha from the myriad other buddhas who appear in the SuTRAs. The sākyas were a tribe in northern India into which was born SIDDHĀRTHA GAUTAMA, the man who would become the historical buddha. According to the texts, the sākya clan was made up of KsATRIYAs, warriors or political administrators in the Indian caste system. The sākya clan flourished in the foothills of the Himālayas, near the border between present-day Nepal and India. Following the tradition's own model, which did not seek to provide a single and seamless biography of Gautama or sākyamuni until centuries after his death, this dictionary narrates the events of the life of the Buddha in separate entries about his previous lives, his teachings, his disciples, and the places he visited over the course of his forty-five years of preaching the dharma. In India, accounts of events in the life of the Buddha first appeared in VINAYA materials, such as the Pāli MAHĀVAGGA or the LOKOTTARAVĀDA school's MAHĀVASTU. Among the Pāli SUTTAs, one of the most detailed accounts of the Buddha's quest for enlightenment occurs in the ARIYAPARIYESANĀSUTTA. It is noteworthy that many of the most familiar events in the Buddha's life are absent in some of the early accounts: the miraculous conception and birth; the death of his mother, Queen MĀYĀ; his sheltered youth; the four chariot rides outside the palace where he beholds the four portents (CATURNIMITTA); his departure from the palace; and his abandonment of his wife, YAsODHARĀ, and his newborn son, RĀHULA. Those stories appear much later, in works like AsVAGHOsA's beloved verse narrative, the BUDDHACARITA, from the second century CE; the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school's third- or fourth-century CE LALITAVISTARA; and the NIDĀNAKATHĀ, the first biography of the Buddha in Pāli, attributed to BUDDHAGHOSA in the fifth century CE, some eight centuries after the Buddha's passing. Even in that later biography, however, the "life of the Buddha" ends with ANĀTHAPIndADA's gift of JETAVANA grove to the Buddha, twenty years after the Buddha's enlightenment and twenty-five years before his death. Other biographical accounts end even earlier, with the conversion of sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA. Indeed, Indian Buddhist literature devotes more attention to the lives of previous buddhas and to the former lives (JĀTAKA) of Gautama or sākyamuni than they do to biographies of his final lifetime (when biography is taken to refer to a chronological account from birth to death). And even there, the tradition takes pains to demonstrate the consistency of the events of his life with those of previous buddhas; in fact, all buddhas are said to perform the same eight or twelve deeds (see BAXIANG; TWELVE DEEDS OF A BUDDHA). The momentous events of his birth, renunciation, enlightenment under the BODHI TREE, and first turning of the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA) are described in detail in a range of works, and particular attention is given to his death, in both the Pāli MAHĀPARINIBBANASUTTA and the Sanskrit MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA. And all traditions, whether MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS or the Mahāyāna, are deeply concerned with the question of the location of the Buddha after his passage into PARINIRVĀnA.
sālistambasutra. (T. Sā lu ljang pa'i mdo; C. Daogan jing; J. Tokangyo; K. Togan kyong 稻稈經). In Sanskrit, the "Rice Seedling Sutra," a MAHĀYĀNA SuTRA noted for its detailed presentation of the doctrine of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). The sutra begins with the Buddha gazing at a rice seedling and then declaring, "Monks, he who sees dependent origination sees the dharma. He who sees the dharma sees the Buddha." sĀRIPUTRA asks MAITREYA what this statement means, and the majority of the sutra is devoted to his answer. This sutra provides one of the most detailed treatments of the doctrine of dependent origination found anywhere in the scriptural literature. The doctrine had been set forth in various ways in previous sutras, and the sālistambasutra appears to be something of a digest of these various presentations. The sutra is widely quoted by Indian commentators in their own expositions of dependent origination, including MADHYAMAKA authors, although the sutra does not connect dependent origination with emptiness (suNYATĀ). Indeed, the text is so widely quoted that, although the sutra is lost in the original Sanskrit, approximately ninety percent of the Sanskrit text can be recovered from citations of it in various Indian treatises.
Samadhi: (Skr.) The final stage in the practice of Yoga (q.v.) according to the Yogasutras (q.v.) in which individuality is given up while merging with the object of meditation; thus producing a state of unqualified blissfulness and unperturbed consciousness, which is moksa (q.v.). -- K.F.L.
samādhi. (T. ting nge 'dzin; C. sanmei; J. sanmai; K. sammae 三昧). In Sanskrit, "concentration"; a foundational term in Buddhist meditation theory and practice, which is related to the ability to establish and maintain one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ) on a specific object of concentration. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA and the YOGĀCĀRA school list samādhi as one of a group of five determinative (VINIYATA) mental concomitants (CAITTA), whose function is to aid the mind in ascertaining or determining its object. The five are: aspiration or desire-to-act (CHANDA), determination or resolve (ADHIMOKsA), mindfulness or memory (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom or cognition (PRAJNĀ). According to ASAnGA, these five determinative factors accompany wholesome (KUsALA) states of mind, so that if one is present, all are present. In Pāli ABHIDHAMMA materials, concentration is one of the seven mental factors (P. cetasika) that are invariably associated with all moments of consciousness (CITTA, MANAS, or VIJNĀNA). Concentration occurs in many other important lists, including as the second of the three trainings (TRIsIKsĀ), and the last stage of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). Concentration is distinguished according to the quality of consciousness with which it is associated. "Right concentration" (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI, P. sammāsamādhi) is concentration associated with wholesome (KUsALA) states of mind; it is listed not only as one element of the eightfold noble path, but as one of seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA, P. bojjhanga), and, in an incipient state, as one of five powers (BALA) and the other categories that together make up the BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA (thirty-seven factors associated with awakening). High degrees of concentration can be developed through the practice of meditation (BHĀVANĀ). Concentration of such intensity receives the designation "one-pointedness of mind" (cittaikāgratā). When developed to its greatest degree, mental concentration leads to the attainment of DHYĀNA (P. JHĀNA), "meditative absorption." It is also the main mental factor defining the four magical powers (ṚDDHIPĀDA, P. iddhipāda). The cultivation of concentration for the purposes of attaining meditative absorption is called tranquillity meditation (sAMATHA). In the Pāli abhidhamma, three levels of concentration are distinguished in the practice of tranquility meditation: (1) preparatory concentration (PARIKAMMASAMĀDHI) is the degree of concentration established at the beginning of a meditation session. (2) Access or neighborhood concentration (UPACĀRASAMĀDHI) arises just as the practitioner approaches but does not enter the first level of meditative absorption; it is marked by the appearance in the mind of a representational image (PAtIBHĀGANIMITTA) of the object of meditation. (3) "Attainment" or "full" concentration (APPANĀSAMĀDHI) is the level of concentration that arises upon entering and abiding in any of the meditative absorptions. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, a wide variety of profound meditative experiences are described as samādhis and are mentioned as attainments of the bodhisattva as he ascends through the ten BHuMIs. The MAHĀVYUTPATTI lists 118 different samādhis that are specified by name in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, such as candravimala (stainless moon), sarvadharmodgata (surpassing all dharmas), siMhavikrīdita (lion's play), anantaprabha (limitless light), and acala (immovable). See also YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA.
SaMdhinirmocanasutra. (T. Mdo sde dgongs 'grel; C. Jieshenmi jing; J. Gejinmikkyo; K. Haesimmil kyong 解深密經). In Sanskrit, variously interpreted to mean the sutra "Unfurling the Real Meaning," "Explaining the Thought," or "Unraveling the Bonds"; one of the most important Mahāyāna sutras, especially for the YOGĀCĀRA school. The sutra is perhaps most famous for its delineation of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), which would become an influential schema for classifying the teachings of the Buddha. The sutra has ten chapters. The first four chapters deal with the nature of the ultimate (PARAMĀRTHA) and how it is to be understood. The fifth chapter discusses the nature of consciousness, including the storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA) where predispositions (VĀSANĀ) are deposited and ripen. The sixth chapter discusses the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA). In the seventh chapter, the division of the Buddha's teachings into the provisional (NEYĀRTHA) and the definitive (NĪTĀRTHA) is set forth. The eighth chapter explains how to develop sAMATHA and VIPAsYANĀ. The ninth chapter describes the ten bodhisattva BHuMIs and the final chapter describes the nature of buddhahood. Each of these chapters contains important passages that are cited in subsequent commentaries and treatises. ¶ Perhaps the most influential of all the sutra's chapters is the seventh, which discusses the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma (dharmacakrapravartana). There, the bodhisattva Paramārthasamudgata explains that the first turning of the wheel had occurred at ṚsIPATANA (the Deer Park at SĀRNĀTH), where the Buddha had taught the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS to those of the sRĀVAKA ("listener, disciple") vehicle. This first turning of the wheel is called the CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA, the "dharma wheel of the four truths." The bodhisattva says, "This wheel of dharma turned by the Buddha is surpassable, an occasion [for refutation], provisional, and subject to dispute." Referring presumably to the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras, the bodhisattva then goes on to explain that the Buddha then turned the wheel of dharma a second time for those who had entered the Mahāyāna, teaching them the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), that phenomena are "unproduced, unextinguished, originally quiescent, and inherently beyond sorrow." Commentators would call this second turning of the wheel the ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA, "the dharma wheel of signlessness." But this wheel also is provisional. The Buddha finally turned the wheel of doctrine a third time for those of all vehicles, clearly differentiating how things exist. "This wheel of doctrine turned by the BHAGAVAT is unsurpassed, not an occasion [for refutation], of definitive meaning; it is indisputable." Commentators would call this third turning of the wheel the PARAMĀRTHAVINIsCAYADHARMACAKRA, "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate"; it is also called "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation" (*SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA). The sutra thus takes something of an historical perspective on the Buddha's teaching, declaring both that his first sermon on the four noble truths addressed to srāvakas and his teaching of the perfection of wisdom addressed to bodhisattvas was not his final and most clearly delineated view. That consummate view, his true intention, is found in the third turning of the wheel of dharma, a wheel that includes, at very least, the SaMdhinirmocanasutra itself. The SaMdhinirmocanasutra was translated into Chinese four times: by GUnABHADRA, BODHIRUCI, PARAMĀRTHA, and XUANZANG. Of these recensions, the translations by Bodhiruci and Xuanzang are complete renderings of the sutra and circulated most widely within the East Asian tradition; the other two renderings were shorter digests of the sutra.
saMgrahavastu. (T. bsdu ba'i dngos po; C. si sheshi; J. shishoji; K. sa sopsa 四攝事). In Sanskrit, translated variously as "grounds for assembling," "means of conversion," or "articles of sympathy"; in the Mahāyāna sutras, these are four methods by which bodhisattvas attract and retain students. The four are: (1) generosity (DĀNA), (2) kind words (priyavādita), (3) helpfulness, viz., teaching others to fulfill their aims (arthacaryā), and (4) acting in accordance with one's own teachings, viz., consistency between words and deeds, or perhaps even the "common good" (SAMĀNĀRTHATĀ). There is an extensive description of these four qualities in the sixteenth chapter of the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, an important Mahāyāna sĀSTRA said to have been presented to ASAnGA by the bodhisattva MAITREYA in the TUsITA heaven (see also MAITREYANĀTHA).
saMnāha. (T. go cha; C. beijia; J. hiko; K. p'igap 被甲). In Sanskrit, "armor"; a term that occurs especially in the tradition of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, where the term "armor practice" (saMnāhapratipatti) refers both to the bodhisattva path in general as well as to specific practices begun on the path of accumulation or equipment (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA). In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras (which are termed the jinajananī, "mother of victors"), bodhisattvas are said to be armed with a great armor (saMnaddhasaMnāha), an equipment made out of the interwoven six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ); and to set out (prasthāna) for the difficult work (duskaracaryā) necessary to become "victors" (JINA). This "difficult work" involves activities done for the sake of others. Each of the perfections is said to subsume all the other perfections, so that, for example, when bodhisattvas engage in exceptional acts of giving away their wealth or limbs (DĀNA), the act is informed by the bodhisattva's morality (sĪLA); done with forbearance (KsĀNTI) that can withstand the difficulty involved; propelled by perseverance (VĪRYA), and informed by concentration (SAMĀDHI), which enables the bodhisattva to stay focused on the aim of enlightenment while remaining tranquil and at ease; and is grounded on the wisdom (PRAJNĀ) that understands that the act of giving, the carrying out of the act, and the donor are all interdependent and without any inherent nature (SVABHĀVA). When bodhisattvas are armed with this great armor, they do not become discouraged by the long and difficult task of looking after the welfare of others (PARĀRTHA) who are "numberless like the sands of the Ganges" (GAnGĀNADĪVĀLUKĀ). Buckling on the armor (saMnāha) and setting out (prasthāna) on their quest, bodhisattvas ultimately accumulate all their necessary equipment (SAMBHĀRA) and go forth (niryāna) to the final goal of buddhahood.
SaMyuktāgama. (P. SaMyuttanikāya; T. Yang dag par ldan pa'i lung; C. Za ahan jing; J. Zoagongyo; K. Chap aham kyong 雜阿含經). In Sanskrit, "Connected Discourses," a division of the ĀGAMAs corresponding roughly to the Pāli SAMYUTTANIKĀYA. The collection was probably compiled sometime between 200 and 400 CE. Some Sanskrit fragments, especially of the nidānasaMyukta section, were discovered in TURFAN, but the full collection is only preserved in a Chinese translation, in fifty rolls, made by GUnABHADRA between 435 and 443 CE, with a second partial Chinese translation (in sixteen rolls) made by an anonym and a brief one-roll version (with only twenty-seven sutras) apparently translated by AN SHIGAO. The longer Chinese translation is presumed to belong to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, with the shorter partial translation perhaps attributed to the KĀsYAPĪYA school. The SaMyuktāgama collects 1,362 sutras (compared to 2,872 for the Pāli SaMyuttanikāya), with some nascent attempts at a subject-matter arrangement, but nothing nearly as systematic as that found in the SaMyuttanikāya. The Chinese translated title of Za Ahan jing (lit. "Miscellaneous Āgama") corresponds more closely to a Sanskrit *Ksudrakāgama (cf. P. KHUDDAKANIKĀYA), a "miscellaneous" collection of sutras that is not known to have existed in the Sarvāstivāda school, although the content is more closely aligned with the SaMyuttanikāya.
SaMyuttanikāya. (S. SaMyuktāgama; T. Yang dag par ldan pa'i lung; C. Za ahan jing; J. Zoagongyo; K. Chap aham kyong 雜阿含經). In Pāli, "Collection of Related Discourses" (or in its nineteenth-century translation Book of Kindred Sayings); the third of the five divisions of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA and corresponds roughly to the SAMYUKTĀGAMA of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA and KĀsYAPĪYA schools, which is now extant only in its Chinese translations. The Pāli recension is comprised of some 2,872 individual suttas. Because of questions as to what constitutes a sutta in this case (some are only one sentence in length), enumerations of the number of suttas in the various saMyutta/saMyukta collections vary widely, from just under three thousand to over seven thousand (the longer of the two Chinese recensions contains 1,362 sutras). The SaMyuttanikāya is divided into five chapters, or vaggas, which are subdivided into fifty-six saMyuttas, arranged largely by subject matter. The collection derives its title from this classificatory system. The five vaggas are devoted to: (1) verses (sagātha), suttas that in the majority of cases contain verses; (2) causation (NIDĀNA), suttas that deal primarily with epistemology and psychology; (3) the aggregates (P. khandha, S. SKANDHA) on the five aggregates; (4) the six sense-fields (P. salāyatana, S. sAdĀYATANA), dealing with the six sources of consciousness; and (5) the great division (mahāvagga), which contains suttas on the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), the states of concentration (DHYĀNA), the establishments of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA), and other important doctrines.
sanfen kejing. (J. sanbunkakyo; K. sambun kwagyong 三分科經). In Chinese, "threefold division of a scripture," an exegetical technique developed by the pioneering scholiast and cataloguer DAO'AN (312-385) to analyze a specific SuTRA's narrative structure. Dao'an's scriptural commentaries posited the following three major sections that were common to all sutras: (1) the prefatory setting (C. xufen; S. nidāna), which specifies the time and place where the sutra was delivered; (2) the "text proper" (zhengzongfen), viz., the main body of the sutra, which relates the doctrines and practices that were the subject of the discourse; and (3) the "dissemination section" (liutongfen; S. parīndanā), which describes the confidence and insight the scripture inspired in its audience. This schema was frequently employed in subsequent scriptural exegesis of most of the major scholastic schools of East Asian Buddhism and is still widely used even today. See also NETTIPPAKARAnA; PEtAKOPADESA; VYĀKHYĀYUKTI; WUZHONG XUANYI.
SaNjaya Vairātīputra. [alt. SaMjayin Vairātīputra] (P. SaNjaya/SaNcaya Belatthiputta; T. Smra 'dod kyi bu mo'i bu yang dag rgyal ba can; C. Shansheye Piluozhizi; J. Sanjaya Birateishi; K. Sansaya Pirajija 刪闍耶毘羅胝子). One of the so-called "six heterodox teachers" often mentioned in Buddhist sutras, whose views and/or practices were criticized by the Buddha, along with PuRAnA-KĀsYAPA, MASKARIN GOsĀLĪPUTRA, AJITA KEsAKAMBALA, KAKUDA KĀTYĀYANA, and NIRGRANTHA-JNĀTĪPUTRA. SaNjaya was a skeptic who doubted the possibility of knowledge and the validity of logic. On questions such as the presence of a world beyond the visible world, the nature of the postmortem condition, and whether actions done in this life had effects in the next, he found the four traditional answers-affirmation, negation, partial affirmation and partial negation, and neither affirmation or negative-to each be unacceptable, and therefore gave evasive answers when asked such speculative questions. The Buddha's two foremost disciples, sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA, were originally disciples of SaNjaya before encountering the teachings of the Buddha. They are said to have each taken 250 of SaNjaya's followers with them when they abandoned him for the Buddha. Upon hearing the news of their departure, SaNjaya vomited blood and fainted.
sanmei jing. (S. samādhisutra; J. sanmaikyo; K. sammae kyong 三昧經). In Chinese, "SAMĀDHI scriptures"; a category of MAHĀYĀNA sutras that are primarily or exclusively concerned with the practice or experience of meditation (SAMĀDHI), or whose title contains the term sanmei. The earliest reference to sanmei jing as a scriptural category appears in the oldest extant Chinese scriptural catalogue, CHU SANZANG JIJI ("Compilation of Notices on the Translation of the TRIPItAKA"), compiled by SENGYOU (445-518) around 515; there, Sengyou remarks that Zhu Fahu (DHARMARAKsA) translated several sanmei jings. The Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING) contains more than fifty sutras that use the term sanmei in their titles. These include sanmei jings whose Sanskrit titles do not use the term samādhi and to which the term sanmei was added when these scriptures were translated into Chinese. There are also other scriptures of uncertain provenance whose titles in earlier Chinese translations did not contain the term sanmei. An examination of successive Chinese Buddhist scriptural catalogues (JINGLU) in fact reveals that there were several sutras that circulated first with one title, and later with a revised title that added sanmei to the original. Furthermore, there are a number of indigenous Chinese Buddhist scriptures (see APOCRYPHA), that were not entered into the canon, which call themselves sanmei jing. This phenomenon began early in the history of Chinese Buddhism. DAO'AN's 374 CE scriptural catalogue (ZONGLI ZHONG-JING MULU), which is no longer extant but portions of which are excerpted in Sengyou's Chu sanzang jiji, lists twenty-six scriptures of dubious authenticity; of these, six are titled sanmei jing. Several sanmei jings, such as the Banzhou sanmeijing (S. PRATYUTPANNABUDDHASAMMUKHĀVASTHITASAMĀDHISuTRA), offer instruction regarding the full range of practices involved in cultivating a specific samādhi technique. The majority of sanmei jings, however, are instead concerned with the various states of mind that the Buddha or BODHISATTVAs attained through samādhi, praising that samādhi, and/or emphasizing the merit gained through keeping and transmitting the text of the sanmei jing. The popularity of the sanmei jing genre in Chinese Buddhism can be at least partially attributed to Chinese Buddhists' faith and interest in the religious practice of copying and reciting scriptures, which most sanmei jings encourage as a means of attaining enlightenment. Higher meditative states like samādhi sometime seem ancillary to the topic of certain sanmei jings: the JINGDU SANMEI JING, for example, offers a detailed account of thirty separate levels of the hells and the incumbent punishments meted out there; in order to avoid the torments of hell, the scripture exhorts laypeople not to meditate, but instead to observe the five precepts (PANCAsĪLA) and perform the "eight-restrictions fast" (BAGUAN ZHAI) on specific Chinese seasonal days.
sāntideva. (T. Zhi ba lha). Eighth-century Indian monk of NĀLANDĀ monastery, renowned as the author of two influential MAHĀYĀNA texts: the BODHICARYĀVATĀRA (a long poem on the practice of the bodhisattva path) and the sIKsĀSAMUCCAYA (a compendium of passages from Mahāyāna sutras corroborating the explanations given in the Bodhicaryāvatāra). Nothing is known of his life apart from legends. According to these tales, he was of royal birth but renounced the world before his investiture as king. At Nālandā monastery, he was known as an indolent monk. In order to humiliate him, his fellow monks challenged him to recite sutras before the assembly. He asked whether they wished to hear something old or something new. When they requested something new, he recited the Bodhicaryāvatāra. When he reached the ninth chapter, on wisdom (PRAJNĀ), he began to rise into the air and disappeared, never to return. For this reason, there is some controversy as to how the ninth chapter ends, and indeed, there are different recensions of the text, one longer and one shorter. Based on the contents of the Bodhicaryāvatāra's ninth chapter, Tibetan doxographers count sāntideva as a proponent of the *PRĀSAnGIKA-MADHYAMAKA. The Bodhicaryāvatāra was very influential in Tibet; particularly noteworthy is the BKA' GDAMS tradition of dge bshes Po to ba, who lists it and the siksāsamuccaya, along with the BODHISATTVABHuMI, MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, Āryasura's JĀTAKAMĀLĀ, and the UDĀNAVARGA, as the six fundamental treatises of the Bka' gdams tradition.
Sarasvatī. (T. Dbyangs can ma; C. Biancaitian/Miaoyintian; J. Benzaiten/Myoonten; K. Pyonjaech'on/Myoŭmch'on 辯才天/妙音天). An Indian goddess revered in both Hinduism and Buddhism as the goddess of composition (including music and poetry) and of learning. She is often depicted playing a vīnā lute and riding on a swan. She appears in a number of Buddhist sutras, including the SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA. Because of that sutra's articulation of a role for Buddhism in "state protection" (see HUGUO FOJIAO), Sarasvatī came to be regarded as important goddess in Japan, where, as Benzaiten, she was included among the "seven gods of good fortune" (SHICHIFUKUJIN).
sāriputra. (P. Sāriputta; T. Shā ri bu; C. Shelifu; J. Sharihotsu; K. Saribul 舍利弗). In Sanskrit, "Son of sārī"; the first of two chief disciples of the Buddha, along with MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA. sāriputra's father was a wealthy brāhmana named Tisya (and sāriputra is sometimes called Upatisya, after his father) and his mother was named sārī or sārikā, because she had eyes like a sārika bird. sārī was the most intelligent woman in MAGADHA; she is also known as sāradvatī, so sāriputra is sometimes referred to as sāradvatīputra. sāriputra was born in Nālaka near RĀJAGṚHA. He had three younger brothers and three sisters, all of whom would eventually join the SAMGHA and become ARHATs. sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana were friends from childhood. Once, while attending a performance, both became overwhelmed with a sense of the vanity of all impermanent things and resolved to renounce the world together. They first became disciples of the agnostic SANJAYA VAIRĀtĪPUTRA, although they later took their leave of him and wandered through India in search of the truth. Finding no solution, they parted company, promising one another that whichever one should succeed in finding the truth would inform the other. It was then that sāriputra met the Buddha's disciple, AsVAJIT, one of the Buddha's first five disciples (PANCAVARGIKA) and already an arhat. sāriputra was impressed with Asvajit's countenance and demeanor and asked whether he was a master or a disciple. When he replied that he was a disciple, sāriputra asked him what his teacher taught. Asvajit said that he was new to the teachings and could only provide a summary, but then uttered one of the most famous statements in the history of Buddhism, "Of those phenomena produced through causes, the TATHĀGATA has proclaimed their causes (HETU) and also their cessation (NIRODHA). Thus has spoken the great renunciant." (See YE DHARMĀ s.v.). Hearing these words, sāriputra immediately became a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) and asked where he could find this teacher. In keeping with their earlier compact, he repeated the stanza to his friend Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who also immediately became a streamenterer. The two friends resolved to take ordination as disciples of the Buddha and, together with five hundred disciples of their former teacher SaNjaya, proceeded to the VEnUVANAVIHĀRA, where the Buddha was in residence. The Buddha ordained the entire group with the EHIBHIKsUKĀ ("Come, monks") formula, whereupon all except sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana became arhats. Mahāmaudgalyāyana was to attain arhatship seven days after his ordination, while sāriputra reached the goal after a fortnight upon hearing the Buddha preach the Vedanāpariggahasutta (the Sanskrit recension is entitled the Dīrghanakhaparivrājakaparipṛcchā). The Buddha declared sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana his chief disciples the day they were ordained, giving as his reason the fact that both had exerted themselves in religious practice for countless previous lives. sāriputra was declared chief among the Buddha's disciples in wisdom, while Mahāmaudgalyāyana was chief in mastery of supranormal powers (ṚDDHI). sāriputra was recognized as second only to the Buddha in his knowledge of the dharma. The Buddha praised sāriputra as an able teacher, calling him his dharmasenāpati, "dharma general" and often assigned topics for him to preach. Two of his most famous discourses were the DASUTTARASUTTA and the SAnGĪTISUTTA, which the Buddha asked him to preach on his behalf. Sāriputra was meticulous in his observance of the VINAYA, and was quick both to admonish monks in need of guidance and to praise them for their accomplishments. He was sought out by others to explicate points of doctrine and it was he who is said to have revealed the ABHIDHARMA to the human world after the Buddha taught it to his mother, who had been reborn in the TRĀYASTRIMsA heaven; when the Buddha returned to earth each day to collect alms, he would repeat to sāriputra what he had taught to the divinities in heaven. sāriputra died several months before the Buddha. Realizing that he had only seven days to live, he resolved to return to his native village and convert his mother; with this accomplished, he passed away. His body was cremated and his relics were eventually enshrined in a STuPA at NĀLANDĀ. sāriputra appears in many JĀTAKA stories as a companion of the Buddha, sometimes in human form, sometimes in animal form, and sometimes with one of them a human and the other an animal. sāriputra also plays a major role in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, where he is a common interlocutor of the Buddha and of the chief BODHISATTVAs. Sometimes he is portrayed as a dignified arhat, elsewhere he is made the fool, as in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA when a goddess turns him into a woman, much to his dismay. In either case, the point is that the wisest of the Buddha's arhat disciples, the master of the abhidharma, does not know the sublime teachings of the Mahāyāna and must have them explained to him. The implication is that the teachings of the Mahāyāna sutras are therefore more profound than anything found in the canons of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYA ("Heart Sutra"), it is sāriputra who asks AVALOKITEsVARA how to practice the perfection of wisdom, and even then he must be empowered to ask the question by the Buddha. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, it is sāriputra's question that prompts the Buddha to set forth the parable of the burning house. The Buddha predicts that in the future, sāriputra will become the buddha Padmaprabha.
sarvajNatā. (P. sabbaNNu; T. kun shes/thams cad mkhyen pa; C. yiqie zhi; J. issaichi; K. ilch'e chi 一切智). In Sanskrit, "all-knower," "all-knowledge," or "omniscience"; in early versions of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras, the name for a buddha's knowledge; later, the term was used for the knowledge of a sRĀVAKA or PRATYEKABUDDHA, in contrast to a buddha's knowledge of all aspects (SARVĀKĀRAJNATĀ), which is reached by cultivating a bodhisattva's knowledge of the paths (MĀRGAJNATĀ). The "all" (sarva) means all the grounds (vastu) of the knowledge of defiled (SAMKLIstA) and pure (visuddha, see VIsUDDHI) dharmas systematized in the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. In the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA and VIMUKTISENA's commentary to that text, sarvajNatā has both a positive and a negative meaning. In the opening verses of the AbhisamayālaMkāra, for example, sarvajNatā is called the mother of the perfection of wisdom. In such cases it is a positive term for the part of a buddha's knowledge that is shared in common with srāvakas, and so on. In the third chapter of the same work, sarvajNatā is a negative term used to identify the absence of skillful means (UPĀYA) and the lack of the total absence of subject-object conceptualization (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA) in srāvakas, in order to point clearly to the superiority of the BODHISATTVA path.
sāstṛsaMjNā. (T. ston par 'du shes; C. dashi xiang; J. daishiso; K. taesa sang 大師想). In Sanskrit, "recognition as the teacher," a term that appears especially in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras in a variety of contexts. In addition to its denotation of recognizing the Buddha as the true teacher (sĀSTṚ), the Mahāyāna also claims that a bodhisattva should regard all other bodhisattvas as his teachers, as if they were the Buddha himself; one should regard as one's teacher the person from whom one hears the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ); one should regard the text of the prajNāpāramitā itself as one's teacher; and one should regard all sentient beings as one's teacher.
satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag brgya pa; C. Shiwansong bore; J. Jumanju hannya; K. Simmansong panya 十萬頌般若). In Sanskrit, the "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines," the longest of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras. Some scholars regard the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ (eight thousand lines) to be the earliest of the prajNāpāramitā sutras, which was then expanded into the AstadasasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra (eighteen thousand lines) and the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA (twenty-five thousand lines). According to this explanation, the most extensive of the expansions is the satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā, sometimes referred to as the "great mother [of the victors]." The composition sequence of these different sutras is not as clear as once thought, however, and there appear to be parts of the sātasāhasrikā not found in the Asta, which may go back to very early material. The text is in three major sections, with the first two expanding on the contents of the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā. The third section, which seems to be an independent text, contains discussions of topics such as the nature of enlightenment, the Buddha's omniscience, the body of the Buddha, and the six perfections. Unlike the other two briefer expansions, the version in one hundred thousand lines omits four chapters that occur in the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā. It is said that after the Buddha taught the satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā, he entrusted it to the NĀGAs, who kept it in a jeweled casket in the bottom of the ocean, where it was eventually retrieved and brought to the human world by NĀGĀRJUNA.
saucat svanga-jugupsa ::: from cleanliness (arises) disgust for one's own body. [Yoga Sutras 2.40]
Sautrāntika. (T. Mdo sde pa; C. Jingliang bu; J. Kyoryobu; K. Kyongnyang pu 經量部). In Sanskrit, "Followers of the Sutras," one of the "mainstream" (that is, non-MAHĀYĀNA) schools of Indian Buddhism, which may have been a dissenting offshoot of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school. Its name was apparently meant to distinguish this school from those ĀBHIDHARMIKAs who based themselves on ABHIDHARMA treatises, such as the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ. The Sautrāntika were "Followers of the Sutras" because they were said to have rejected the validity of the abhidharma as being the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) and advocated a doctrine of momentariness (KsAnIKAVĀDA), in which (again in distinction to the Sarvāstivāda) only present activity exists. No texts of the school are extant, but its positions are represented in the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, which presents the SARVĀSTIVĀDA-VAIBHĀsIKA positions in detail, and as deficient relative to a putative Sautrāntika position. According to Tibetan accounts, VASUBANDHU, the author of the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, wrote from the perspective of the Sautrāntika position even while he himself was a YOGĀCĀRA adherent. Similarly, some of the chapters of the Yogācāra DHARMAKĪRTI's explanation of Dignāga's logical system are written from the Sautrāntika perspective. According to sĀNTARAKsITA and his student KAMALAsĪLA, one major difference between the Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika schools is their respective rejection or acceptance of SVASAMVEDANA ("self-cognizing awareness"). Although both schools accept that atoms (PARAMĀnU) build up to form external objects that are perceived by consciousness, the Vaibhāsika say that the mind knows these objects directly, while the Sautrāntika position is that it knows them through images (ākāra). In late Indian and Tibetan classifications, the Sautrāntika and Vaibhāsika are called the two sRĀVAKA schools (T. nyan thos sde pa), to distinguish them from the two Mahāyāna schools of YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA.
Senchakushu. (選擇集). In Japanese, "Collection of Selections," composed by the Japanese PURE LAND monk HoNEN in 1198; also known as Senjakushu or Senchaku hongan nenbutsushu ("Collection of Selections on Nenbutsu and the Original Vow"). Honen's Senchakushu is one of the most influential texts in Japan on the practice of nenbutsu (see NIANFO), i.e., the invocation of the name of the buddha AMITĀBHA; it is also traditionally regarded as the founding scripture of the JoDOSHu tradition of Japanese pure land. Relying on the three pure land sutras (JINGTU SANBUJING, viz., the longer and shorter SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA and the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING) and a number of important commentaries by SHANDAO and TANLUAN, Honen attempted to elucidate the importance of the practice of nenbutsu in the context of Amitābha's original vows as described in the Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra. He first cites DAOCHUO's division of Buddhist practice into that of the sacred path (that is, the traditional Buddhist path) and the pure land path, and then cites SHANDAO's division into proper and miscellaneous. These divisions are used as an argument for the practice of exclusive nenbutsu. Honen then demonstrates that exclusive nenbutsu is the practice advocated by Amitābha in his original vows. In the next few sections of his text, Honen also mentions the benefits of exclusive nenbutsu and explains why this practice is most appropriate for those in the age of the final dharma (J. mappo; see MOFA). The other sections of the Senchakushu provide further scriptural evidence for the importance of nenbutsu and discuss the proper method for practicing it. At Honen's request, the work was not widely circulated until after his death. Numerous commentaries on this text exist in Japanese.
shi. (J. ji; K. sa 事). In Chinese, "phenomenon," "event," "object"; the specific elements of the empirical world as they are experienced conventionally. In East Asian Buddhism, shi is typically used in distinction to "principle" (LI): li refers to the fundamental pattern or principle that underlies all phenomena, thus representing the true nature of reality; shi by contrast refers to all the particular expressions of this li in the phenomenal world. This interrelationship thus implies the inherent presence of li within shi. Teachers within the TIANTAI ZONG were among the first to employ the two terms in their systematic analysis of Buddhist thought. TIANTAI ZHIYI (538-597), the systematizer of the Tiantai zong, applied the terms to refer not only to doctrinal but also to the practical dimensions of Buddhism. In the contexts of Buddhist practice, shi refers to such specific ritual and meditative activities as repentance, circumambulation, reciting the sutras, and sitting meditation, which could lead to the realization of the principle of emptiness or the truth of the median (see SANDI). The term shi is especially crucial in HUAYAN doctrinal analysis, where it is deployed in the taxonomy of the four realms of reality (DHARMADHĀTU), four successively more profound levels of experience (see SI FAJIE). According to Huayan doctrine, because each and every individual phenomenon (shi) is pervaded by principle (li), all the various discrete phenomena pervade, and are in turn pervaded by, each and every other discrete phenomenon in the experience of what Huayan terms the "dharma-realm of the unimpeded interpenetration between phenomenon and phenomena" (SHISHI WU'AI FAJIE). As the individual products of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), shi thus represents the organic totality of reality, in which every phenomenon is in multivalent interaction with everything else in the universe, mutually creating, and being created by, all other things.
Shilpasutras ::: see silpasutras
Shinran. (親鸞) (1173-1262). Japanese priest who is considered the founder of the JoDO SHINSHu, or "True PURE LAND School." After the loss of his parents, Shinran was ordained at age nine by the TENDAISHu monk Jien (1155-1225) and began his studies at HIEIZAN. There, he regularly practiced "perpetual nenbutsu" (J. nenbutsu; C. NIANFO), ninety-day retreats in which one circumambulated a statue of the buddha AMITĀBHA while reciting the nenbutsu. In 1201, he left Mt. Hiei and became the disciple of HoNEN, an influential monk who emphasized nenbutsu recitation. Shinran was allowed to copy Honen's most influential (and at that time still unpublished) work, the SENCHAKUSHu. When Honen was exiled to Tosa in 1207, Shinran was defrocked by the government and exiled to Echigo, receiving a pardon four years later. He did not see Honen again. Shinran would become a popular teacher of nenbutsu practice among the common people, marrying (his wife Eshinni would later write important letters on pure land practice) and raising a family (the lineage of the True Pure Land sect is traced through his descendants), although he famously declared that he was "neither a monk nor a layman" (hiso hizoku). While claiming simply to be transmitting Honen's teachings, Shinran made important revisions and elaborations of the pure land doctrine that he had learned from Honen. In 1214, he moved to the Kanto region, where he took a vow to recite the three pure land sutras (J. Jodo sanbukyo; C. JINGTU SANBU JING) one thousand times. However, he soon stopped the practice, declaring it to be futile. It is said that from this experience he developed his notion of shinjin. Although literally translated as "the mind of faith," as Shinran uses the term shinjin might best be glossed as the buddha-mind realized in the entrusting of oneself to Amitābha's name and vow. Shinran often would contrast self-power (JIRIKI) and other-power (TARIKI), with the former referring to the always futile attempts to secure one's own welfare through traditional practices such as mastering the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) of the bodhisattva path to buddhahood, and the latter referring to the sole source of salvation, the power of Amitābha's name and his vow. Thus, Shinran regarded the Mahāyāna practice of dedicating merit to the welfare of others to be self-power; the only dedication of merit that was important was that made by the bodhisattva DHARMĀKARA, who vowed to become the buddha Amitābha and establish his pure land of SUKHĀVATĪ for those who called his name. He regarded the deathbed practices meant to bring about birth in the pure land to be self-power; he regarded multiple recitations of NAMU AMIDABUTSU to be self-power. Shinran refers often to the single utterance that assures rebirth in the pure land. This utterance need not be audible, indeed not even voluntary, but is instead heard in the heart as a consequence of the "single thought-moment" of shinjin, received through Amitābha's grace. This salvation has nothing to do with whether one is a monk or layperson, man or woman, saint or sinner, learned or ignorant. He said that if even a good man can be reborn in the pure land, then how much more easily can an evil man; this is because the good man remains attached to the illusion that his virtuous deeds will somehow bring about his salvation, while the evil man has abandoned this conceit. Whereas Honen sought to identify the benefits of the nenbutsu in contrast to other teachings of the day, Shinran sought to reinterpret Buddhist doctrine and practice in light of Amitābha's vow. For example, the important Mahāyāna doctrine of the EKAYĀNA, or "one vehicle," the buddha vehicle whereby all sentient beings will be enabled to follow the bodhisattva path to buddhahood, is interpreted by Shinran to be nothing other than Amitābha's vow. Indeed, the sole purpose of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha's appearance in the world was to proclaim the existence of Amitābha's vow. These doctrines are set forth in Shinran's magnum opus, an anthology of passages from Buddhist scriptures, intermixed with his own comments and arranged topically, entitled KYoGYo SHINSHo ("Teaching, Practice, and Realization of the Pure Land Way"), a work that he began in 1224 and continued to expand and revise over the next three decades. Shinran did not consider himself to be a master and did not establish a formal school, leading to problems of authority among his followers when he was absent. After he left Kanto for Kyoto, for example, problems arose among his followers in Kanto, leading Shinran to write a series of letters, later collected as TANNISHo ("Lamenting the Deviations").
Shobogenzo. (正法眼藏). In Japanese, "Treasury of the True Dharma Eye"; the magnum opus of the Japanese ZEN master DoGEN KIGEN (1200-1253); the title refers to the Zen (C. CHAN) school, which is considered to be the repository of the insights of the buddha sĀKYAMUNI himself, transmitted through the lineage of the CHAN patriarchs (ZUSHI) starting with MAHĀKĀsYAPA. A work bearing the same title (C. ZHENGFAYANZANG) by the eminent Song-dynasty Chinese monk DAHUI ZONGGAO was probably the inspiration for Dogen's own title. Dogen's oeuvre contains two works with this title. The first is a collection of 301 koan (C. GONG'AN) cases, composed in literary Chinese, known as the Shinji Shobogenzo or the Mana Shobogenzo. The second is a collection of essays written in Japanese, known as the Kana [viz., "vernacular"] Shobogenzo, which is the better known of the two and which will be the focus of this account. The Shobogenzo is a collection of individual essays and treatises that Dogen composed throughout his eventful career. Its earliest included treatise is the BENDoWA composed in 1231 and the latest is the Hachidainingaku composed in 1253, the year of Dogen's death. Although the Shobogenzo seems to have been all but forgotten after Dogen's death, later successors in the Japanese Soto Zen tradition, such as MANZAN DoHAKU (1636-1715), TENKEI DENSON (1648-1735), and MENZAN ZUIHo (1683-1769), and the layman ouchi Seiran (1845-1918) rediscovered the text and their influential commentaries on it helped to make Dogen's magnum opus the central scripture of the Soto Zen tradition. Six different editions of the Shobogenzo are known to exist: the "original" volume edited by Dogen in seventy-five rolls, the twelve-roll Yokoji edition, the sixty-roll Eiheiji edition edited by Giun (1253-1333), the eighty-four roll edition edited by Bonsei (d. 1427) in 1419, the eighty-nine roll edition edited by Manzan Dohaku (1636-1715) in 1684 at Daishoji, and the ninety-five roll edition edited by Kozen (1627-1693) in 1690 at Eiheiji. The seventy-five roll edition is today the most widely consulted and cited. Many of the essays were originally sermons delivered by Dogen, such that some are written by him and others were recorded by his disciples. Late in his life, he began to revise the essays, completing the revision of twelve of them before his death. The essays are renowned for their subtle and elliptical style, clever word play, and sometimes enigmatic meanings. Part of their difficulty arises from the fact that Dogen quotes liberally from Buddhist sutras and the works of Chinese masters, but also interprets these passages quite ingeniously. Dogen also invented a number of Buddhist neologisms that were largely unique to him, including creative "mis"-readings of original Chinese passages. For example, in his famous essay "Uji" ("Being Time"), Dogen reads the quotidian Chinese compound youshi ("at a certain time") to suggest the identity of "being" (C. you, J. u) and "time" (C. shi, J. ji): i.e., since impermanency governs all compounded things, those things are in fact time itself. The text includes extensive discussions of the foundations of Zen thought, the meaning and significance of awakening (SATORI), as well as detailed instructions on the ritual procedures for performing sitting meditation (J. ZAZEN; C. ZUOCHAN), as in the chapter FUKAN ZAZENGI. The Shobogenzo remains a source of great interest to scholars and practitioners of Zen. See also SoToSHu.
siksānanda. (C. Shichanantuo; J. Jisshananda; K. Silch'anant'a 實叉難陀) (652-710). A monk from KHOTAN (C. Yutian), who was an important translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese during the Tang dynasty. The Empress WU ZETIAN (r. 690-705) invited siksānanda to the Chinese capital of Luoyang, asking him to bring from Khotan its Sanskrit recension of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA (alt. BuddhāvataMsakasutra; C. Dafangguang Fo huayan jing), which was longer and more comprehensive than the sixty-roll version then in use in China, which had previously been translated by the Indian monk BUDDHABHADRA (359-429). siksānanda arrived in Luoyang in 695 and supervised a translation team in rendering this Khotanese recension into Chinese; his team included BODHIRUCI (693-727), YIJING (635-713), and WoNCH'ŬK (613-696). siksānanda and his team finished their translation in 699, after four years of work, in a total of eighty rolls. The translation that siksānanda supervised is typically called within the tradition the "new" (xin) translation, in contrast to Buddhabhadra's "old" translation. (LI TONGXUAN's commentary to siksānanda's new rendering of the text is, for example, called the Xin Huayan jing lun; see HUAYAN JING HELUN.) siksānanda continued with his translation projects until 705, when he returned to Khotan to care for his aged mother. Some thirteen other translations are attributed to him, including the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and several shorter DHĀRAnĪ sutras, as well as a version of the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna"). Emperor Zhongzong (r. 705-710) invited siksānanda to return once again to China in 708, but he died of illness in 710 at the age of fifty-nine without beginning any new translation work. It is reported that after his cremation, his tongue remained untouched by flames-an indication of his remarkable erudition.
siksāsamuccaya. (T. Bslab pa kun las btus pa; C. Dasheng ji pusa xue lun; J. Daijoju bosatsugakuron; K. Taesŭng chip posal hak non 大乘集菩薩學論). In Sanskrit, "Compendium of Training," a work by the eighth-century Indian MAHĀYĀNA master sĀNTIDEVA. It consists of twenty-seven stanzas on the motivation and practice of the BODHISATTVA, including BODHICITTA, the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ), the worship of buddhas and bodhisattvas, the benefits of renunciation, and the peace derived from the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The topic of each of the stanzas receives elaboration in the form of a prose commentary by the author as well as in illustrative passages, often quite extensive, drawn from a wide variety of Mahāyāna SuTRAs. Some ninety-seven texts are cited in all, many of which have been lost in their original Sanskrit, making the siksāsamuccaya an especially important source for the textual history of Indian Buddhism. These citations also offer a window into which sutras were known to a Mahāyāna author in eighth-century India. The digest of passages that sāntideva provides was repeatedly drawn upon by Tibetan authors in their citations of sutras. Although sāntideva's BODHICARYĀVATĀRA and siksāsamuccaya both deal with similar topics, the precise relation between the two texts is unclear. Several of the author's verses appear in both texts and some of the sutra passages from the siksāsamuccaya also appear in the Bodhicaryāvatāra. One passage in the Bodhicaryāvatāra also refers readers to the siksāsamuccaya, but this line does not occur in the DUNHUANG manuscript of the text and may be a later interpolation.
sīladharma. (C. Shiluodamo/Jiefa; J. Shiradatsuma/Kaiho; K. Siradalma/Kyebop 尸羅達摩/戒法) (d.u., fl. c. eighth-ninth centuries). A translator-monk from KHOTAN (C. Yutian), who stayed at the monastery of Longxingsi in Beiting (present-day Inner Mongolia), during the Tang dynasty. Wukong (d. 812), a Chinese pilgrim who spent some forty years sojourning in India and Central Asia, arrived in Beiting in 789 with several Sanskrit manuscripts of Indian scriptures. Wukong asked sīladharma to collaborate with him in translating two of the sutras he brought back with him into Chinese: the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA (Foshuo shidi jing) and the Parināmacakrasutra (Huixianglun jing). Upon completing the translations, sīladharma accompanied Wukong to the Tang capital of Chang'an in 790, where they had an audience at the imperial court, after which sīladharma returned to his home country.
silpasutras (Shilpasutras) ::: [aphoristic writings on any of the arts or crafts].
sinjung. (C. shenzhong; J. shinshu 神衆). In Korean, "host of spirits"; referring to the LOKAPĀLAs, the protectors of the dharma (DHARMAPĀLA). The sinjung are often headed by KUMĀRABHuTA (K. Tongjin), who appears in a grand, feathered headdress accompanied by over a dozen associates, who aid him in protecting the religion. Originally Hindu deities, the sinjung were adopted into Buddhism as guardian deities after being converted by the Buddha's teachings. In particular, BRAHMĀ (K. Pom Ch'onwang), INDRA (K. Chesok ch'on), the four heavenly kings (S. CATURMAHĀRĀJA; K. sa ch'on wang), and WEITUO (K. Wit'a) were so popular that many statues and paintings were made of them. As the SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA gained popularity in East Asian Buddhism, the sinjung also came to be regarded as protectors of the state as well as the dharma. Imported to Korea along with Buddhism, the sinjung also came to be worshipped in state Buddhist services. During the Choson dynasty, when Neo-Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the state religion, the role of the sinjung stretched into the personal realm as well, including protecting against disease. Many of the sinjung derive from such Buddhist sutras as the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), and the RENWANG JING ("Scripture for Humane Kings"), but there are also indigenous sinjung who originated from within the Chinese and Korean religious traditions. Hanging paintings (T'AENGHWA) of the sinjung are often displayed on the right wall of the main shrine halls (TAEUNG CHoN) in Korean monasteries. These paintings vary widely, and the main figures include: (1) Chesok ch'on (Indra), alone without associates; (2) Yejok Kŭmgang (the vajra-ruler who purifies unclean places), with Chesok ch'on on his left side and Pom Ch'onwang (Brahmā) on his right; (3) Wit'a (Weituo) with the same associates of Yejok Kŭmgang to his sides; (4) thirty-nine sinjung from the AvataMsakasutra; (4) 104 sinjung, including all the indigenous sinjung.
Sishi'er zhang jing. (J. Shijunishogyo; K. Sasibi chang kyong 四十二章經). In Chinese, "Scripture in Forty-two Sections," a short collection of aphorisms and pithy moralistic parables traditionally regarded as the first Indian Buddhist scripture to be translated into Chinese, but now generally presumed to be an indigenous scripture (see APOCRYPHA) that was compiled in either China or Central Asia. Most scholars believe that the "Scripture in Forty-Two Sections" began to circulate during the earliest period of Buddhism in China. According to tradition, the "Scripture in Forty-Two Sections" was translated at the behest of MINGDI of the Han dynasty (r. 58-75 CE). According to the earliest surviving account, Emperor Ming had a dream one evening in which he saw a spirit flying in front of his palace. The spirit had a golden body and the top of his head emitted rays of light. The following day the emperor asked his ministers to identify the spirit. One minister replied that he had heard of a sage in India called "Buddha" who had attained the way (dao) and was able to fly. The emperor presumed that this must have been the spirit he observed in his dream, so he dispatched a group of envoys led by Zhang Qian who journeyed to the Yuezhi region (Indo-Scythia) to search out this sage; he returned with a copy of the "Scripture in Forty-Two Sections." A fifth-century source reports that the envoys also managed to secure the famous image of the UDĀYANA BUDDHA, the first buddha-image. In fifth- and sixth-century materials, there is additionally mention of two Indian monks, KĀsYAPA MĀTAnGA (d. u.) and Dharmaratna (d. u.), who returned with the Chinese envoys. By the medieval period these monks are regularly cited as cotranslators of the scripture. According to a relatively late tradition, the Emperor Ming also built the first Chinese Buddhist temple-BAIMASI in Luoyang-as a residence for the two Indian translators. Early Buddhist catalogues refer to the text simply as "Forty-Two Sections from Buddhist Scriptures," or "The Forty-Two Sections of Emperor Xiao Ming." The text consists largely of snippets culled from longer Buddhist sutras included in the Buddhist canon; parallel sections are found in the ĀGAMAs and NIKĀYAs, as well as the MAHĀVAGGA. The text also bears a number of Chinese stylistic features. The most obvious is the phrase "The Buddha said" which is used to introduce most sections, rather than the more common Buddhist opening "Thus have I heard" (EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM). This opening is reminiscent of Confucian classics such as the Xiaojing ("Book of Filial Piety") and the Lunyu ("Analects"), where maxims and illustrative anecdotes are often prefaced with the phrase, "The master said." The terminology of the Sishi'er zhang jing borrows heavily from Daoism and the philosophical tradition known as XUANXUE (Dark Learning).
sishijiu [ri] zhai. (J. shijuku[nichi]sai; K. sasipku [il] chae 四十九[日]齋). In Chinese, "forty-ninth day ceremony," the final funeral service performed on the day when rebirth will have occurred. The "forty-ninth day ceremony" is the culmination of the funeral observances performed every seventh day for seven weeks after a person's death, lit. the "seven sevens [days] services" (C. QIQI JI/qiqi [ri] zhai; J. shichishichi no ki/shichishichi [nichi] sai; K. ch'ilch'il ki/ch'ilch'il [il] chae), a term that is also used as an alternate for "forty-ninth day ceremony." Many traditions of Buddhism believe that the dead pass through an "intermediate state" (ANTARĀBHAVA) that leads eventually to the next rebirth. The duration of this intermediate period is variously presumed to be essentially instantaneous, to one-week long, indeterminate, and as many as forty-nine days; of these, forty-nine days eventually becomes a dominant paradigm. Ceremonies to help guide the transitional being (GANDHARVA) through the rebirth process take place once each week, at any point of which rebirth might occur; these observances culminate in a "forty-ninth day ceremony" (SISHIJIU [RI] ZHAI), which is thought to mark the point at which rebirth certainly will have taken place. Since the transitional being in the antarābhava is released from the physical body, it is thought to be unusually susceptible to the influence of the dharma during this period; hence, the preliminary weekly ceremonies and the culminating forty-ninth day ceremony both include lengthy chanting of SuTRAs and MANTRAs, often accompanied by the performance of MUDRĀs, in order to help the being understand the need to let go of the attachment to the previous life and go forward to at least a more salutary rebirth, if not to enlightenment itself. In Korea, the forty-ninth-day ceremony is usually performed in the Hall of the Dark Prefecture (MYoNGBU CHoN), the shrine dedicated to KsITIGARBHA, the patron bodhisattva of the denizens of hell, and the ten kings of hell (SHIWANG; see YAMA), the judges of the dead.
sloka. (P. siloka; T. tshigs bcad; C. ji/song; J. ge/ju; K. ke/song 偈/頌). In Sanskrit, "stanza," referring to a unit of metrical verse in traditional Sanskrit literature. Although the exact form of the verse may vary, the most common form of sLOKA is composed of four "feet" (pāda), each foot consisting of eight syllables, for a total of thirty-two; this form is called the anustubh. Other forms include the tristubh, which has four feet of eleven syllables each, and the gāyatrī, which has three feet of eight syllables each. The form is widely used in Buddhist and non-Buddhist Indian literature, which is often composed in a mixture of prose and verse. The term is implied in the titles of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs: e.g., in the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, which is often translated as "The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines," where lines refers to slokas.
Sonmun pojang nok. (禪門寶藏). In Korean, "Record of the Treasure Trove of the Son Tradition"; an anthology, in three rolls, of stories excerpted from various Chinese CHAN and Korean SoN texts. Although the preface of the Sonmun pojangnok was written in 1293 by the Koryo CH'oNTAE (Ch. TIANTAI) monk CH'oNCH'AEK (1206-?) to whom it is attributed, the exact authorship of the anthology is still a matter of some debate. The epilogue to the text was written in 1294 by the Koryo lay Buddhist literatus Yi Hon (1252-1312). The first roll, "The Gate That Compares Son and Kyo" (Son'gyo taebyon mun) advocates that Son is distinct from, and surpasses, KYO (Doctrinal Teachings) because, unlike Kyo, Son directly reveals Buddhist truth without relying on verbal explanation. The second roll, "The Gate through which all Kyo Lecturers Return and Yield" (Chegang kwibok mun) illustrates this superiority of Son over Kyo by citing several examples in which Kyo monks were embarrassed, or guided to an authentic awakening, by Chan or Son monks. The third roll, "The Gate Revered and Trusted by Kings and Vassals" (Kunsin sungsin mun) includes stories of kings and government officials respecting and honoring Chan and Son monks. One of the most interesting stories collected in the Sonmun pojang nok relates to the otherwise-unknown Patriarch Chin'gwi (Chin'gwi chosa). The story is recited twice in the first roll and once in the third, excerpted respectively from the Talma millok ("Secret Record of Bodhidharma"), the Haedong ch'iltae nok ("Record of the Seven Generations of the Patriarchs of Haedong [Korea]"), and the Wimyongje somun chegyong p'yon ("Section on the Emperor Ming of Wei Inquires about the Sutras"), none of which are extant. The story is extremely controversial, because it states that because sĀKYAMUNI Buddha's awakening under the BODHI TREE was still imperfect, he continued to wander looking for guidance, until he met a Chan patriarch in the Snowy Mountains (Himālaya) who was finally able to lead him to true awakening. Later, the renowned Choson monk SoNSAN HYUJoNG also included the same story in his Son'gyo sok ("Exposition of Son and Kyo"), but cited it instead from the Pomil kuksa chip ("Collected Works of the State Preceptor Pomil"), which is also not extant. However, since neither the story itself nor even the titles of any of the three texts cited in the Sonmun pojang nok are found in any Chinese Buddhist sources, it is presumed that the story itself was fabricated in Korea sometime between the times of PoMIL (810-889) and Ch'onch'aek. The Sonmun pojang nok is now embedded in the SoNMUN CH'WARYO and is also published in volume six of the Han'guk Pulgyo chonso ("Collected Works of Korean Buddhism").
Sonmun yomsong chip. (禪門拈頌集). In Korean, "Collection of Analyses and Verses on [Ancient Precedents] of the Son School," the first and largest indigenous Korean kongan (C. GONG'AN, J. koan; public case) anthology, compiled in thirty rolls by CHIN'GAK HYESIM (1178-1234) in 1226. The collection covers 1,463 kongan, along with annotations (yom), verses (song), and variant explanations, such as responding on behalf of a figure who does not answer during the kongan exchange (tae, lit. on his behalf), responding in a different way from the response given in the kongan exchange (pyol, lit. differently), and inquiring about the exchange (ch'ong, lit. soliciting, or verifying). The first xylographic edition of the collection was destroyed in 1232, just six years after its publication, during the Mongol invasions of the Korean peninsula. The second woodblock edition was carved sometime between 1244 and 1248 as a part of the massive project to remake the entire Koryo Buddhist canon (KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG). The postface to the second edition notes that 347 more kongan was added to the original for a total of 1,472; the current edition, however, includes only 1,463 kongan, a discrepancy that remains unexplained. The collection shows the influence of the Song gong'an literature, especially the Chanzong songgu lianzhu tongji ("Comprehensive Collection of the Chan School's Verses on Ancient [Precedents] That Are a String of Jewels"), compiled in 1179. The ancient cases (viz., the kongan) are arranged in the order of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), i.e., the Buddha, dharma, and saMgha. The first thirty-seven kongan are attributed to sĀKYAMUNI Buddha himself. The next set of twenty-four is derived from Buddhist sutras, including the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the *suRAMGAMASuTRA, and the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Diamond Sutra"). The remaining 1,402 kongan are taken from stories of the Indian and Chinese Son (Chan) patriarchs and teachers, along with a few unknown lay Son masters. The Sonmun yomsong chip was one of the official textbooks used for the monastic examinations (SŬNGKWA) in the Son school during the early Choson dynasty. There are a few important Korean commentaries to the anthology, including the Sonmun yomsong sorhwa ("Tales about the Son School's Analyses and Verses") in thirty rolls, by Hyesim's disciple Kagun (c. thirteenth century), IRYoN's (1206-1289) Sonmun yomsong sawon ("Garden of Affairs on the Son School's Analyses and Verses") in thirty rolls, and PAEKP'A KŬNGSoN's (1767-1852) Sonmun yomsong ki ("Record of the Son School's Analyses and Verses") in five rolls.
srāvaka. (P. sāvaka; T. nyan thos; C. shengwen; J. shomon; K. songmun 聲聞). In Sanskrit, lit. "listener"; viz., a direct "disciple" of the Buddha who "listened" to his teachings (and sometimes seen translated over-literally from the Chinese as "sound-hearer"). In the MAHĀYĀNA, the term was used to describe those who (along with PRATYEKABUDDHAs) sought their own liberation from suffering as an ARHAT by following the HĪNAYĀNA path (see ER SHENG), and was contrasted (negatively) to the BODHISATTVAs who seeks buddhahood for the sake of all beings. There is an issue in the Mahāyāna concerning whether srāvakas will eventually enter the bodhisattva path and become buddhas, or whether arhatship is a final state where no further progress along the path (MĀRGA) will be possible (see sRĀVAKAGOTRA). The SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, for example, declares that they will, and in the sutra the Buddha makes prophecies about the future buddhahood of several famous srāvakas. In many Mahāyāna sutras, srāvakas are often described as being in the audience of the Buddha's teaching, and certain srāvakas, such as sĀRIPUTRA, play important roles as interlocutors. In the third chapter of the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, a series of srāvakas explain why they are reluctant to visit the bodhisattva VIMALAKĪRTI, because of the insurmountable challenge his profound understanding of the dharma will present to them.
srāvakayāna. (T. nyan thos kyi theg pa; C. shengwen sheng; J. shomonjo; K. songmun sŭng 聲聞乘). In Sanskrit, "vehicle of the disciples," in MAHĀYĀNA treatments of the path, one of the two constituents (along with PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA) of the so-called "lesser vehicle" (HĪNAYĀNA). These two vehicles (C. ER SHENG), together with the third vehicle of the BODHISATTVA, are the "three vehicles" (TRIYĀNA) often mentioned in Mahāyāna sutras. The proponents of the various Mahāyāna philosophical schools disagree as to whether or not the srāvakayāna is an expedient stratagem (UPĀYA), with the MADHYAMAKA arguing that it is and that all beings, including sRĀVAKAs, will eventually enter the Mahāyāna and achieve buddhahood, and the some YOGĀCĀRA thinkers holding that srāvakas will only become arhats and cannot go on to become buddhas.
srāvastī. (P. Sāvatthi; T. Mnyan yod; C. Shewei guo; J. Shae koku; K. Sawi kuk 舍衛國). Capital city of KOsALA and one of the major cities of India at the time of the Buddha. The Pāli commentator BUDDHAGHOSA states implausibly that there were 5.7 million families living in srāvastī during the Buddha's lifetime. The Buddha spent many years there after he attained enlightenment, and he is reported to have passed twenty-five rains retreats (VARsĀ) in the city. srāvastī was ruled by the Buddha's royal patron, King PRASENAJIT, and was home to his wealthiest patron, ANĀTHAPIndADA, who offered to the Buddha the famous JETAVANA grove and its residences. Hundreds of sutras are set in srāvastī. The city is also the site where the Buddha (and, according to some accounts, all previous buddhas) performed two miracles: the "great miracle" (MAHĀPRĀTIHĀRYA), in which the Buddha creates various replicas of himself and appears simultaneously in various terrestrial and celestial abodes; and the "twin miracle" (YAMAKAPRĀTIHĀRYA) in which the Buddha, in response to a challenge from non-Buddhist YOGINs, rose into the air and simultaneously emitted fire and water from his body.
srīsiMha. (T. Shrī sing ha) (fl. eighth century). Sanskrit proper name of an important figure in the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism to Tibet, especially in the propagation of the RDZOGS CHEN teachings. According to some Tibetan accounts, he was born in China, although other sources identify his birthplace as Khotan or Kinnaur. At the age of eighteen, he is said to have traveled to Suvarnadvīpa, often identified as the island of Sumatra. There he has a vision of AVALOKITEsVARA, who advised him to go to India. Before doing so, he studied at "five-peak mountain," which some sources assume is WUTAISHAN in China. He next went to the Sosadvīpa charnel ground (sMAsĀNA), where he studied with MANJUsRĪMITRA for twenty-five years. After his teacher's death, he traveled to BODHGAYĀ, where he unearthed tantric texts hidden there by MaNjusrīmitra. srīsiMha is especially remembered in Tibet as the teacher of VAIROCANA, one of the most important figures in the earlier dissemination of Buddhism to Tibet. Vairocana was one of the first seven Tibetans (SAD MI BDUN) ordained as Buddhist monks by sĀNTARAKsITA at the monastery of BSAM YAS, and he soon became an illustrious translator. He is said to have been a disciple of PADMASAMBHAVA and a participant on the Indian side in the BSAM YAS DEBATE. After Padmasambhava's departure from Tibet, the king required a fuller exposition of TANTRA and sent Vairocana to India to obtain further tantric instructions. After many trials, he arrived in India, where he was instructed by srīsiMha. Fearing that other Indian masters would object to his imparting the precious esoteric teachings to a foreigner, srīsiMha insisted that he study sutras and less esoteric tantric texts with other teachers during the day, conveying the most secret teachings to him under the cover of darkness; these were the rdzogs chen teachings that Vairocana took back to Tibet and taught to king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN. Among other esoteric teachings that Vairocana gave to srīsiMha is srīsiMha's tantric commentary on the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA.
srotaāpanna. [alt. srotāpanna; srotāpanna] (P. sotāpanna; T. rgyun du zhugs pa; C. yuliu [guo]/xutuohuan; J. yoru[ka]/shudaon; K. yeryu [kwa]/sudawon 預流[果]/須陀洹). In Sanskrit, "stream-enterer" or "stream-winner"; the first of four stages of sanctity (see ĀRYAPUDGALA) in mainstream Buddhism, followed by the once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN) and worthy one (ARHAT). These four stages are together referred to as "the fruits of recluseship" (sRĀMAnYAPHALA), viz., "the effects of religious practice." The term srotaāpanna appears very often in the Buddhist sutras, with members of the Buddha's audience said to have attained this stage immediately upon hearing him preach the dharma. The stage of stream-enterer begins with the initial vision of the reality of NIRVĀnA, at which point one "enters the stream" leading to liberation. Because of this achievement, the srotaāpanna has abandoned completely the first three of ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth (SAMSĀRA): (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKĀYADṚstI), (2) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSĀ), (3) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARĀMARsA). For this reason, after becoming a stream-enterer, the adept will never again be reborn into the unfortunate rebirth destinies (APĀYA, DURGATI) as a demigod, animal, ghost, or hell denizen and is destined to become an arhat in a maximum of seven more lifetimes (see SAPTAKṚDBHAVAPARAMA). There are two stages to stream-entry: SROTAĀPANNAPHALAPRATIPANNAKA, or one who is practicing, or is a candidate for, the fruition of stream-entry; and SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA, or one who has reached, or is the recipient of, the fruition of stream-entry. The srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka has only reached the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (unimpeded path), whereas the srotaāpannaphalastha has reached the VIMUKTIMĀRGA (path of freedom). In the five-path system (PANCAMĀRGA), stream-entry is equivalent to the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) on the sRĀVAKA and PRATYEKABUDDHA paths. The srotaāpanna is also one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). In this context srotaāpanna is the name for candidates (pratipannaka) for srotaāpanna (the first fruit of the noble path). They may be either a follower through faith (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN) or a follower through doctrine (DHARMĀNUSĀRIN) with either dull (MṚDVINDRIYA) or keen faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). In all cases, they may have destroyed from none up to as many as five of the sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) that the ordinary (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes, but they will not have eliminated the sixth to the ninth sets. Were they to have removed the sixth set they would be called candidates for the second fruit of once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin), and were they to have removed the ninth set they would be called candidates for the third fruit of nonreturner (anāgāmin).
Subhuti. (T. Rab 'byor; C. Xuputi; J. Shubodai; K. Subori 須菩提). Sanskrit and Pāli proper name of an eminent ARHAT who was foremost among the Buddha's disciples in dwelling at peace in remote places and in worthiness to receive gifts. He was the younger brother of ANĀTHAPIndADA and took ordination on the day the JETAVANA grove was dedicated, when he heard the Buddha preach. He mastered the ubhatovibhanga, the two collections comprising the VINAYAPItAKA, after which he retired to the forest to practice meditation. He attained arhatship on the basis of maitrīdhyāna (P. mettājhāna), meditative absorption cultivated through contemplation of loving-kindness (MAITRĪ). On his alms-rounds, Subhuti would cultivate loving-kindness at the door of every house where he stopped, thus expanding the amount of merit accrued by his donor. Subhuti taught the dharma without distinction or limitation, for which reason the Buddha singled him out for praise. Subhuti was widely revered for his holiness and was sought out as a recipient of gifts. King BIMBISĀRA once promised to build a cave dwelling for him in RĀJAGṚHA but later forgot. Without a dwelling place, Subhuti sat in the open air to practice meditation. Over time, this caused a drought in the region, for the clouds would not rain lest this disturb the saint's meditations. When Bimbisāra became aware of this issue, he built a grass hut for him, and as soon as Subhuti sat inside it, the clouds poured down rain. During the time of Padmottara Buddha, Subhuti had been a famous hermit named Nanda with forty thousand disciples. Once when the Buddha was visiting his hermitage, he directed one of his monks proficient in loving-kindness and foremost in worthiness to receive gifts to preach to his host. Upon hearing the sermon, all forty thousand disciples of Nanda became arhats, while Nanda, enthralled by the charisma of the preaching monk, resolved one day to earn the same distinction. Subhuti also plays a prominent role in a number of MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The most famous of these roles is as the Buddha's chief interlocutor in PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras like the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, Subhuti is one the four sRĀVAKAs who understands the parable of the burning house; later his buddhahood is prophesied by the Buddha. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, Subhuti is one of the arhats who is reluctant to visit Vimalakīrti. Among the Buddha's ten major disciples, he is said to have been foremost in the knowledge of insubstantiality.
sukhāvatī. (T. bde ba can; C. jile jingtu; J. gokurakujodo; K. kŭngnak chongt'o 極樂淨土). In Sanskrit, "blissful" or "full of happiness" (the Chinese translates the name as "ultimate bliss"); the name of the buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) or PURE LAND of the buddha AMITĀBHA as described in what are referred to in East Asia as the three pure land sutras (JINGTU SANBUJING): the larger and smaller SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRAs (see AMITĀBHASuTRA) and GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING (*Amitāyurdhyānasutra). Although many buddha-fields are enumerated and described in the Mahāyāna sutras, sukhāvatī is the most famous and is often referred to as "the western pure land" in East Asia. In India, rebirth in sukhāvatī appears to have been something of a generalized soteriological goal, disconnected from devotion to the buddha Amitābha; references to sukhāvatī appear in a number of important Mahāyāna sutras, including the SAMĀDHIRĀJASuTRA, which likely dates to the second century CE. The most detailed description of sukhāvatī appears in the larger Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra, discussed in the next entry. See also PURE LAND and ANLE GUO.
Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra. (T. Bde ba can gyi bkod pa'i mdo; C. Wuliangshou jing; J. Muryojukyo; K. Muryangsu kyong 無量壽經). Literally, the "Sutra Displaying [the Land of] Bliss," the title of the two most important Mahāyāna sutras of the "PURE LAND" tradition. The two sutras differ in length, and thus are often referred to in English as the "larger" and "smaller" (or "longer" and "shorter") Sukhāvatīvyuhasutras; the shorter one is commonly called the AMITĀBHASuTRA. Both sutras are believed to date from the third century CE. The longer and shorter sutras, together with the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING (*Amitāyurdhyānasutra), constitute the three main texts associated with the pure land tradition of East Asia (see JINGTU SANBUJING). There are multiple Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan versions of both the longer and shorter sutras, with significant differences among them. ¶ The longer Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra begins with ĀNANDA noticing that the Buddha is looking especially serene one day, and so asks him the reason. The Buddha responds that he was thinking back many millions of eons in the past to the time of the buddha LOKEsVARARĀJA. The Buddha then tells a story in the form of a flashback. In the audience of this buddha was a monk named DHARMĀKARA, who approached Lokesvararāja and proclaimed his aspiration to become a buddha. Dharmākara then requested the Buddha to describe all of the qualities of the buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA). Lokesvararāja provided a discourse that lasted one million years, describing each of the qualities of the lands of trillions of buddhas. Dharmākara then retired to meditate for five eons, seeking to concentrate all of the marvelous qualities of the millions of buddha-fields that had been described to him into a single pure buddha-field. When he completed his meditation, he returned to describe this imagined land to Lokesvararāja, promising to create a place of birth for fortunate beings and vowing that he would follow the bodhisattva path and become the buddha of this new buddha-field. He described the land he would create in a series of vows, stating that if this or that marvel was not present in his pure land, may he not become a buddha: e.g., "If in my pure land there are animals, ghosts, or hell denizens, may I not become a buddha." He made forty-eight such vows. These included the vow that all the beings in his pure land will be the color of gold; that beings in his pure land will have no conception of private property; that no bodhisattva will have to wash, dry, or sew his own robes; that bodhisattvas in his pure land will be able to hear the dharma in whatever form they wish to hear it and whenever they wish to hear it; that any woman who hears his name, creates the aspiration to enlightenment (BODHICITTA), and feels disgust at the female form, will not be reborn as a woman again. Two of these vows would become the focus of particular attention. In the eighteenth vow (seventeenth in the East Asian versions), Dharmākara vows that when he has become a buddha, he will appear at the moment of death to anyone who creates the aspiration to enlightenment, hears his name, and remembers him with faith. In the nineteenth vow (eighteenth in the East Asian versions), he promises that anyone who hears his name, wishes to be reborn in his pure land, and dedicates their merit to that end, will be reborn there, even if they make such a resolution as few as ten times during the course of their life. Only those who have committed one of the five inexpiable transgressions bringing immediate retribution (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN, viz., patricide, matricide, killing an ARHAT, wounding a buddha, or causing schism in the SAMGHA) are excluded. The scene then returns to the present. Ānanda asks the Buddha whether Dharmākara was successful, whether he did in fact traverse the long path of the bodhisattva to become a buddha. The Buddha replies that he did indeed succeed and that he became the buddha Amitābha (Infinite Light). The pure land that he created is called sukhāvatī. Because Dharmākara became a buddha, all of the things that he promised to create in his pure land have come true, and the Buddha proceeds to describe sukhāvatī in great detail. It is carpeted with lotuses made of seven precious substances, some of which reach ten leagues (YOJANA) in diameter. Each lotus emits millions of rays of light and from each ray of light there emerge millions of buddhas who travel to world systems in all directions to teach the dharma. The pure land is level, like the palm of one's hand, without mountains or oceans. It has great rivers, the waters of which rise as high or sink as low as one pleases, from the shoulders to the ankles, and vary in temperature as one pleases. The sound of the river takes the form of whatever auspicious words one wishes to hear, such as "buddha," "emptiness," "cessation," and "great compassion." The words "hindrance," "misfortune," and "pain" are never heard, nor are the words "day" and "night" used, except as metaphors. The beings in the pure land do not need to consume food. When they are hungry, they simply visualize whatever food they wish and their hunger is satisfied without needing to eat. They dwell in bejeweled palaces of their own design. Some of the inhabitants sit cross-legged on lotus blossoms while others are enclosed within the calyx of a lotus. The latter do not feel imprisoned, because the calyx of the lotus is quite large, containing within it a palace similar to that inhabited by the gods. Those who dedicate their merit toward rebirth in the pure land yet who harbor doubts are reborn inside lotuses where they must remain for five hundred years, enjoying visions of the pure land but deprived of the opportunity to hear the dharma. Those who are free from doubt are reborn immediately on open lotuses, with unlimited access to the dharma. Such rebirth would become a common goal of Buddhist practice, for monks and laity alike, in India, Tibet, and throughout East Asia. ¶ The "shorter" Sukhāvatīvyuhasutra was translated into Chinese by such famous figures as KUMĀRAJĪVA and XUANZANG. It is devoted largely to describing this buddha's land and its many wonders, including the fact that even the names for the realms of animals and the realms of hell-denizens are not known; all of the beings born there will achieve enlightenment in their next lifetime. In order to be reborn there, one should dedicate one's merit to that goal and bear in mind the name of the buddha here known as AMITĀYUS (Infinite Life). Those who are successful in doing so will see Amitāyus and a host of bodhisattvas before them at the moment of death, ready to escort them to sukhāvatī, the land of bliss. In order to demonstrate the efficacy of this practice, the Buddha goes on to list the names of many other buddhas abiding in the four cardinal directions, the nadir, and the zenith, who also praise the buddha-field of Amitāyus. Furthermore, those who hear the names of the buddhas that he has just recited will be embraced by those buddhas. Perhaps to indicate how his own buddha-field (that is, our world) differs from that of Amitāyus, sākyamuni Buddha concludes by conceding that it has been difficult to teach the dharma in a world as degenerate as ours.
sunyatā. (T. stong pa nyid; C. kong; J. ku; K. kong 空). In Sanskrit, "emptiness"; the term has a number of denotations, but is most commonly associated with the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras and the MADHYAMAKA school of Mahāyāna philosophy. In its earlier usage, "emptiness" (as sunya) is the third of the four aspects of the truth of suffering (DUḤKHASATYA), the first of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: viz., the aggregates (SKANDHA) are (1) impermanent, (2) associated with the contaminants, (3) empty of cleanliness, and (4) nonself. There are a number of explanations of emptiness in this early usage, but most suggest the absence of cleanliness or attractiveness in the body that would lead to grasping at the body as "mine" (S. ātmīya, mama). This misapprehension is counteracted by the application of mindfulness with regard to the body (KĀYĀNUPAsYANĀ), which demonstrates the absence or emptiness of an independent, perduring soul (ĀTMAN) inherent in the skandhas. In its developed usage in the Madhyamaka school, as set forth by NĀGĀRJUNA and his commentators, emptiness becomes an application of the classical doctrine of no-self (ANĀTMAN) beyond the person (PUDGALA) and the skandhas to subsume all phenomena (DHARMA) in the universe. Emptiness is the lack or absence of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA) in any and all phenomena, the final nature of all things (DHARMATĀ), and the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). Despite its various interpretations among the various Madhyamaka authors, emptiness is clearly neither nothingness nor the absence of existence, but rather the absence of a falsely imagined type of existence, identified as svabhāva. Because all phenomena are dependently arisen, they lack, or are empty of, an intrinsic nature characterized by independence and autonomy. Nāgārjuna thus equates sunyatā and the notion of conditionality (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). The YOGĀCĀRA school introduces the concept of the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA) to give individual meanings to the lack of intrinsic existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA) in the imaginary nature (PARIKALPITASVABHĀVA), the dependent nature (PARATANTRASVABHĀVA), and the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNASVABHĀVA). Parinispanna in this Yogācāra interpretation is emptiness in the sense of the absence of a difference of entity between object and subject; it is the emptiness of the parikalpitasvabhāva or imagined nature in a paratantra or dependent nature. In Tibet, the question of the true meaning of emptiness led to the RANG STONG GZHAN STONG debate.
Sutrantaka (Sanskrit) Sūtrāntaka [from sūtra maxim, precept + anta inner meaning, final meaning] One who follows the inner and spiritual meaning of the Buddhist Sutras or teachings. Everywhere Buddhism predominates, there are two distinct classes of Buddhists: those who adhere closely to the spirit of the Buddha’s original teachings, and those who not only make the teaching popular, but who perhaps also are followers of their letter. These are another phase of the two methods said to have been taught by the Buddha, called the heart doctrine and the eye doctrine: the former was the doctrine of occult wisdom and deep mystery; the latter, containing the same teaching but expressed in such a way as to be more easily understood, was the outer teaching, and came to be called the doctrine of the Buddha’s eye. Likewise these two aspects might be called the doctrine of the spirit, and the doctrine of the intellect. To one who understands both, and coalesces the two into a single unity, full illumination comes regarding the complete content of the archaic wisdom-religion which Gautama Buddha taught.
sutrānta. (P. suttanta; T. mdo sde). A synonym for SuTRA, used also to designate the category of sutras. In Pāli, SUTTANTA is typically reserved for the longer suttas collected in the DĪGHANIKĀYA.
sutrapitaka. (P. suttapitaka; T. mdo sde'i sde snod; C. jingzang; J. kyozo; K. kyongjang 經藏). In Sanskrit, "basket of discourses," one of the three constituents of the TRIPItAKA (together with the VINAYAPItAKA and the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA). This basket is a disparate collection of thousands of texts attributed to the Buddha (or said to be spoken with his sanction), varying in length from extended narrative accounts to short epigrams. The Pāli suttapitaka is divided into five groups, or NIKĀYA. These are the DĪGHANIKĀYA, or "Long Group," comprising thirty-four lengthier sutras; the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA, or "Middle [Length] Group," comprising 152 sutras; the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA or "Related Group," comprising (by some counts) some seven thousand sutras, organized largely by subject matter in fifty-six categories; the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, literally, the "Group Increasing by a Factor," or more generally, the "Numerical Group," an anthology of nearly ten thousand brief texts organized by the number of the subject, with the first group dealing with single things, the second dealing with pairs, the third dealing with things that occur in threes, up to things that occur in groups of eleven; and finally the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA, or "Small Group," a diverse collection of miscellaneous texts, including such famous works as the Pāli DHAMMAPADA. Although the Khuddakanikāya contains some early works, as an independent nikāya, it appears to have been the last to be added to the tipitaka and is not mentioned in early accounts. The suttapitaka seems to have been preserved orally for centuries, before being committed to writing in Sri Lanka at the end of the first century BCE. The sutrapitakas of other Indian NIKĀYAs (schools) translated from a number of Indian languages into Chinese and Tibetan use the word ĀGAMA (tradition) in place of nikāya (group) for the groupings of sutras in their respective canons. In their Chinese translations, the DĪRGHĀGAMA or "Long Discourses," belonging to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school, corresponds to the Pāli Dīghanikāya; the MADHYAMĀGAMA or "Middle-Length Discourses" of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school corresponds to the Pāli Majjhimanikāya; the SAMYUKTĀGAMA or "Connected Discourses," belonging to the Sarvāstivāda school (with a partial translation perhaps belonging to the KĀsYAPĪYA school) corresponds to the Pāli SaMyuttanikāya; and the EKOTTARĀGAMA or "Numerically Arranged Discourses," variously ascribed to the DHARMAGUPTAKAs, or less plausibly the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA school or its PRAJNAPTIVĀDA offshoot, corresponds to the Pāli Anguttaranikāya. Despite the similarities in the titles of these collections, there are substantial differences between the contents of the Sanskrit āgamas and the Pāli nikāyas. The Khuddakanikāya ("Miscellaneous Collection"), the fifth nikāya in the Pāli canon, has no equivalent in the extant Chinese translations of the āgamas; such miscellanies, or "mixed baskets" (S. ksudrakapitaka), were however known to have existed in several of the mainstream Buddhist schools, including the Dharmaguptaka, MahāsāMghika, and MAHĪsĀSAKA.
sutra. (P. sutta; T. mdo; C. jing; J. kyo; K. kyong 經). In Sanskrit, lit. "aphorism," but in a Buddhist context translated as "discourse," "sermon," or "scripture"; a sermon said to be delivered by the Buddha or delivered with his sanction. A term probably used originally to refer to sayings of the Buddha that were preserved orally by his followers (and hence called "aphorisms"), the sutra developed into its own genre of Buddhist literature, with a fairly standard set of literary conventions. The most famous of these conventions was the phrase used to begin a sutra, "Thus have I heard" (EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM), intended to certify that what was to follow was the first-person report of the Buddha's attendant ĀNANDA (see SAMGĪTIKĀRA) who was most often in the Buddha's presence and was renowned for his prodigious memory. Also standard was the NIDĀNA, which describes the setting of the sutra, noting where the Buddha was residing at the time, who was in the audience, who was the interlocutor, etc. According to tradition, the sutras were first codified when Ānanda recited them at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST), shortly after the Buddha's death. This conceit of orality was maintained even for sutras that were literary compositions, written long after the Buddha, most notably, the hundreds of MAHĀYĀNA sutras that began to appear in India starting some four hundred years after the Buddha's NIRVĀnA. An important theme in these sutras and their commentaries is the claim that they are indeed the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). In the standard threefold division of the Buddha's teachings, sutra indicates the contents of the SuTRAPItAKA, a grouping of texts that together with the VINAYA and ABHIDHARMA together constitute the TRIPItAKA, or "three baskets." In tantric literature, sutra is used to refer to the exoteric teachings of the Buddha, in contrast to the tantras, his esoteric teachings. It is also one of the nine (NAVAnGA[PĀVACANA]) (Pāli) or twelve (DVĀDAsĀnGA[PRAVACANA]) (Sanskrit) categories (AnGA) of Buddhist scripture, according to structure or literary style.
SuTRASAMUCCAYA (no. 1635)
Sutrasamuccaya
Sutrasamuccaya. (T. Mdo kun las btus pa; C. Dasheng baoyaoyi lun; J. Daijo hoyogiron; K. Taesŭng poyoŭi non 大乘寶要義論). In Sanskrit, "Compendium of Sutras," a work attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA, an anthology of passages from sixty-eight mainly MAHĀYĀNA sutras (or collections of sutras), organized under thirteen topics. These topics extol the bodhisattva and the Mahāyāna path, noting the rarity and hence precious nature of such things as faith in the Buddha, great compassion, and laymen who are able to follow the bodhisattva path. The text is of historical interest because it provides evidence of the Mahāyāna sutras that were extant at the time of Nāgārjuna. These include, in addition to various PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, such famous works as the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. The Chinese translation was made by Dharmaraksa (c. 1018-1058) during the Northern Song dynasty and was among the last stratum of Indian materials to be entered into the Chinese Buddhist canon (C. DAZANGJING).
Sutra (Sanskrit) Sūtra [from siv to sew] A string, thread; the sutras are strings of rules or aphorisms written in verse form, composed in terse and symbolic language with the obvious intention of their being committed to memory. This was a favorite form among the Hindus, as among all ancient peoples, of imbodying and transmitting rules of ancient religious and philosophic thought. There are sutras written upon almost every subject, but the sutras commonly signify those connected with the Vedas, of which there are three kinds: the Kalpa-sutras (rules of ritual); the grihya-sutras (domestic rules) treating of ordinary family rites such as marriage, birth, name-giving, etc.; and the Samayacharika-sutras which treat of customs and temporal duties. The Kalpa-sutras belong to the class of writings called Srutis (heard or revealed); while the other two types of sutras belong to the Smritis (remembered), carried traditionally from generation to generation by word of mouth.
Sutras: The second part of the Buddhist Tripitaka (q.v.), containing the teachings of Gautama Buddha. They consist of 250 chapters, divided in five nikayas.
sutravibhanga. (P. suttavibhanga; T. mdo rnam par 'byed pa; C. jingfenbie; J. kyofunbetsu; K. kyongbunbyol 經分別). In Sanskrit, "analysis of the SuTRAs," a section of the VINAYA that comments on the PRĀTIMOKsA; also known as the VINAYAVIBHAnGA. The prātimoksa is a list of rules that monks and nuns must follow. The sutravibhanga comments on each rule according to a fourfold structure. First, the text recounts the occasion for the formulation of the rule. According to the tradition, the Buddha did not initially impose rules on the SAMGHA, but created the monastic code gradually as misconduct that required correction began to appear in the order. Thus, each rule was declared by the Buddha in a specific circumstance, only after a misdeed had occurred. The Buddha would then make a rule prohibiting that deed, without any retrospective sanction against the original perpetrator, since no rule was in place at the time of the misdeed. This section explains the circumstances that led to the Buddha's announcement of the rule and may include more than one story. (In the case of subcategories of a misdeed, the Buddha is not always mentioned.) This section of the text provides important insights into monastic life in India at the time. Second, the specific prātimoksa rule is stated. Third, the text provides a word-for-word commentary on the rule as it is set forth in the prātimoksa. Finally, accounts are provided of circumstances under which the rule might be violated without sanction or with reduced sanction. The sutravibhanga is organized according to the eight sections of the prātimoksa. There are separate versions of the text for BHIKsUs and BHIKsUnĪs, with the former also being known as the mahāvibhanga. In most vinaya traditions, a prātimoksa exists as a separate text, but in the Pāli vinaya, the pātimokkha is embedded within the SUTTAVIBHAnGA.
Suttee [from Sanskrit satī faithful wife, one who burns herself on a funeral pyre, either on the same pyre as her husbands corpse or at a distance] The practice of voluntary self-immolation by widows was prohibited by the British in India and finally abolished. When its cessation was first commanded, the Brahmins — who were principally responsible for the continuance of this dreadful custom — maintained that their sacred scriptures approved of the practice, but Orientalists have demonstrated that the texts so cited had been altered. “Professor Wilson was the first to point out the falsification of the text and the change of ‘yonim agre’ into ‘yonim agneh’ [womb of fire] . . . According to the hymns of the ‘Rig-Veda,’ and the Vaidic ceremonial contained in the ‘Grihya-Sutras,’ the wife accompanies the corpse of her husband to the funeral pile, but she is there addressed with a verse taken from the ‘Rig-Veda,’ and ordered to leave her husband, and to return to the world of the living” (Max Muller, Chips from a German Workshop 2:35).
*suvibhaktadharmacakra. (T. legs par rnam par phye ba dang ldan pa'i chos 'khor; C. zhengzhuan falun; J. shotenporin; K. chŭngjon pomnyun 證轉法輪). In Sanskrit, lit., "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation"; the third of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, said to have been delivered in VAIsĀLĪ. It is also known as the PARAMĀRTHAVINIsCAYADHARMACAKRA, or "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate," as the pravicayadharmacakra, or "the dharma wheel of investigation," and simply as the antyadharmacakra or "final wheel of the dharma." The sutra identifies this as a teaching for bodhisattvas and classifies it as definitive (NĪTĀRTHA); this third turning of the wheel is the teaching of the SaMdhinirmocanasutra itself. According to the commentators, in this sutra the Buddha, through his anamuensis Paramārthasamudgata, sets forth in clear and plain language what he means by his provisional statements in the first wheel of the dharma (see CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA), namely, that the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS exist; and his statement in his middle wheel of the dharma in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs (perfection of wisdom sutras) (see ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA) that no dharmas exist. Both of the first two wheels are declared to be provisional (NEYĀRTHA). Here, in this definitive teaching called "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation," he says that dharmas have three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), and each of those in its own way lacks an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The three natures are the PARIKALPITA or imaginary nature, the PARATANTRA or dependent nature, and the PARINIsPANNA or consummate nature. ¶ In Tibet there were different schools of interpretation of the three wheels of doctrine. The third Karma pa RANG 'BYUNG RDO RJE, DOL PO PA SHES RAB RGYAL MTSHAN, and the nineteenth-century RIS MED masters assert that the SaMdhinirmocanasutra's third wheel of dharma is definitive and teaches a great MADHYAMAKA (DBU MA CHEN PO). They say this great Madhyamaka is set forth with great clarity in the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and, particularly, in the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA ("Delineation of the Jewel Lineage"; alt. title, Uttaratantra). They argue that in the second turning of the wheel, the prajNāpāramitā sutras, the Buddha uses apophatic language to stress the need to eliminate KLEsAs and false superimpositions. He does not clearly delineate, as he does in the third turning, the TATHĀGATAGARBHA, which is both empty (sunya) of all afflictions (klesa) and nonempty (asunya), viz., full of all the Buddha's virtues. Hence they assert that the third turning of dharma in the Samdhinirmocanasutra sets forth the "great Madhyamaka" (dbu ma chen po), and is a definitive teaching that avoids both apophatic and kataphatic extremes. Others, most notably TSONG KHA PA, disagree, asserting that the SaMdhinirmocanasutra's second turning of the wheel is the definitive teaching of the Buddha, and say that its third turning, i.e., the presentation of Buddhist tenets in the SaMdhinirmocanasutra, is a Yogācāra teaching intended for those temporarily incapable of understanding Madhyamaka.
SuvikrāntavikrāmiparipṛcchāprajNāpāramitā. (T. Rab kyi rtsal gyis rnam par gnon pas shus pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa; C. Shengtian wang bore boluomi jing; J. Shotenno hannya haramikkyo; K. Sŭngch'on wang panya paramil kyong 勝天王般若波羅蜜經). In Sanskrit, the "Perfection of Wisdom Requested by Suvikrāntavikrāmin." A PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ ("perfection of wisdom") sutra in seven chapters, it is closely related to the first two chapters of the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ in its themes, and displays a great familiarity with the various categories of the ABHIDHARMA, more so than other prajNāpāramitā sutras. In the fourth chapter, it uses twelve similes for dharmas and the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, including a reflection, a mirage, an echo, the pith of a banana tree, and a bubble (cf. LIUYU, AstAMĀYOPĀMA). The PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ is described as inaccessible and unestablished (aparinispannā) but pure and infinite. In the fifth chapter, sĀRIPUTRA asks SUBHuTI to explain the dharma but Subhuti replies that there is nothing to explain.
Taesŭng poyoŭi non 大乘寶要義論. See SuTRASAMUCCAYA
Takakusu Junjiro. (高楠順次郎) (1866-1945). One of the leading Japanese scholars of Indian Buddhism of the early twentieth century, who played a leading role in establishing Japan as a major center of scholarship in Buddhist Studies. He was born, surnamed Sawai, in today's Hiroshima prefecture. He was raised in a JoDO SHINSHu family belonging to the NISHI HONGANJIHA, and he remained a devout layman throughout his life. After primary school, he studied at the leading Jodo Shinshu educational institution, today's Ryukoku University, from 1885 to 1889, during which time, through Jodo Shinshu connections, he was adopted into the Takakusu merchant house of Kobe. With the support of his adoptive father, he spent the period from 1890 to 1897 in Europe. Through the introduction of the Jodo Shinshu cleric NANJo BUN'Yu, Takakusu was able to study Indology under FRIEDRICH MAX MÜLLER at Oxford University, receiving a B.A. in 1894 and an M.A. in 1896. While at Oxford, he assisted Müller with the Sacred Books of the East project. The final volume of the series, entitled Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts (1894), included the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYA, and the three PURE LAND sutras, all Indian works (or at least so regarded at the time) but selected because of their importance for Japanese Buddhism. Müller's choice of these texts was influenced by Takakusu and Nanjo Bun'yu. The works in Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts were translated by Müller, with the exception of the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING, which was translated by Takakusu. Takakusu also studied in Paris with SYLVAIN LÉVI, with whom he would later collaborate on the Hobogirin Buddhist encyclopedia project. He returned to Japan in 1897 to lecture in Indian philosophy at Tokyo Imperial University, where he served as professor from 1899 to 1927, being appointed to the chair of Sanskrit studies in 1901. He was a devoted supporter of Esperanto and in 1906 was a founding member of the Japanese Esperantists Association. He supervised and contributed substantially to three monumental publishing projects: (1) the Upanishaddo zensho, a Japanese translation of the Upanisads (1922-1924); (2) the TAISHo SHINSHu DAIZoKYo, a modern typeset edition of the East Asian Buddhist canon (see DAZANGJING) (1922-1934); and (3) the Kokuyaku nanden daizokyo, a Japanese translation of the Pāli canon of what he called "Southern Buddhism" (1936-1941). For his work on editing the Taisho canon, he was awarded the Prix Stanislas Julien in Sinology from the Institut de France in 1929. Among his English-language publications, he is known especially for A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (1896), which is his translation of YIJING's pilgrimage record (NANHAI JIGUI NEIFA ZHUAN), and Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy (1947). He died in Shizuoka Prefecture, outside Tokyo.
tantra. (T. rgyud; C. tanteluo; J. dantokura; K. tant'ŭngna 檀特羅). In Sanskrit, lit. "continuum"; a term derived from the Sanskrit root √tan ("to stretch out," "to weave"), having the sense of an arrangement or a pattern (deployed not only in a ritual, but in military and political contexts as well). The term is thus used to name a manual or handbook that sets forth such arrangements, and is not limited to Buddhism or to Indian religions more broadly. Beyond this, the term is notoriously difficult to define. It can be said, however, that tantra does not carry the connotation of all things esoteric and erotic that it has acquired in the modern West. In Buddhism, the term tantra generally refers to a text that contains esoteric teachings, often ascribed to sĀKYAMUNI or another buddha. Even this, however, is problematic: there are esoteric texts that do not carry the term tantra in their title (such as the VAJRAsEKHARASuTRA), and there are nonesoteric texts in whose title the term tantra appears (such as the UTTARATANTRA). Scholars therefore tend to define tantra (in the textual sense) based on specific sets of elements contained in the texts. These include MANTRA, MAndALA, MUDRĀ, initiations (ABHIsEKA), fire sacrifices (HOMA), and feasts (GAnACAKRA), all set forth with the aim of gaining powers (SIDDHI), both mundane and supramundane. The mundane powers are traditionally enumerated as involving four activities: pacification of difficulties (sĀNTIKA), increase of wealth (PAUstIKA), control of negative forces (VAsĪKARAnA), and destruction of enemies (ABHICĀRA). The supramundane power is enlightenment (BODHI). The texts called tantras began to appear in India in the late seventh and early eighth centuries CE, often written in a nonstandard (some would say "corrupt") Sanskrit that included colloquial elements and regional terms. These anonymous texts (including such famous works as the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, the CAKRASAMVARATANTRA, and the HEVAJRATANTRA), typically provided mantras and instructions for drawing mandalas, among a variety of other elements, but their presentation and organization were usually not systematic; these texts came to serve as the "root tantra" for a cycle of related texts. The more systematic of these were the SĀDHANA (lit. "means of achievement"), a ritual manual by a named author, which set forth the specific practices necessary for the attainment of siddhi. The standard form was to create a mandala into which one invited a deity. The meditator would either visualize himself or herself as the deity or visualize the deity as appearing before the meditator. Various offerings would be made, mantras would be recited, and siddhis would be requested. Although scholars continue to explore the relation between the tantras and the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, tantric exegetes viewed the tantras, like the Mahāyāna sutras, as being the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) and as setting forth forms of practice consistent with the bodhisattva vow and the quest for buddhahood, albeit more quickly than by the conventional path, via what came to be referred to as the VAJRA vehicle (VAJRAYĀNA). Thus, it was said that the Mahāyāna was divided into the pāramitānaya, the "mode of the perfections" set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras, and the mantranaya, the "mode of the mantras" set forth in the tantras. These two are also, although less commonly, known as the sutrayāna and the TANTRAYĀNA. In this context, then, the term "tantra" is often used by tantric exegetes in contrast to "sutra," which is taken to mean the corpus of exoteric teachings of the Buddha. For those who accept the tantras as the word of the Buddha, the term "sutras and tantras" would thus refer to the entirety of the Buddha's teachings. The corpus of tantras was eventually classified by late Indian Buddhist exegetes into a number of schemata, the most famous of which is the fourfold division into KRIYĀTANTRA, CARYĀTANTRA, YOGATANTRA, and ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA.
Tarkajvālā. (T. Rtog ge 'bar ba). In Sanskrit, the "Blaze of Reasoning"; the extensive prose autocommentary on the MADHYAMAKAHṚDAYA, the major work of the sixth-century Indian MADHYAMAKA (and, from the Tibetan perspective, *SVĀTANTRIKA) master BHĀVAVIVEKA (also referred to as Bhavya and Bhāviveka). The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan; the Tarkajvālā only in Tibetan. It is a work of eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in Bhāvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNāna), and omniscience (SARVAJNATĀ). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and Bhāvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRĀVAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, SāMkhya, Vaisesika, Vedānta, and MīmāMsā. These chapters (along with sĀNTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are an invaluable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and the other Indian philosophical schools of the day. The chapter on the srāvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the srāvaka schools as to why the MAHĀYĀNA sutras are not the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). Bhāvaviveka's response to these arguments, as well as his refutation of Yogācāra in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited.
tathāgatagarbha. (T. de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po; C. rulaizang; J. nyoraizo; K. yoraejang 如來藏). In Sanskrit, variously translated as "womb of the TATHĀGATAs," "matrix of the tathāgatas," "embryo of the tathāgatas," "essence of the tathāgatas"; the term probably means "containing a tathāgatha." It is more imprecisely interpreted as the "buddha-nature," viz., the potential to achieve buddhahood that, according to some MAHĀYĀNA schools, is inherent in all sentient beings. The tathāgatagarbha is the topic of several important Mahāyāna sutras, including the TATHĀGATAGARBHASuTRA (with its famous nine similes about the state), the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, and the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA (where it is identified with the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA), as well as the important Indian sĀSTRA, the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA (also known as the Uttaratantra), with a commentary by ASAnGA. The concept is also central to such East Asian apocryphal scriptures as the DASHENG QIXIN LUN and the KŬMGANG SAMMAE KYoNG. The concept of tathāgatagarbha seems to have evolved from a relatively straightforward inspiration that all beings are capable of achieving buddhahood to a more complex doctrine of an almost genetic determination that all beings would eventually become buddhas; the Lankāvatāra goes so far as to describe the tathāgatagarbha itself as possessing the thirty-two marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA). Tathāgatagarbha thought seeks to answer the question of why ignorant beings are able to become enlightened by suggesting that this capacity is something innate in the minds of all sentient beings, which has become concealed by adventitious afflictions (ĀGANTUKAKLEsA) that are extrinsic to the mind. "Concealment" (S. saMdhi/abhisaMdhi; C. yinfu) here suggests that the tathāgatagarbha by the presence of the afflictions; or, second, it is an active agent of liberation, which secrets itself away inside the minds of sentient beings so as to inspire them toward enlightenment. The former passive sense is more common in Indian materials; the latter sense of tathāgatagarbha as an active soteriological potency is more typical of East Asian presentations of the concept. Tathāgatagarbha thought could thus claim that enlightenment need involve nothing more rigorous than simply relinquishing the mistaken notion that one is deluded and accepting the fact of one's inherent enlightenment (see also BENJUE; HONGAKU). The notion of tathāgatagarbha was a topic of extensive commentary and debate in India, Tibet, and East Asia. It was not the case, for example, that all Mahāyāna exegetes asserted that all sentient beings possess the tathāgatagarbha and thus the capacity for enlightenment; indeed, the FAXIANG ZONG, an East Asian strand of YOGĀCĀRA, famously asserted that some beings could so completely lose all aspiration for enlightenment that they would become "incorrigible" (ICCHANTIKA) and thus be forever incapable of liberation. There was also substantial debate as to the precise nature of the tathāgathagarbha, especially because some of its descriptions made it seem similar to the notion of a perduring self (ĀTMAN), a doctrine that is anathema to most schools of Buddhism. The srīmālādevīsiMhanāda, for example, described the tathāgatagarbha as endowed with four "perfect qualities" (GUnAPĀRAMITĀ): permanence, purity, bliss, and self, but states that this "self" is different from the "self" (ĀTMAN) propounded by the non-Buddhists. In an effort to avoid any such associations, CANDRAKĪRTI explains that the tathāgatagarbha is not to be understood as an independent quality but rather refers to the emptiness (suNYATĀ) of the mind; it is this emptiness, with which all beings are endowed, that serves as the potential for achieving buddhahood. In Tibet, Candrakīrti's view was taken up by the DGE LUGS sect, while the more literal view of the tathāgatagarbha as an ultimately real nature obscured by conventional contaminants was asserted most famously by the JO NANG. Both the extensive influence of the doctrine and the controversy it provoked points to an ongoing tension in the Mahāyāna between the more apophatic discourse on emptiness, found especially in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, and the more substantialist descriptions of the ultimate reality implied by such terms as tathāgatagarbha, DHARMADHĀTU, and DHARMAKĀYA. The term is also central to the larger question of whether enlightenment is something to be achieved through a sequence of practices or something to be revealed in a flash of insight (see DUNWU). See also HIHAN BUKKYo.
tathāgata. (T. de bzhin gshegs pa; C. rulai; J. nyorai; K. yorae 如來). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit., "one who has thus come/gone," and generally translated into English as the "thus gone one." Tathāgata is, along with BHAGAVAT, one of the most common epithets of the Buddha and a term the Buddha commonly uses in the SuTRAs to refer both to himself and to the buddhas of the past. The Sanskrit compound may be parsed to mean either "one who is thus gone" (tathā + gata), or "one who has thus come" (tathā + āgata), and for this reason the translations of the Sanskrit vary across languages. The Sanskrit root √gam is also used with prepositions in words that mean "understand," so a secondary denotation of the term is to "understand" things "as they are" (tathā). The Chinese settled on the translation "thus come one" (rulai). The Tibetan translation de bzhin gshegs pa reflects the ambiguity of the Sanskrit and can mean either "one who has thus gone" or "one who has thus come." The Pāli commentaries typically provide eight (and sometimes as many as sixteen) denotations of tathāgata, some of which may be of pre- or non-Buddhist origin, perhaps deriving from the JAINA tradition. In the early Pāli scriptures, the term seems to evoke the infinite knowledge of the Buddha, with little attempt to provide a clear etymology. Later commentators would offer a number of interpretations, among the most common of which are that the Buddha has "thus come" into the world like the other buddhas of the past, or that he has "thus gone" on to achieve NIRVĀnA like the other buddhas of the past. Other explanations equate it with the word TATHATĀ.
The ethical teachings of the Bhagavad Gita (q.v.). of the various religio-philosophical groups, of the Buddhists and Jainas of Greater India, are high; but if such ideals have not been attained generally in practice, or even if repulsive and cruel rituals and linga worship are prevalent, such phenomena are understandable if we consider the 340 millions of teeming humanity within the fold of Hinduism, from aborigines to a Gandhi, Tagore, and Sir Raman. Treatises dealing with practical morality are very numerous. They may be classed into those of a purely religious leaning among which we might count all religio-philosophical literature of the Vedic and non-Vedic tradition, including drama and epic literature, and those that deal specifically with practices of the nature of self-culture (cf. Yoga), religious observances (sacrifice, priest-craft, rites, ceremonies, etc.), household affairs and duties (Grhyasutras), and the science of polity and government (Arthasastras). -- K.F.L..
Theravāda. (S. *Sthaviravāda/*Sthaviranikāya; T. Gnas brtan sde pa; C. Shangzuo bu; J. Jozabu; K. Sangjwa pu 上座部). In Pāli, "Way of the Elders" or "School of the Elders"; a designation traditionally used for monastic and textual lineages, and expanded in the modern period to refer to the dominant form of Buddhism of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, which is associated with study of the Pāli Buddhist canon (P. tipitaka; S. TRIPItAKA). The denotation of the term Theravāda is fraught with controversy. Buddhaghosa's commentaries to the four Pāli NIKĀYAs typically refer to himself and his colleagues as MAHĀVIHĀRAVĀSIN (lit. "Dweller in the Great Monastery"), the name of the then dominant religious order and ordination lineage in Sri Lanka; in his fifth-century commentary to the Pāli VINAYA, the SAMANTAPĀSĀDIKĀ, Buddhaghosa uses the term Theravāda, but in reference not to a separate school but to a lineage of elders going back to the first Buddhist council (see SAMGĪTI; COUNCIL, FIRST). According to some accounts, the term Theravāda is equivalent to the Sanskrit term *STHAVIRAVĀDA ("School of the Elders"), which is claimed to have been transmitted to Sri Lanka in the third century BCE. However, the term Sthaviravāda is not attested in any Indian source; attested forms (both very rare) include sthāvira or sthāvarīya ("followers of the elders"). In addition, the Tibetan and Sinographic renderings of the term both translate the Sanskrit term *STHAVIRANIKĀYA, suggesting again that Sthaviravāda or Theravāda was not the traditional designation of this school. By the eleventh century CE, what is today designated as the Theravāda became the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, achieving a similar status in Burma in the same century, and in Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos by the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. As a term of self-designation for a major branch of Buddhism, Theravāda does not come into common use until the early twentieth century, with ĀNANDA METTEYYA playing a key role. In the nineteenth century, the Buddhism of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia was typically referred to in the West as "Southern Buddhism," in distinction to the "Northern Buddhism" of Tibet and East Asia. (See, e.g., EUGÈNE BURNOUF and TAKAKUSU JUNJIRo, whose treatments of Pāli materials described them as belonging to the "Southern tradition.") With increased interest in Sanskrit MAHĀYĀNA texts and the rise of Japanese scholarship on Buddhism, the term "Southern Buddhism" began in some circles to be replaced by the term HĪNAYĀNA ("lesser vehicle"), despite that term's pejorative connotations. Perhaps in an effort to forestall this usage, Pāli scholars, including THOMAS W. RHYS DAVIDS (who often referred to Pāli Buddhism as "original Buddhism"), began referring to what had been known as "Southern Buddhism" as Theravāda. The term has since come to be adopted widely throughout Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. "Theravāda" had often been mistakenly regarded as a synonym of "hīnayāna," when the latter term is used to designate the many non-Mahāyāna schools of Indian Buddhism. In fact, to the extent that the Theravāda is a remnant of the Sthaviranikāya, it represents just one of the several independent traditions of what many scholars now call MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. In the 1950s, the WORLD FELLOWSHIP OF BUDDHISTS adopted a formal resolution replacing the pejorative term hīnayāna with the designation Theravāda in descriptions of the non-Mahāyāna tradition. This suggestion was reasonable as a referent for the present state of Buddhism, since the only mainstream Buddhist school that survives in the contemporary world is Theravāda, but it is not historically accurate. Despite the way in which scholars have portrayed the tradition, Theravāda is neither synonymous with early Buddhism, nor a more pristine form of the religion prior to the rise of the Mahāyāna. Such a claim suggests a state of sectarian statis or inertia that belies the diversity over time of doctrine and practice within what comes to be called the Theravāda tradition. In fact, the redaction of Pāli scriptures postdates in many cases the redaction of much of Mahāyāna literature. Even conceding this late coinage of the term Theravāda, it should still be acknowledged that many South and Southeast Asian Buddhists who self-identify as Theravāda do in fact regard the Pāli tipitaka (S. TRIPItAKA) as representing an earlier and more authentic presentation of the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) than that found in other contemporary Buddhist traditions, in much that same way that many North and Northeast Asian Mahāyāna Buddhists hold that certain sutras that most scholars identify as being of later date are authentically the teachings of the historical Buddha. Although Theravāda soteriological theory includes a path for the bodhisatta (S. BODHISATTVA), the bodhisattva is a much rarer sanctified figure here than in the Mahāyāna; the more common ideal being in Theravāda is instead the ARHAT. The difference between the Buddha and the arhat is also less pronounced in the Theravāda than in the Mahāyāna schools; in the Theravāda, the Buddha and the arhat achieve the same type of NIRVĀnA, the chief difference between them being that the Buddha finds the path to nirvāna independently, while the arhat achieves his or her enlightenment by following the path set forth by the Buddha. (For other distinctive beliefs of the Theravāda tradition, see STHAVIRANIKĀYA.)
The smritis were a system of oral teaching, passing from one generation of recipients to the succeeding generation, as was the case with the Brahmanical books before they were imbodied in manuscript. The Smartava-Brahmanas are, for this reason, considered by many to be esoterically superior to the Srauta-Brahmanas. In its widest application, the smritis include the Vedangas, the Sutras, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Puranas, the Dharma-sastras, especially the works of Manu, Yajnavalkya, and other inspired lawgivers, and the ethical writing or Niti-sastras; whereas the typical example of the sruti are the Vedas themselves considered as revelations.
Tiantai bajiao. (J. Tendai hakkyo; K. Ch'ont'ae p'algyo 天台八教). In Chinese, "The Eight [Classes of] Teachings according to the TIANTAI." According to the TIANTAI ZONG's system of doctrinal classification (JIAOXIANG PANSHI), the entirety of the Buddhist canon and its teachings can be divided into two groups of four teachings each. The first group of four was called "the four modes of transformative teachings" (huafa sijiao), which categorizes Buddhist teachings based on the content of their teachings and different doctrinal themes and their scriptural bases. The second group of four was called "the four styles of transformative edification" or "four modes of exposition" (huayi sijiao), which categorizes different strands of Buddhism primarily according to their means of conversion or pedagogical styles. ¶ The first group of four teachings, the transformative teachings (huafa sijiao), classifies Buddhism into four categories based on content: (1) zangjiao, the "TRIPItAKA teachings," the basic teachings that are foundational to the HĪNAYĀNA schools, such as the notions of impermanence, suffering, and no-self, and the imperative of attaining NIRVĀnA; (2) tongjiao, the "joint" or "common teachings," a basic strand of MAHĀYĀNA teaching that shares many of the preceding doctrinal themes jointly with the "hīnayāna teachings," the main difference being that it additionally embraces the BODHISATTVA aspiration of helping others; (3) biejiao, the "distinct" or "separate teachings," so named because, unlike the previous category, this strand of Mahāyāna includes notions exclusive to that tradition and not shared with the "hīnayāna"; (4) yuanjiao, the "consummate" or "perfect teaching," which is the exclusive domain of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, the main scripture the Tiantai school itself espouses. ¶ The second group of four teachings, the modes of exposition or conversion (huayi sijiao), contains the following divisions based on pedagogical style: (1) dunjiao, the "sudden teachings" or a direct pedagogical style. Epitomized by the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, this mode of teaching is characterized by a direct revelation of the stage of buddhahood, circumventing the gradual, and more conventional, stages of beginning bodhisattva practices and the "hīnayāna" tradition. (2) Jianjiao, the "gradual teachings" or pedagogical style. Representing these sequential, step-by-step soteriological approaches and pedagogical styles are the ĀGAMAs, the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, and the VAIPULYA sutras. (3) Budingjiao, the "indefinite teachings" or pedagogical style. The same utterance of the Buddha might be given without differentiation to various members of the audience, but the depth to which they were able to penetrate to that message, and the different interpretations they gave to it, varied depending on their spiritual maturity. (4) Mimijiao, the "esoteric teachings" or pedagogical style. Not to be confused with tantric teachings, "esoteric" here refers to the Tiantai belief that the Buddha sometimes preached in such a way that his same utterance resonated differently with various members within the audience, so that each received the instruction most suitable to his needs and temperament; with this pedagogical style, the Buddha essentially left members of the audience free to fathom an inexhaustibly elastic teaching and be benefited from it according to their unique conditions. See also WUSHI; CH'oNT'AE SAGYO ŬI.
Tominaga Nakamoto. (富永仲基) (1715-1746). Important Japanese thinker during the Edo period. The third son of a soy sauce manufacturer in osaka, Tominaga was raised in the merchant community. Tominaga's social position and subsequent education resulted in an eclectic and fairly impartial understanding of the varying schools of Confucian thought, Buddhism, and Daoism. Tominaga received a classical Confucian education at Kaitokudo, a private academy funded by his father and a few other osaka manufacturers. He began his education at age nine, and eventually studied Buddhist scripture in great breadth and depth, even though he was never ordained. Tominaga was forced to leave Kaitokudo after writing a critical piece on competing Confucian schools of thought. The work, which is no longer extant, was called Setsuhei, or "A Critical Examination of [Confucian] Doctrine." Tominaga did the majority of his study of sutras and MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism between 1730 and 1738. He published two titles that are still extant, Shutsujo kogo ("Emerging from Meditation") (1745), and Okina no fumi ("Writings of an Old Man"), which was published six months after he died of lung disease in 1746. In these works, he took a historical approach that critiqued all claims to authenticity by the existing schools of Japanese religion, suggesting that the different sects of Buddhism evolved by reformations of preceding schools, reformations that were then justified by appeals to the authority of the Buddha himself. He even made the radical claim that the Buddha could not have taught the Mahāyāna sutras because their language and teachings differed so dramatically from other types of Buddhist sutras. Although he was vigorously criticized by the Buddhist ecclesia, his historical approach to Buddhism helped to establish the foundation for the Japanese scholarly study of Buddhism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
T'ongdosa. (通度寺). In Korean, "Breakthrough Monastery" (lit. "Penetrating Crossing-Over Monastery"); the fifteenth district monastery (PONSA) in the contemporary CHOGYE CHONG of Korean Buddhism, located at the base of Yongch'uksan (S. GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA, or Vulture Peak) in Yangsan, South Kyongsang province. Along with HAEINSA and SONGGWANGSA, T'ongdosa is one of the "three-jewel monasteries" (SAMBO SACH'AL) that represent one of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) of Buddhism; T'ONGDOSA is the buddha-jewel monastery (pulbo sach'al), because of its ordination platform and the relics (K. sari; S. sARĪRA) of the Buddha enshrined in back of its main shrine hall (TAEUNG CHoN). The oldest of the three-jewel monasteries, T'ongdosa has long been regarded as the center of Buddhist disciplinary studies (VINAYA) in Korea, and has been one of the major sites of ordination ceremonies since the Unified Silla period (668-935). Relics, reputed to be those of the Buddha himself, are enshrined at the monastery, and its taeung chon is famous for being one of four in Korea that does not enshrine an image of the Buddha; instead, a window at the back of the main hall, where the image ordinarily would be placed, looks out on the Diamond Ordination Platform (Kŭmgang kyedan), which includes a reliquary (STuPA) that enshrines the Buddha's relics. This focus on vinaya and the presence of these relics, both of which are reminders of the Buddha, have led the monastery to be designated the buddha-jewel monastery of Korea. T'ongdosa is said to have been established by the vinaya master CHAJANG (608-686) in 646 to enshrine a portion of the relics that he brought back with him from his sojourn into China. While on pilgrimage at WUTAISHAN, Chajang had an encounter with the bodhisattva MANJUsRĪ, who entrusted Chajang with a gold studded monk's robe (K. kasa; S. KAsĀYA) wrapped in purple silk gauze, one hundred pieces of relics of the Buddha's skull bone and his finger joint, beads, and sutras. One portion of the relics was enshrined together with the Buddha's robe in a bell-shaped stone stupa at the center of the Diamond Ordination Platform; another portion was enshrined in the nine-story pagoda at HWANGNYONGSA in the Silla capital of Kyongju. Under Chajang's leadership, the monastery grew into a major center of Silla Buddhism and the monastery continued to thrive throughout the Silla and Koryo dynasties, until the whole monastery except the taeung chon was destroyed by invading Japanese troops in the late sixteenth century. In 1641, the monk Uun (d.u.) rebuilt the monastery in its current configuration. The Diamond Ordination Platform was periodically damaged during the sporadic Japanese invasions that occurred during the Choson dynasty. In the fourth month of 1377, Japanese pirates invaded, seeking to plunder the sarīra; to keep them from falling into Japanese hands, the abbot went into hiding with the relics. Two years later, on the fifteenth day of the fifth month of 1379, the pirates came again, and the monks quickly whisked away the relics and hid them deep in the forest behind the monastery. The Japanese went in pursuit of the relics, but the abbot Wolsong (d.u.) took them to Seoul to keep them safe, returning with them once the danger had passed. During the Hideyoshi Invasions in the late sixteenth century, the relics were also removed in order to keep them safe. SAMYoNG YUJoNG, who was leading a monk's militia fighting the Japanese invaders, sent the relics to the Diamond Mountains (KŬMGANGSAN) in the north, where his teacher and the supreme commander, CH'oNGHo HYUJoNG, was staying. Hyujong decided that the relics were no safer there than back at their home monastery, so he returned them to T'ongdosa. Yujong covered the hiding place of the relics with weeds and thorn bushes and, once the Japanese threat was rebuffed, he restored the site to its former glory and the relics were reenshrined in 1603. The platform was repaired again in 1653 and on a grand scale in 1705. The Diamond Ordination Platform remains the site where BHIKsU and BHIKsUnĪ ordinations are held in Korea. In 1972, T'ongdosa was elevated to the status of an ecumenical monastery (CH'ONGNIM), and is one of the five such centers in the contemporary Chogye order, which are all expected to provide training in the full range of practices that exemplify the major strands of the Korean Buddhist tradition; the monastery is thus also known as the Yongch'uk Ch'ongnim.
tripitaka. (P. tipitaka; T. sde snod gsum; C. sanzang; J. sanzo; K. samjang 三藏). In Sanskrit, "three baskets"; one of the most common and best known of the organizing schema of the Indian Buddhist canon. These three baskets were the SuTRAPItAKA (basket of discourses), VINAYAPItAKA (basket of disciplinary texts) and ABHIDHARMAPItAKA [alt. *sĀSTRAPItAKA] (basket of "higher dharma" or "treatises"). The use of the term pitaka for these categories is thought to come from the custom of storing the palm-leaf or wooden slips of written texts in baskets (S. pitaka). (The Chinese translates pitaka as a "repository," thus tripitaka is the "three repositories.") The various MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS in India had their own distinctive version of each of the pitakas; the Pāli version transmitted to Sri Lanka is the most complete to survive in an Indic language, although sections of those of other schools, such as the DHARMAGUPTAKA, SARVĀSTIVĀDA, and MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA, are preserved in Chinese, Tibetan, and in Sanskrit or Middle Indic fragments. Some schools used different organizing schema. The Dharmaguptaka school, for example, is said to have had five pitakas; the usual three, plus a bodhisattvapitaka (on various doctrines and practices related to the BODHISATTVA) and a dhāranīpitaka (of DHĀRAnĪ codes and spells). The MAHĀYĀNA sutras were not organized under this rubric, although it is sometimes said that they can be when the three baskets are interpreted more figuratively, with the vinayapitaka including those teachings connected to the training in morality (sĪLA), the sutrapitaka including those teachings connected to the training in meditation (SAMĀDHI), and the abhidharmapitaka including those teachings connected to the training in wisdom (PRAJNĀ). The East Asian traditions arranged their own indigenous canons as a DAZANGJING (scriptures of the great repository), rather than a tripitaka; the two terms are not synonymous. See also BKA' 'GYUR; DAZANGJING; KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG; TAISHo SHINSHu DAIZoKYo.
Tripitaka: “The Three Baskets,” the Buddhistic Canon as finally adopted by the Council of Sthaviras, or elders, held under the auspices of Emperor Asoka, about 245 B.C., at Pataliputra, consisting of three parts: “The basket of discipline” (Vinaya), “the basket of (Buddha’s) sermons” (Sutras), and “the basket of metaphysics” (Abidharma).
trisvabhāva. (T. mtshan nyid gsum/rang bzhin gsum; C. sanxing; J. sansho; K. samsong 三性). In Sanskrit, "the three natures"; one of the central doctrines of the YOGĀCĀRA school. The three are PARIKALPITA, the "fabricated" or "imaginary" nature of things; PARATANTRA, literally "other-powered," their "dependent" nature; and PARINIsPANNA, their "consummate" or "perfected" nature. The terms appear in several MAHĀYĀNA sutras, most notably the sixth chapter of the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, and are explicated by both ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU. Although the terms are discussed at length in Yogācāra literature, they can be described briefly as follows. The three natures are sometimes presented as three qualities that all phenomena possess. The parikalpita or imaginary nature is a false nature, commonly identified as the contrived appearance of an object as being a different entity from the perceiving consciousness. Since, in the Yogācāra analysis, objects do not exist independently from the perceiving subject, they come into existence in dependence upon consciousnesses, which in turn are produced from seeds that (according to some forms of Yogācāra) reside in the foundational consciousness, or ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. This quality of dependency on other causes and conditions for their existence, which is a characteristic of all objects and subjects, is the paratantra, or dependent nature. The nonduality between the consciousnesses and their objects is their consummate nature, the parinispanna. Thus, it is said that the absence of the parikalpita in the paratantra is the parinispanna.
triyāna. (T. theg pa gsum; C. sansheng; J. sanjo; K. samsŭng 三乘). In Sanskrit, "three vehicles," three different means taught in Buddhist soteriological literature of conveying sentient beings to liberation. There are two common lists of the three: (1) the vehicles of the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA (both of which lead to the state of an ARHAT), and BODHISATTVA (which leads to buddhahood); (2) the HĪNAYĀNA, MAHĀYĀNA, and VAJRAYĀNA, although the vajrayāna is considered by its adherents to be a form of the Mahāyāna; the vajrayāna would speak instead of the HĪNAYĀNA, PĀRAMITĀYĀNA, and VAJRAYĀNA. According to some Mahāyāna sutras, most famously the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the three vehicles (in the first sense above) are an expedient device (UPĀYA) developed by the Buddha to entice beings of differing spiritual capacities toward enlightenment; in fact, however, there is really only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) by which all beings proceed to buddhahood. Thus, in the Mahāyāna philosophical schools, the question arises of whether or not there are "three final vehicles," that is, whether the state of the arhat is a permanent dead end or whether arhats would also eventually continue on to buddhahood. For example, the position that there are three separate and final vehicles is associated with the YOGĀCĀRA school of ASAnGA and the Chinese FAXIANG ZONG. The position that there are not three, but instead a single decisive vehicle, is associated with the MADHYAMAKA school of NĀGĀRJUNA and CANDRAKĪRTI and the Chinese TIANTAI ZONG.
ucchedadṛsti. (P. ucchedaditthi; T. chad lta; C. duanjian; J. danken; K. tan'gyon 斷見). In Sanskrit, lit. the "[wrong] view of annihilationism"; one of the two "extreme views" (ANTAGRĀHADṚstI) together with sĀsVATADṚstI, the "[wrong] view of eternalism." Ucchedadṛsti is variously defined in the Buddhist philosophical schools but generally refers to the wrong view that causes do not have effects, thus denying the central tenets of KARMAN and rebirth (the denial of the possibility of rebirth was attributed to the Cārvāka school of ancient India). Among the divisions of the root affliction (MuLAKLEsA) of "wrong view" (DṚstI), ucchedadṛsti occurs in connection with SATKĀYADṚstI, where it is defined as the mistaken belief or view that the self is the same as one or all of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) and that as such it ceases to exist at death. In this context, it is contrasted with sĀsVATADṚstI, the mistaken belief that the self is different from the aggregates and that it continues to exist eternally from one rebirth to the next. Annihilationism is thus a form of antagrāhadṛsti, "[wrong] view of holding to an extreme," i.e., the view that the person ceases to exist at death and is not reborn (ucchedadṛsti), in distinction to the view that there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next (sāsvatadṛsti). The Buddhist middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between these two extremes posits that there is no permanent, perduring soul (countering eternalism), and yet there is karmic continuity from one lifetime to the next (countering annihilationism). In the MADHYAMAKA school, ucchedadṛsti is more broadly defined as the view that nothing exists, even at a conventional level. Thus, following statements in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs, the Madhyamaka school sets forth a middle way between the extremes of existence and nonexistence. In general, the middle way between extremes is able to acknowledge the insubstantiality of persons and phenomena (whether that insubstantiality is defined as impermanence, no-self, or emptiness) while upholding functionality, most importantly in the realm of cause and effect (and thus the conventional reality of karman and rebirth).
Ugraparipṛcchā. (T. Drag shul can gyis zhus pa; C. Yuqie zhangzhe hui; J. Ikuga chojae; K. Ukka changja hoe 郁伽長者會). In Sanskrit, "The Inquiry of Ugra," an influential MAHĀYĀNA SuTRA, dating perhaps from the first century BCE, making it one of the earliest Mahāyāna sutras. The text has not survived in any Indic-language version, but has been preserved in five translated versions: three in Chinese, one in Tibetan, and one in Mongolian. The sutra is structured as a dialogue, mainly between the Buddha and the lay BODHISATTVA UGRA, whose inquiry prompts the Buddha to launch into a protracted discourse on the bodhisattva path (MĀRGA). Ugra is labeled a GṚHAPATI, a term that literally means "lord of the house" but that comes to refer to men belonging to the upper stratum of what would later be labeled as the vaisya (often rendered as "merchant") caste. The sutra is divided into two parts, one directed toward the lay bodhisattva and the other toward renunciants. In the oldest version of the sutra, Ugra and his friends, after hearing the Buddha's discourse, ask for and receive ordination as monks; in later translations, this event takes place in the middle of the sutra. In all versions, however, the overall message is that, although a lay practitioner may be capable of performing at least preliminary parts of the bodhisattva path, to attain the final goal of buddhahood he must become a monk. The Buddha declares, "For no bodhisattva who lives at home has ever attained supreme perfect enlightenment." Accordingly, the sutra urges the lay bodhisattva to break the ties of affection that bind him to his family and, above all, to his wife; the condemnation of marriage and family life is striking. Moreover, he is urged to emulate the conduct of the monks in his local monastery even while he still lives at home-involving, among other things, complete celibacy. This sort of practice is congruent with what was required of the UPĀSAKA, the lay adherent who has taken the three refuges and the five or eight precepts and dresses in white as a sign of his semirenunciant status. The lay bodhisattva described in the Ugraparipṛcchā is repeatedly urged to seek ordination as soon as he possibly can. If the lay bodhisattva is portrayed as the best of all possible laymen, the renunciant bodhisattva is portrayed as the best of all possible monks. Not only does he follow the standard requirements of the monastic life, but he goes beyond them, spending large periods of time (ideally, his whole lifetime) performing strict ascetic practices in the wilderness. This is a reenactment of the biography of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha; it appears that aspiring bodhisattvas, both lay and monastic, took the stories of the Buddha's life-including his previous lives, described in the JĀTAKA stories-as prescriptive for those who wished to become buddhas themselves. The Ugraparipṛcchā never portrays any actual female practitioner, whether lay or monastic, as a bodhisattva. Apart from a formulaic reference to "sons and daughters of good lineage," which appears at the beginning and the end of the sutra (and may have been added long after its initial composition), there is no indication that the authors of the sutra believed that women were capable of embarking upon the bodhisattva path. The Ugraparipṛcchā was a highly influential sutra in both India and East Asia, where it was widely quoted and commented upon and is regarded by scholars as an important and influential work in the formative period of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
upāya. (T. thabs; C. fangbian; J. hoben; K. pangp'yon 方便). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "stratagem," "method"; term with at least four important denotations: (1) as a synonym for "skillful means" (UPĀYAKAUsALYA); (2) as a general term for the activities necessary for the attainment of buddhahood; and (3) as one of the two essential components of the path, along with "wisdom" (PRAJNĀ). In this latter sense, method refers to the actions a BODHISATTVA takes on behalf of all sentient beings. In this formulation, the various deeds that fall under the rubric of upāya are said to fructify as the RuPAKĀYA of a buddha, while the bodhisattva's development of prajNā is said to fructify as his DHARMAKĀYA. (4) In Buddhist tantra, the superiority of the esoteric path of the VAJRAYĀNA over the exoteric path in bringing about buddhahood is often attributed to the superior stratagems or methods set forth in the TANTRAs, compared to those found in the sutras. In tantra, upāya is associated with the male and prajNā with the female.
urnākesa. [alt. urnākosa, urnā] (P. unnākesa; T. mdzod spu; C. baihao; J. byakugo; K. paekho 白毫). In Sanskrit, "hair treasure" or "tuft"; a spiral of hair said to be infinite in length located between the eyebrows of a buddha. It is frequently depicted as a gem inlaid between the eyebrows on buddha and BODHISATTVA images. In some lists, the urnākesa is the thirty-first of the thirty-two major marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA) and is said to be endowed with a variety of magical powers. In many sutras, the Buddha sometimes emits a ray of light from his urnākesa in order to illuminate distant worlds; see KĀYAPRABHĀ; TOUGUANG.
Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa. (P. Uruvela-Kassapa; T. Lteng rgyas 'od srung; C. Youloupinluo Jiashe; J. Urubinra Kasho; K. Urubinna Kasop 優樓頻螺迦葉). The chief of the three "Kāsyapa brothers" (together with NADĪ-KĀsYAPA and GAYĀ-KĀsYAPA), also known in Pāli as the Tebhātika Jatila. Prior to their encounter with the Buddha, the three brothers were matted-hair ascetics engaged in fire worship, living with their followers on the banks of the NAIRANJANĀ River. Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa himself is said to have had five hundred followers. After his first teachings in the Deer Park (MṚGADĀVA; ṚsIPATANA) at SĀRNĀTH, the Buddha returned to Uruvilvā, where he had practiced asceticism prior to this enlightenment. There he encountered Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa, who mistakenly believed that he was already an ARHAT and was liberated from the bonds of rebirth. Knowing that Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa could be dissuaded from his false views by a display of yogic power, the Buddha spent the rains retreat with him, performing 3,500 magical feats to demonstrate his mastery of supernatural powers (S. ṚDDHI), including subduing a fire serpent (NĀGA) without being burned, a scene depicted in Indian rock carvings. Using his ability to read Kāsyapa's mind, the Buddha was able to convince the ascetic that he was not an arhat. When the Buddha told Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa that the fire worship that he taught did not lead to enlightenment, Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa requested ordination. Uruvilvā-Kāsyapa and his five hundred followers all cut off their long locks and threw them in the river. When the other two brothers and their followers saw the hair floating by, they came to investigate and in turn sought ordination. In one fell swoop, the Buddha's community of monks grew to over a thousand monks. The Buddha taught them the so-called "Fire Sermon" (ĀDITTAPARIYĀYA), at which point they all become arhats. They then traveled together to RĀJAGṚHA where, in the presence of King BIMBISĀRA, the new monks proclaimed their allegiance to the Buddha. The three brothers are often listed among the audience of MAHĀYĀNA sutras.
utpāda. (P. uppāda; T. skye ba; C. shengqi; J. shoki; K. saenggi 生起). In Sanskrit, "production," or "arising," the generation of a specific fruition or effect (PHALA) from a given cause (HETU). In generic Buddhist accounts of causality or etiology, hetu designates the main or primary cause of production, which operates in conjunction with various concomitant or subsidiary conditions (PRATYAYA); together, these two bring about the production (utpāda) of a specific "fruition" or result (phala). In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and the MADHYAMAKA school, the notion of production comes under specific criticism (see VAJRAKAnĀ), with NĀGĀRJUNA famously asking, e.g., how an effect can be produced from a cause that is either the same as or different from itself. The prajNāpāramitā sutras thus famously declare that all dharmas are actually ANUTPĀDA, or "unproduced."
Vaibhāsika. (T. Bye brag smra ba; C. Piposha shi; J. Bibashashi; K. Pibasa sa 毘婆沙師). In Sanskrit, "Followers of the Vibhāsā"; the ĀBHIDHARMIKAs associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA, especially in KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA in northwestern India but even in BACTRIA. Because these masters considered their teachings to be elaborations of doctrines found in the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma treatise, the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ, they typically referred to themselves as the Vaibhāsika; hence, the Kashmiri strand of Sarvāstivāda may be called either Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāsika, or, simply, Vaibhāsika. The root text of the Vaibhāsika school is the Abhidharmamahāvibhāsā (a.k.a. Mahāvibhāsā), a massive encyclopedic compendium of Sarvāstivāda doctrine. The Vaibhāsikas maintained that the Mahāvibhāsā was originally spoken by the Buddha himself, and that the various interlocutors-including divinities, sĀRIPUTRA, and others-who facilitate the work's catechistic structure were summoned by the Buddha for the sake of the text's composition. The Gandhāran response to this and other claims made by the Vaibhāsikas led to the formation of an offshoot that rejected the authority of this abhidharma literature. This offshoot called itself the SAUTRĀNTIKA, or "Those Who Adhere to the SuTRAs." The Vaibhāsika abhidharma system maintains the existence of seventy-five constituent factors (DHARMA). Seventy-two of these are conditioned (SAMSKṚTA) and three are unconditioned (ASAMSKṚTA). Like most other schools of Buddhism, the Vaibhāsikas affirmed the selflessness (ANĀTMAN) of persons and the momentary (KsAnIKA) nature of conditioned dharmas. However, they maintained that these factors have their own real existence that endures in past, present, and future modes. They believed these factors to be both real and eternal-a view for which they generated many elaborate justifications. They also believed external objects to be composed of minute particles, like atoms (PARAMĀnU). According to the Vaibhāsikas, consciousness (VIJNĀNA) or cognition has no form that is independent of its object; the Vaibhāsika model of the relationship between consciousness and its objects is therefore sometimes referred to as "direct realism" (see ĀKĀRA). VASUBANDHU's ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA is mainly concerned with abhidharma theory as it was explicated in the Vaibhāsika school; in comparison to the Mahāvibhāsā, however, the Abhidharmakosabhāsya presents a more systematic overview of Sarvāstivāda positions and, at various points in his expositions, Vasubandhu criticizes Sarvāstivāda doctrine from the standpoint of its more progressive Sautrāntika offshoot. This criticism elicited a spirited response from later Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāsika scholars, such as SAMGHABHADRA in his *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA. The Vaibhāsika disappeared as an independent school sometime around the seventh or eighth centuries CE.
Vaidalyaprakarana. (T. Zhib mo rnam par 'thag pa). In Sanskrit, "Extended" or "Woven" "Explanation"; a work now extant only in Tibetan, which is ascribed to NĀGĀRJUNA (although some modern scholarship has questioned the attribution). The treatise, also known as the Vaidalyasutra, is listed in Tibet as one of Nāgārjuna's six works in his "logical corpus" (YUKTIKĀYA). The work is devoted to the refutation of sixteen principles (padārtha) set forth in the Nyāyasutra, which is accomplished in seventy-three aphorisms, or sutras. An autocommentary is also extant.
Vaidehī. (P. Videhī; T. Lus 'phags ma; C. Weitixi; J. Idaike; K. Wijehŭi 韋提希). Sanskrit proper name of the queen of BIMBISĀRA, king of MAGADHA, and mother of AJĀTAsATRU. According to some traditions, her name derives from the fact that she hailed from VIDEHA. When her son Ajātasatru usurped the throne and imprisoned his father, no one was allowed to visit him except for Vaidehī. Although she was prohibited from bringing Bimbisāra food, she hid food in her clothes. When this was discovered, she hid food in her hair and then in her shoes. When these were discovered, she smeared her body with the four sweet substances, which the king licked for his sustenance. When this was discovered, the king lived on the energy from walking meditation, until his son had his feet lacerated, after which he died. The incident of Vaidehī's visit to the cell of Bimbisāra provides the setting for one of the three major sutras of the East Asian PURE LAND traditions, the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING (sometimes known by the hypothetical reconstructed Sanskrit title *Amitāyurdhyānasutra, or simply as the "Meditation Sutra"). According to this sutra, when Ajātasatru discovers that his mother has been secretly feeding the king, he incarcerates her as well. Despite her sorrow, Vaidehī does not give up her faith in the Buddha and invokes his aid. The Buddha then appears before her, and she asks that he teach her about a place where there is no sorrow. The Buddha then teaches her how to visualize the SUKHĀVATĪ pure land of the buddha named "Infinite Life" (AMITĀYUS/AMITĀBHA). He next explains to her how one may be reborn in this wonderful paradise, which is a land without suffering, a world of endless bliss. At the end of the sutra, Vaidehī is mentioned as one of many who were inspired by the Buddha's preaching.
vaipulya. [alt. vaidalya] (cf. P. vedalla; T. shin tu rgyas pa; C. fangdeng; J. hodo; K. pangdŭng 方等). In Sanskrit, lit. "vast" or "extended," viz., "works of great extent"; a term that appears in the title of a number of MAHĀYĀNA sutras meant to indicate their profundity, comprehensiveness, and stereotypically great length. Such sutras will typically offer a more comprehensive overview of Buddhist thought and practice than shorter sutras that may have a single, or more circumscribed, message. The term is used to name one of the nine (NAVAnGA) (Pāli) or twelve (DVĀDAsĀnGA[PRAVACANA]) (Sanskrit) categories (AnGA) of Buddhist scripture according to their structure or literary style. As one of the nine categories of scriptures organized by type or style, vaipulya corresponds to the Pāli category of vedalla (S. vaidalya), which refers to such catechetical texts as the SAKKAPANHASUTTANTA or the SAMMĀDIttHISUTTA. In the twelve types of scripture used in Mahāyāna classifications, the vaipulyasutras are listed as the eleventh category and especially refer to scriptures of massive size. Mahāyāna sutras included in the vaipulya category include many of the seminal works of the tradition, including the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, the RATNAKutASuTRA collection, and the AVATAMSAKASuTRA.
Vaisālī. (P. Vesāli; T. Yangs pa can; C. Pisheli; J. Bishari; K. Pisari 毘舍離). A town approximately twenty-five miles (forty km.) to the northwest of modern-day Patna, in the state of Bihar, India. During the Buddha's lifetime, this was the capital of the Licchavis, which was part of the Vṛji republic. The Buddha first visited the city in the fifth year after his enlightenment and spent his last rains retreat (VARsĀ) in the vicinity of Vaisālī. The Buddha preached a number of important sutras and established several rules of discipline in the city. The Buddha accepted the gift of a mango grove (the Āmrapālīvana) from the city's famous courtesan ĀMRAPĀLĪ. When the Buddha was en route from KAPILAVASTU to Vaisālī, his stepmother MAHĀPRAJĀPATĪ and five hundred women shaved their heads and followed him. Upon arriving in the city, they requested and eventually received ordination as nuns (BHIKsUnĪ). Before departing on the journey that would end at KUsINAGARĪ with his passage into PARINIRVĀnA, the Buddha is said to have turned his body like an elephant for one final look at the city. ¶ Vaisālī was also the location of the second Buddhist council (SAMGĪTI; see COUNCIL, SECOND), held approximately one hundred years after the Buddha's PARINIRVĀnA. Some seven hundred monks were said to have attended the council at Vālukārāma monastery, although the number is probably more of a representation of the council's significance rather than an exact number of monks in attendance. The importance of the second council lies in the sectarian division that occurred within the SAMGHA either at the time of that council or directly thereafter. According to the traditional account, the monk YAsAS entered Vaisalī to visit the monks there and found that they were engaging in what he believed to be ten violations of the VINAYA code of conduct. When Yasas criticized the Vaisalī monks for these violations, he was rebuked and expelled from the SAMGHA. Yasas later returned with the monk sĀnAKAVĀSIN, at which point the monk REVATA called the council and presided over it. After the senior monks ruled in Yasas's favor, the saMgha split into the two groups, the STHAVIRANIKĀYA (the "Order of the Elders," which included Revata and Yasas) and the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA (the "Members of the Great Assembly," which included probably the majority of monks, who opposed the ruling). By the beginning of the Common Era, the saMgha had split into what is commonly called the eighteen MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, in reference to the multiple traditions that developed following the second council at Vaisālī.
vaiyavadānika. (T. rnam par byang ba; C. qingjing; J. shojo; K. ch'ongjong 清淨). In Sanskrit, an adjective formed from VYAVADĀNA, "purification" or "cleansing," contrasted with sāMklesika (from SAMKLEsA), meaning impurity, defilement, stain, or pollution. Dharmas are understood to operate from two distinct and opposite modes of causation that condition one's future-sāMklesika (or SAMKLIstA) dharmas leading to suffering and vaiyavadānika dharmas leading to the end of suffering. In the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras, 108 types of phenomena are declared to be empty (sunya); they are divided into two broad categories, purification (vaiyavadānika) and defilement (saMklista), or the pure and the defiled. Fifty-five phenomena of the pure class are enumerated in the MAHĀYĀNA, including, for example, the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ), the eighteen types of emptiness (suNYATĀ), the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA), and the eighteen unshared qualities of a buddha (ĀVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA). The defiled class includes, for example, the five aggregates (SKANDHA), the six sense organs (INDRIYA), the six consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA), and the twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). See also VYAVADĀNA.
VajracchedikāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Rdo rje gcod pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo; C. Jingang jing; J. Kongokyo; K. Kŭmgang kyong 金剛經). In Sanskrit, the "Diamond-Cutter Perfection of Wisdom Sutra"; known in English as the "Diamond Sutra" (deriving from its popular abbreviated Chinese title Jingang jing, as above), one of the most famous, widely read, and commented upon of all MAHĀYĀNA sutras, together with two others that are also known by their English titles, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") and the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). The "Diamond Sutra" was composed in Sanskrit, probably sometime between the second and fourth centuries CE. Despite its fame, much of its meaning remains elusive, beginning with the title. In Sanskrit, it is VajracchedikāprajNāpāramitā. The Sanskrit term VAJRA refers to a kind of magical weapon, sometimes described as a thunderbolt or a discus, and is said to be hard and unbreakable, like a diamond or adamant. Thus, the title might be rendered into English as "The Perfection of Wisdom That Cuts like a Diamond/Thunderbolt." The sutra opens with the Buddha residing in the JETAVANA with 1,250 monks and a large number of bodhisattvas. After returning from his begging round (PIndAPĀTA) and eating his meal, the Buddha is approached by the great ARHAT SUBHuTI, who asks him about the practice of the BODHISATTVA. The Buddha says that a bodhisattva must vow to lead all beings in the universe into NIRVĀnA, while fully recognizing that there are in fact no beings to be led into nirvāna. "If, Subhuti, a bodhisattva were to have the (mis)perception (SAMJNĀ) of a self (ĀTMAN), a being (SATTVA), a living entity (JĪVA), or a person (PUDGALA), he is not to be called 'a bodhisattva.'" This is one of many famous statements in the sutra, regarded by commentators as setting forth the doctrine of emptiness (although the technical term suNYATĀ does not appear in the sutra), i.e., that all phenomena are falsely imagined to have a self, a soul, and an "own-being," qualities that they, in fact, lack. Any meritorious deed, from the giving of a gift to the vow to free all beings, is not an authentic bodhisattva deed if it is tainted with the (mis)perception (saMjNā) of a sign (NIMITTA) of selfhood: thus the perfection of the act of charity (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ) means that true bodhisattva giving occurs when there is no conception of there being a donor, recipient, or gift-for that kind of giving would produce immeasurable merit. The Buddha asks Subhuti whether the Buddha is to be seen through the possession of the thirty-two physical marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA) that adorn his body. Subhuti says that he is not, because what the Buddha has described as the possession of marks (LAKsAnA) is in fact the nonpossession of no-marks. This formula of question and response, with the correct answer being, "A is in fact not A, therefore it is called A" is repeated throughout the text. The sutra is not simply a radical challenge to the ordinary conception of the world, of language, and of thought; it is also a polemical Mahāyāna sutra, seeking, like other such sutras, to declare its supremacy and to promise rewards to those who exalt it. It is noteworthy that here, as in many other perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras, the Buddha's interlocutor is not a bodhisattva, but an arhat, the wise Subhuti, suggesting that even those who have completed the path to nirvāna still have more to learn. The Buddha predicts that this sutra will be understood far into the future, even into the final five hundred years that the Buddha's teaching remains in the world. At that time, anyone who has even a moment of faith in this sutra will be honored by millions of buddhas. Indeed, even now, long before this point in the distant future, anyone who would teach just four lines of this sutra to others would earn incalculable merit. In a statement that appears in other perfection of wisdom sutras, the Buddha declares, "On whatever piece of ground one will proclaim this sutra, that piece of ground will become an object of worship. That piece of ground will become for the world together with its gods, humans, and demigods a true shrine to be revered and circumambulated." Scholars have seen in this statement the possibility that the perfection of wisdom sutras were something of a "cult of the book," in which the sutra itself was worshipped, serving as a substitute for more traditional sites of worship, such as reliquaries (STuPA). The sutra suggests that such practices were not always condoned by others; the Buddha goes on to say that those who worship the sutra will be ridiculed for doing so, but by suffering ridicule they will destroy the great stores of negative KARMAN accumulated over many lifetimes. The Buddha's exhortations seem to have been taken to heart. The recitation and copying of the sutra was widely practiced across Asia; many copies of the sutra were discovered at DUNHUANG, and the earliest printed book in the world is a xylographic print of the Chinese translation of the VajracchedikāprajNāpāramitā dated May 11, 868, that was found in the Dunhuang cache. On a rock cliff on the Chinese sacred mountain of Taishan, there is a massive carving of the VajracchedikāprajNāpāramitā covering some 2,100 Sinographs in 21,000 square feet (2,000 sq. m.). Miracle tales of the benefits of reciting and copying the sutra were also told across Asia. The VajracchedikāprajNāpāramitā also played an important role in the CHAN traditions of East Asia: e.g., it was the scripture that the fifth patriarch HONGREN expounded to HUINENG, bringing him to enlightenment and enabling Huineng to be his successor as the sixth patriarch (LIUZU) of Chan.
Vajrapāni. (P. Vajirapāni; T. Phyag na rdo rje; C. Jingangshou pusa; J. Kongoshu bosatsu; K. Kŭmgangsu posal 金剛手菩薩). In Sanskrit, "Holder of the VAJRA"; an important bodhisattva in the MAHĀYĀNA and VAJRAYĀNA traditions, who appears in both peaceful and wrathful forms. In the Pāli suttas, he is a YAKsA (P. yakkha) guardian of the Buddha. It is said that whoever refuses three times to respond to a reasonable question from the Buddha would have his head split into pieces on the spot; carrying out this punishment was Vajrapāni's duty. In such circumstances, Vajrapāni, holding his cudgel, would be visible only to the Buddha and to the person who was refusing to answer the question; given the frightening vision, the person would inevitably then respond. Vajrapāni is sometimes said to be the wrathful form of sAKRA, who promised to offer the Buddha protection if the Buddha would teach the dharma; he thus accompanies the Buddha as a kind of bodyguard on his journeys to distant lands. Vajrapāni is commonly depicted in GANDHĀRA sculpture, flanking the Buddha and holding a cudgel. In the early Mahāyāna sutras, Vajrapāni is referred to as a yaksa servant of the bodhisattvas, as in the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ. In the SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA, he is called the "general of the yaksas" (yaksasenādhipati), and is praised as a protector of followers of the Buddha. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, AVALOKITEsVARA explains that one of the forms that he assumes to convert sentient beings is as Vajrapāni. In later Mahāyāna and early tantric Buddhism, Vajrapāni becomes a primary speaker in important sutras and tantras, as well as a principal protagonist in them, and comes to be listed as one of the "eight close sons" (*UPAPUTRA), the principal bodhisattvas. In the MANJUsRĪMuLAKALPA, as leader of the vajra family (VAJRAKULA), he flanks sĀKYAMUNI in the MAndALA. In the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAMGRAHA, his transition from "general of the yaksas" to "the supreme lord of all tathāgatas" is played out through his subjugation of Mahesvara (siva). At the command of the buddha VAIROCANA, Vajrapāni suppresses all of the worldly divinities of the universe and brings them to the summit of Mount SUMERU, where they seek refuge in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA). Only Mahesvara refuses to submit to the uddha. Through Vajarpāni's recitation of a MANTRA, Mahesvara loses his life, only to be reincarnated in another world system, where he eventually achieves buddhahood. Vajrapāni's yaksa origins continue in his wrathful aspects, most common in Tibet, such as the three-eyed Canda Vajrapāni. It is in this form that he is part of a popular triad with Avalokitesvara and MANJUsRĪ known as the "protectors of the three families" (T. RIGS GSUM MGON PO). These three bodhisattvas are said to be the physical manifestation of the wisdom (MaNjusrī), compassion (Avalokitesvara), and power (Vajrapāni) of all the buddhas. Vajrapāni is also said to be the bodhisattva emanation of the buddha AKsOBHYA and the chief bodhisattva of the vajra family. He himself has numerous forms and emanations, including Mahābāla (who may have developed from his early attendant Vajrapurusa), Vajrasattva, Vajradhara, VajrahuMkāra, Ucchusma, Bhutadāmara, and Trailokyavijaya. Vajrapāni is closely related especially to VAJRADHARA, and indeed Vajradhara and Vajrapāni may have originally been two names for the same deity (the Chinese translations of the two deities' names are the same). Vajrapāni's MANTRA is oM vajrapāni huM phat. He is also known as Guhyakādhipati, or "Lord of the Secret." The secret (guhyaka) originally referred to a class of yaksas that he commanded, but expanded in meaning to include secret knowledge and mantras. Vajrapāni is the protector of mantras and those who recite them, and is sometimes identified as the bodhisattva responsible for the collection, recitation, and protection of the VIDYĀDHARAPItAKA.
*Vajrasekharasutra. (T. Rdo rje rtse mo; C. Jingangding jing; J. Kongochokyo; K. Kŭmgangjong kyong 金剛頂經). In Sanskrit, "Sutra on Vajra Peak"; also called the Vajrasekharatantra, the reconstructed Sanskrit title derived from the Chinese translations of the first chapter of the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAMGRAHA made by VAJRABODHI and AMOGHAVAJRA during the Tang dynasty. The full text of the SarvatathāgatatattvasaMgraha was not translated into Chinese until Dānapāla completed his version in 1015 CE. In addition to these translations, a number of associated ritual manuals and commentaries containing the title "Vajrasekhara" are included in the Chinese Buddhist canon. The Vajrasekhara refers to a composite text of eighteen individual scriptures in a hundred thousand stanzas said to have been lost before it reached China. Based in part on a summary of the individual sutras and tantras comprising the text that Amoghavajra composed, some scholars have speculated that the complete Vajrasekhara, in whatever form it originally took, represented the first esoteric Buddhist canon, beginning with the SarvatathāgatatattvasaMgraha and including the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, among other works. Other scholars have questioned the claim that the text ever existed at all. The Vajrasekhara is one of two (or three) central texts in the esoteric tradition (MIKKYo) of Japan. In Tibet, the title Vajrasekaratantra (Rgyud rdo rje rtse mo) is the name of an explanatory yoga tantra connected to the SarvatathāgatatattvasaMgraha, which is used as a major source in Tibetan delineations of the tantric vows.
vajrayāna. (T. rdo rje theg pa; C. jingang sheng; J. kongojo; K. kŭmgang sŭng 金剛乘). In Sanskrit, "adamantine vehicle" or "thunderbolt vehicle"; a general term used to refer to tantric Buddhism, especially in distinction to HĪNAYĀNA and MAHĀYĀNA. The vajrayāna, however, is considered by its adherents to be not a separate vehicle but a form of the Mahāyāna; such adherents would speak instead of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) of hīnayāna, PĀRAMITĀYĀNA, and vajrayāna, with the latter two referring respectively to an exoteric and an esoteric path by which the bodhisattva achieves buddhahood, with the pāramitāyāna set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras and the vajrayāna set forth in the tantras. Traditional etymologies of the term typically evoke the VAJRA to refer to the unbreakable and indivisible quality of two factors, typically method (UPĀYA) and wisdom (PRAJNĀ). See TANTRA.
Vallabhacharya was born in the forest of Champaranya in 1479. At an early age he began traveling to propagate his doctrines, and at the court of Krishna-deva, king of Vijaya-nagara, succeeded so well in his controversies with the Saivas, according to the reports of his followers, that many Vaishnavas chose him as their chief. He then went to other parts of India, and finally settled at Benares, where he composed 17 works, the most important of which were commentaries on the Vedanta- and Mimansa-Sutras and another on the Bhagavata-Purana, on which this sect seems in the main to base their doctrines. He left 84 disciples. He taught a non-ascetic view of religion and deprecated all self-mortification as dishonoring the body which contained a portion of the supreme spirit. His emphasis on human affections and emotions seems at times to fringe closely the frontiers of licentiousness.
Vasubandhu. (T. Dbyig gnyen; C. Shiqin; J. Seshin; K. Sech'in 世親) (fl. c. fourth or fifth centuries CE). One of the most influential authors in the history of Buddhism, and the only major figure to make significant contributions to both the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS and MAHĀYĀNA. In Tibetan Buddhism, Vasubandhu is counted as one of the "six ornaments" (T. rgyan drug), along with NĀGĀRJUNA, ĀRYADEVA, ASAnGA, DIGNĀGA, and DHARMAKĪRTI. There has been considerable speculation about his dates, so much so that ERICH FRAUWALLNER proposed that there were two different Vasubandhus. This theory has been rejected, but there is still no consensus on his dates, with most scholars placing him in the fourth or fifth century CE. Vasubandhu is said to have been born in Purusapura in GANDHĀRA (identified with Peshawar in modern Pakistan), as the brother or half brother (with the same mother) of Asanga. He was ordained as a monk in a SARVĀSTIVĀDA school and studied VAIBHĀsIKA ABHIDHARMA philosophy in KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA, as well as the tenets of the rival SAUTRĀNTIKA school. At the conclusion of his studies, he composed his first and what would be his most famous work, the Abhidharmakosa, or "Treasury of the Abhidharma." In over six hundred stanzas in nine chapters, he set forth the major points of the Vaibhāsika system. He then composed a prose autocommentary, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, in which he critiqued from a Sautrāntika perspective some of the Vaibhāsika positions that he had outlined in the verses. These two texts would become two of the most influential texts on the abhidharma in the later history of Buddhism on the subcontinent and beyond, serving, for example, as the root texts for abhidharma studies in Tibet and as the foundational text for the Kusha (Kosa) school of early Japanese Buddhism. At some point after his composition of the Kosa, he encountered his half brother Asanga, author of at least some of the texts collected in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, who "converted" him to the Mahāyāna. After his conversion, Vasubandhu became a prolific author on Mahāyāna materials, helping especially to frame the philosophy of the Yogācāra school. Major works attributed to him include the VIMsATIKĀ, or "Twenty [Stanzas]" and the TRIMsIKĀ, or "Thirty [Stanzas]," two works that set forth succinctly the basic philosophical positions of the Yogācāra. The TriMsikā was, together with DHARMAPĀLA's commentary to the text, the basis of XUANZANG's massive commentary, the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), which was the foundational text for the FAXIANG ZONG of East Asian Yogācāra. In his TRISVABHĀVANIRDEsA, Vasubandhu also set forth the central doctrine of the Yogācāra, the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA), of imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIsPANNA). His VYĀKHYĀYUKTI set forth principles for the exegesis of passages from the sutras. He is also credited with commentaries on a number of Mahāyāna sutras, including the AKsAYAMATINIRDEsA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA (with his commentary serving as the basis of the DI LUN ZONG in China), as well as commentaries on three of the five treatises of MAITREYA, the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA. He also wrote a commentary on Asanga's MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. His KARMASIDDHIPRAKARAnA, or "Investigation Establishing [the Correct Understanding] of KARMAN," examines the theory of action in light of the Yogācāra doctrine of the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. The PANCASKANDHAPRAKARAnA, or "Explanation of the Five Aggregates," presents a somewhat different view of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) than that found in his Abhidharmakosabhāsya and thus probably dates from his Mahāyāna period; it is a reworking of the presentation of the five aggregates found in Asanga's ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. In addition to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya and the ViMsatikā, a third text of his was highly influential in East Asia. It is a commentary on the larger SUKHĀVATĪVYuHA, whose Sanskrit title might be reconstructed as the *Sukhāvatīvyuhopadesa. However, the work is known only in Chinese, as the JINGTU LUN, and its attribution to Vasubandhu has been called into question. Nonetheless, based on this traditional attribution, Vasubandhu is counted as an Indian patriarch of the PURE LAND schools of East Asia. ¶ In Tibet, a bṛhattīkā commentary on the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ and a paddhati on three PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras (T. Yum gsum gnod 'joms) are attributed to Vasubandhu, although his authorship is disputed.
Vedantasutras: See Brahmasutras. Vedantic: Adjective, "belonging to the Vedanta" (q.v.). Vedic: (Skr.) Adjective, referring to the Vedas (q.v.) or the period that generated them, considered closed about 500 B.C. -- K.F.L.
Vedanta: (lit.) The end of the Vedas; the Upanishads; the school of Hindu thoughts (based primarily on the Upanishads) upholding the doctrine of either pure non-dualism or conditional non-dualism; (the original text of this school is Vedanta-darsana or Uttaramimamsa or the Brahma-sutras compiled by sage Vyasa.)
Vedanta: The "end of the Veda" (q.v.), used both in the literal sense and that of final goal, or meaning. Applied to the Upanishads (q.v.) and various systems of thought based upon them. Specifically the doctrine elaborated in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana, restated, reinterpreted, and changed by later philosophers, notably Sankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhva, and Vallabha (which see). The central theme is that enunciated in the Upanishads of the relation between world soul and individual soul or self. Within the Vedanta, a number of solutions were found and taught with varying success. Sankara supposed God and soul identical (see advaita), Madhva different (see dvaita), Ramanuja different yet identical (see visistadvaita), Vallabha had a theory of obscuration, etc. -- K.F.L.
Veda, plural Vedas: (Skr. knowledge) Collectively the ancient voluminous, sacred literature of India (in bulk prior to 1000 B.C.), composed of Rigveda (hymns to gods), Samaveda (priests' chants), Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae), and Atharvaveda (magical chants), which among theosophic speculations contain the first philosophic insights. Generally recognized as an authority even in philosophy, extended and supplemented later by sutras (q.v.) and various accessory textbooks on grammar, astronomy, medicine, etc., called Vedangas ("members of the Veda") and the philosophical treatises, such as the Upanishads (q.v.). -- K.F.L.
Venuvanavihāra. (P. Veluvanavihāra; T. 'Od ma'i tshal; C. Zhulin jingshe; J. Chikurin shoja; K. Chungnim chongsa 竹林精舍). In Sanskrit, "Bamboo Grove Monastery"; the name of a monastery in a grove of the kingdom of MAGADHA, to the north of the capital, RĀJAGṚHA, that King BIMBISĀRA offered to the Buddha as a residence for himself and his monks. The Venuvana was the first ĀRĀMA or park offered to the Buddha after his enlightenment, and the Buddha subsequently allowed monks to accept an ārāma offered by a layperson. It was during the Buddha's residence at Venuvana that sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA entered the order. The Buddha is said to have passed his second, third, and fourth rains retreat there, in a VIHĀRA built by Kalandaka and offered to the Buddha. Venuvana is often mentioned in the scriptures as the location where the Buddha taught many sutras, prescribed many rules of the VINAYA, and recounted many JĀTAKA tales. ĀNANDA is said to have lived at the Bamboo Grove after the Buddha's death.
Vimalakīrtinirdesa. (T. Dri med grags pas bstan pa'i mdo; C. Weimo jing; J. Yuimagyo; K. Yuma kyong 維摩經). In Sanskrit, "Vimalakīrti's Instructions"; one of the most beloved Indian Mahāyāna sutras, renowned especially for having a layman, the eponymous VIMALAKĪRTI, as its protagonist. The text probably dates from around the second century CE. Among the seven translations of the sutra into Chinese, the most famous is that made by KUMĀRAJĪVA in 406. His translation seems to have been adapted to appeal to Chinese mores, emphasizing the worldly elements of Vimalakīrti's teachings and introducing the term "filial piety" into the text. The sutra was also translated by XUANZANG in 650. The sutra was translated into Tibetan twice, the more famous being that of Chos nyid tshul khrims in the ninth century. It has also been rendered into Sogdian, Khotanese, and Uighur. The original Sanskrit of the text was lost for over a millennia until a Sanskrit manuscript was discovered in the PO TA LA palace in Tibet in 2001. The narrative of the sutra begins with the Buddha requesting that his leading sRĀVAKA disciples visit his lay disciple Vimalakīrti, who is ill. Each demurs, recounting a previous meeting with Vimalakīrti in which the layman had chastised the monk for his limited understanding of the dharma. The Buddha then instructs his leading bodhisattva disciples to visit Vimalakīrti. Each again demurs until MANJUsRĪ reluctantly agrees. Vimalakīrti explains that his sickness is the sickness of all sentient beings, and goes on to describe how a sick bodhisattva should understand his sickness, emphasizing the necessity of both wisdom (PRAJNĀ) and method (UPĀYA). A large audience of monks and bodhisattvas then comes to Vimalakīrti's house, where he delivers a sermon on "inconceivable liberation" (acintyavimoksa). Among the audience is sĀRIPUTRA, the wisest of the Buddha's srāvaka disciples. As in other Mahāyāna sutras, the eminent srāvaka is made to play the fool, repeatedly failing to understand how all dichotomies are overcome in emptiness (suNYATĀ), most famously when a goddess momentarily transforms him into a female. Later, a series of bodhisattvas take turns describing various forms of duality and how they are overcome in nonduality. Vimalakīrti is the last to be invited to speak. He remains silent and is praised for this teaching of the entrance into nonduality. The sutra is widely quoted in later literature, especially on the topics of emptiness, method, and nonduality. It became particularly famous in East Asia because the protagonist is a layman, who repeatedly demonstrates that his wisdom is superior to that of monks. Scenes from the sutra are often depicted in East Asian Buddhist art.
vimoksamukha. (P. vimokkhamukha; T. rnam par thar pa'i sgo; C. jietuo men; J. gedatsumon; K. haet'al mun 解門). In Sanskrit, "gates to deliverance," or "doors of liberation"; three points of transition between the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realms, which, when contemplated, lead to liberation (VIMOKsA) and NIRVĀnA: (1) emptiness (sUNYATĀ), (2) signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), and (3) wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). The three are widely interpreted. In mainstream Buddhist materials, emptiness (sunyatā) entails the recognition that all compounded (SAMSKṚTA) things of this world are devoid of any perduring self (ĀTMAN) and are thus unworthy objects of clinging. By acknowledging emptiness, the meditator is thus able to turn away from this world and instead advert toward nirvāna, which is uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA). Signlessness (ānimitta) is a crucial stage in the process of sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA): as the frequent refrain in the SuTRAs states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions created by the intrusion of ego (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process. Signlessness is produced through insight into impermanence (ANITYA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to attachments to anything experienced through the senses; once the meditator has abandoned all such attachments to the senses, he is then able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has no sensory signs of its own by which it can be recognized. Wishlessness is produced through insight into suffering (DUḤKHA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to all the intentions (āsaya) and aspirations (PRAnIDHĀNA) one has toward any compounded dharma. As the Buddha's famous simile of the raft also suggests, the adept must finally abandon even the attachment to the compounded religious system that is Buddhism in order to experience nirvāna, the summum bonum of the religion. Once the meditator has abandoned all such aspirations, he will then be able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has nothing to do with anything that can be desired (VAIRĀGYA). ¶ In the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the three are explained in terms of three types of concentration (SAMĀDHI) on the sixteen aspects of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. The four aspects of the first truth, of suffering (DUḤKHASATYA), are impermanence, misery, emptiness, and selflessness. The four aspects of the second truth, origination (SAMUDAYASATYA), are cause, origination, strong production, and condition. The four aspects of the third truth, cessation (NIRODHASATYA), are cessation, pacification, exaltedness, and emergence. The four aspects of the fourth truth, path (MĀRGASATYA), are path, suitability, achievement, and deliverance. According to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, the samādhi associated with signlessness observes the four aspects of cessation; the samādhi of emptiness observes emptiness and selflessness, two of the four aspects of suffering; and the samādhi of wishlessness observes the remaining ten aspects. ¶ In YOGĀCĀRA texts, such as the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are related to the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA) of the imaginary (PARIKALPITA), the dependent (PARATANTRA), and the consummate (PARINIsPANNA), respectively. In the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, it is said that the samādhi of emptiness understands the selflessness of persons and phenomenal factors (DHARMA), the samādhi of wishlessness views the five aggregates (SKANDHA) as faulty, and the samādhi of signlessness views nirvāna as the pacification of the aggregates. Elsewhere in that text, the three are connected to the four seals (CATURMUDRĀ) that certify a doctrine as Buddhist. The statements "all compounded factors are impermanent" and "all contaminated things are suffering" are the cause of the samādhi of wishlessness. "All phenomena are devoid of a perduring self" is the cause of the samādhi of emptiness. "Nirvāna is peace" is the cause of the sāmadhi of signlessness. According to another interpretation, emptiness refers to the lack of a truly existent entity in phenomena, signlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent cause, and wishlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent effect.
Vinayasutra. (T. 'Dul ba'i mdo). In Sanskrit, "Discourse on Discipline"; a work on the monastic code by the Indian master GUnAPRABHA, who is dated between the fifth and seventh century CE. Despite its title, the work is not a SuTRA (in the sense of a discourse ascribed to the Buddha), but instead is an authored work composed of individual aphoristic statements (sutras). The text offers a summary or condensation of the massive MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA. At approximately one quarter the length of this massive vinaya collection, Gunaprabha's abridgment seems to have functioned as a kind of primer on the monastic code, omitting lengthy passages of scripture and providing the code of conduct to which monks were expected to subscribe. In this sense, the text is an important work for determining what monastic practice may actually have been like in medieval India. The Vinayasutra became the most important vinaya text for Tibetan Buddhism, being studied in all of the major sects. In the DGE LUGS, it is one of the five books (GZHUNG LNGA) that served as the basis of the monastic curriculum. The detailed commentaries on the Vinayasutra by the Pāla dynasty writer Dharmamitra (early ninth century) and the BKA' GDAM PA master Tsho sna ba Shes rab bzang po's (b. thirteenth century) were widely studied.
vyākarana. (P. veyyākarana; T. lung bstan pa; C. shouji/piqieluo; J. juki/bigara; K. sugi/pigara 授/毘伽羅). In Sanskrit, "prediction" or "prophecy"; a statement made by a buddha indicating the course of future events, especially regarding when, where, and with what name a BODHISATTVA will become a buddha. The most famous instance of such prophecy in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras appears in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), where the Buddha makes predictions that the great ARHATs, beginning with sĀRIPUTRA, will all eventually achieve buddhahood. ¶ Vyākarana is also used to refer to one of the nine (NAVAnGA) (Pāli) or twelve (DVĀDAsĀnGA[PRAVACANA]) (Sanskrit) categories (AnGA) of Buddhist scripture according to their structure or literary style, where it refers to prophetic teachings or expositions. In the ninefold Pāli division, BUDDHAGHOSA defines veyyākarana as something of a default category, which comprises the entire ABHIDHAMMAPItAKA, all suttas that do not contain verses, and any teaching of the Buddha that does not fall into any of the other eight categories.
Vyākhyāyukti. (T. Rnam par bshad pa'i rigs pa). In Sanskrit, "Principles of Exegesis," a treatise by VASUBANDHU preserved only in Tibetan translation. In the broadest sense, the text deals with scriptural interpretation, touching on a wide range of related issues, including the authenticity of the MAHĀYĀNA sutras as the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA), which Vasubandhu upholds. The work is a companion to another work by Vasubandhu, the Vyākhyāyuktisutrakhandasata ("One Hundred Extracts from the Sutras for the Principles of Exegesis"), a collection of 109 passages presented without identification and without comment, all of which derive from "mainstream" (that is, non-Mahāyāna) sources, in most cases from the canon of the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA. These passages serve as the basis for the discussion in the Vyākhyāyukti, which states that sutras are to be explained according to (1) their purpose, (2) their summarized meaning, (3) their sense, (4) their sequence, and (5) objections and responses. In discussing the sense or meaning of a sutra passage, he considers thirteen terms that have multiple meanings, including DHARMA, RuPA, and SKANDHA. In his explication of technical terminology, Vasubandhu explains four distinct aspects of "the meaning of the words" (padārtha): synonyms (paryāya), definition (laksana), etymology (nirukti), and their subdivisions (prabheda; perhaps implying subsidiary meanings, or "connotations," in this context). In the course of the discussion, several Mahāyāna sutras are quoted. The work was influential in late Indian scholastic circles, eliciting a commentary by Gunamati; it was also cited by such scholars as HARIBHADRA. It was highly praised by such luminaries as SA SKYA PAndITA and BU STON in Tibet, where it was used to establish principles for the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan. See also NETTIPPAKARAnA; PEtAKOPADESA; SANFEN KEJING.
vyasa. ::: one of the greatest sages of India, commentator on the Yoga Sutras, author of the Mahabharata &
Vyasa: The name of a great sage who wrote the Brahma Sutras, etc.; Rishi Krishnadvaipayana.
Wang Rixiu. (王日休) (d. 1173). Chinese lay Buddhist during the Song dynasty (960-1279), who played an important role in revitalizing the PURE LAND (JINGTU) tradition, also known by his Buddhist name of Longshu. Although Wang was an accomplished Confucian scholar, he renounced all aspiration for civil office and instead devoted himself to pure land devotions, charitable activities, and a daily regimen of one thousand prostrations. Wang is best known as the author of Longshu zhengguan jingtu wen ("Longshu's Extended Writings on the Pure Land"), written in 1160, an extensive compendium of materials on the SUKHĀVATĪ pure land of AMITĀBHA, drawn from sutras, commentarial writings, and biographical materials, with Wang's own exegeses. The collection offers practical instructions on how to have faith, and achieve rebirth, in the pure land, as well as a series of edifying tales about the successful rebirths and miracles that others generated through their own devotions.
Weituo tian. (J. Idaten; K. Wit'a ch'on 韋馱天). A Buddhist guardian deity, who is especially popular in East Asia, where he is often designated as a BODHISATTVA (pusa) or divinity (DEVA; C. tian). Weituo is connected to the god Kārtikeya, also known as Skanda, whom the Buddhist tradition appropriated from the Hindu pantheon. Kārtikeya, the six-headed son of siva, is a Hindu god of war who helps defend the gods; in Buddhism, he became one of the many guardian deities who protect the dispensation, its sacred objects, and its sacred spaces. Weituo is the spirit commander of the thirty-two divine generals subordinate to the four heavenly kings (CATURMAHĀRĀJA; see LOKAPĀLA), as well as one of the eight generals under VIRudHAKA, the heavenly king of the southern quarter of the world. He is also identified with KUMĀRABHuTA (C. Dongzhen). His East Asian name "Weituo" is apparently a mistaken Sinographic transcription from "Sijiantuo" or "Jiantuo tian," both Chinese transcriptions of Skanda. Weituo's role as a dharma protector (DHARMAPĀLA) is reflected in a story from the Daoxuan lüshi gantong lu ("Preceptor Daoxuan's Record of Miraculous Stories," c. seventh century), written by the Chinese VINAYA master DAOXUAN (596-667), which relates that Weituo was instructed by the dying Buddha to protect the dharma whenever it was disturbed by demonic forces (MĀRA). From the Tang dynasty onward in China, Weituo was considered the guardian of monasteries and Buddhist practitioners, as well as a symbol of fierce determination in spiritual training. One of Weituo's specific roles was to protect the STuPAS that enshrine the Buddha's relics (sARĪRA). In a popular story involving Weituo, a group of malevolent demons steals one of the Buddha's tooth relics immediately following his death and cremation. Weituo battles the demons, saves the relic, and thereby earns a reputation as a fierce protector of the dharma. Weituo is typically depicted as a young man in full armor, with the headgear of a Chinese general. He is also often shown leaning on his weapon, sometimes a sword, but usually a VAJRA. In many East Asian monasteries, Weituo's image is found to one side of, and facing, the Buddha image in the main shrine hall (TAEŬNG CHoN). Weituo is also seen in the company of, and sometimes back to back with, AVALOKITEsVARA and MAITREYA. His visage also frequently appears at the end of Chinese editions of the SuTRAs, as a reminder of his role in protecting the dharma.
Wuliangshou jing youpotishe yuansheng ji. (J. Muryojukyo upadaisha ganshoge; K. Muryangsugyong ubajesa wonsaeng ke 無量壽經優婆提舎願生偈). In Chinese, "Verses on the Wish for Rebirth and the Exposition of the Limitless Life Scripture"; also known as the Wuliangshou jing lun ("Commentary on the Limitless Life Scripture"), Jingtu lun ("Treatise on the Pure Land"), Wangsheng lun ("Treatise on Rebirth"), and Yuansheng ji ("Verses on the Wish for Rebirth"). The Wuliangshou jing youpotishe yuansheng ji is attributed to VASUBANDHU and was translated into Chinese by BODHIRUCI at the monastery of YONGNINGSI in 529. The text is largely a commentary on the larger SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA and is comprised of a twenty-four-line verse and prose commentary. The verse section begins with an exhortation to be reborn in the country of peace and happiness (ANLEGUO) or PURE LAND (JINGTU) of the buddha AMITĀBHA, which it subsequently describes in detail, and ends with the dedication of merit (PARInĀMANĀ). The prose commentary explains the ritual means of rebirth in terms of "five gates of recollection" (wu nianmen). These five gates are veneration (libai), praise (cantan), vow (zuoyuan), discernment (guancha), and dedication (huixiang). The text came to be held in high regard in China and Japan after the eminent Chinese monk TANLUAN composed an influential commentary on the text. Along with the shorter and longer Sukhāvatīvyuhasutras and the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING, the Japanese monk HoNEN recognized the Wuliangshou jing youpotishe yuansheng ji as a central scripture of the school now known as the JoDOSHu. See also JINGTU LUN.
Wuliang yi jing. (J. Muryogikyo; K. Muryang ŭi kyong 無量義經). In Chinese, "Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings," one of the "Three [Sister] Sutras of the 'Lotus'" (FAHUA SANBU [JING]), along with the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") itself and the GUAN PUXIAN PUSA XINGFA JING ("Sutra on the Procedures for Contemplating the Practices of the Bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA"). The Wuliang yi jing, is presumed to be the prequel to the influential Saddharmapundarīkasutra, while the Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing is usually considered its sequel. The extant version of the scripture, in one roll, is attributed to the Indian translator *Dharmāgatayasas of the Southern Qi dynasty (479-502), and is claimed to have been translated in 481; the LIDAI SANBAO JI scriptural catalogue also refers to a second, nonextant translation. There is, however, no evidence that a scripture with this title ever circulated in India, and no such text is ever cited in Indian sources. In addition, there are issues with the biography of the alleged translator (*Dharmāgatayasas is otherwise unknown and this is his only attributed translation), and peculiar events in the transmission of the scripture, which suggest that attempts were made to obscure its questionable provenance. The scripture also includes unusual transcriptions and translations of Buddhist technical terminology, and peculiar taxonomies of Indian doctrinal concepts. Because of these problematic issues of provenance and content, the sutra is now suspected of being an indigenous Chinese composition (see APOCRYPHA). Such Chinese exegetes as Huiji (412-496) and TIANTAI ZHIYI (538-597) presumed that this scripture was the otherwise-unknown MAHĀYĀNA sutra titled "Immeasurable Meanings" that is mentioned in the prologue to the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, which the Buddha is said to have preached just prior to beginning the "Lotus Sutra" proper. The Wuliang yi jing is in three chapters (pin). The first chapter is the prologue, where the bodhisattva "Great Adornment" (Dazhuangyan pusa) offers a long verse paean describing the Buddha's many virtues. The second chapter is the sermon itself, where the Buddha explains the doctrine of immeasurable meanings as being the one teaching that will enable bodhisattvas to quickly attain complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI). This doctrine reveals that all phenomena (DHARMA) are void and calm in both their natures and their characteristics and thus are empty and nondual (ADVAYA). Hence, the immeasurable meanings of all descriptions of dharmas derive from the one dharma that is free from characteristics. The final chapter is the epilogue, which describes the ten kinds of merit that accrue from hearing the sutra.
wushi bajiao. (J. goji hakkyo; K. osi p'algyo 五時八教). In Chinese, "five periods and eight teachings"; a classification of teachings (PANJIAO) attributed to the TIANTAI systematizer TIANTAI ZHIYI. A detailed explanation of the wushi bajiao is found in the text by the Korean exegete CH'EGWAN, the CH'oNT'AE SAGYO ŬI (C. Tiantai sijiao yi). The five periods correspond to what is believed to be the five major chronological periods (WUSHI) of the Buddha's teaching career (represented by the name of a SuTRA or group of sutras preached during each period), namely, (1) Huayan (AVATAMSAKASuTRA), (2) ĀGAMA, (3) VAIPULYA, (4) PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, and (5) Lotus (SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA) and Nirvāna (MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA). According to Zhiyi, the Buddha also employed different techniques of conversion or pedagogical modes (huayi) for audiences of varying capacities, which are broadly divided into four: the sudden, gradual, indeterminate, and secret. The sudden and gradual teachings are distinguished by their variant uses of skillful means (UPĀYA), and indeterminate refers to the differing levels of the understanding of individuals. Zhiyi's contribution to these well-established categories was his further division of the indeterminate teachings into "secret" and "manifest" based on the awareness of the presence of others in the assembly. The content of the Buddha's teachings (huafa) is further described in terms of the four categories of TRIPItAKA, common, distinct, and consummate. This division is based on whether the teachings are that of TRIPItAKA (viz. HĪNAYĀNA), MAHĀYĀNA (distinct), both (joint), or neither (consummate). Zhiyi referred to the central sutra of his own Tiantai school, the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, as consummate. Zhiyi's own classification system is based on those of earlier exegetical traditions of the north (wujiao shizong) and south (sanjiao), which he sought to unite and ultimately transcend. See TIANTAI BAJIAO.
wushi. (J. goji; K. osi 五時). In Chinese, "the five periods [of the Buddha's teaching]"; the TIANTAI school's temporal taxonomy of Buddhist doctrines (JIAOXIANG PANSHI), according to which the Buddha's teachings differ because he preached them at different points during his pedagogical career. The initial account of his awakening that the Buddha taught immediately after his enlightenment was described in the AVATAMSAKASuTRA; this stage is thus termed the HUAYAN period (huayan shiqi). This account of the experience of buddhahood was, however, so unadulterated and sublime that many sRĀVAKA disciples were utterly unable to comprehend its message. The Buddha therefore began his teaching anew in a second period that was termed Luyuan shiqi (after the Deer Park, MṚGADĀVA, where many of the ĀGAMA scriptures were taught) or ahan shiqi (after the āgamas, which were the compilation of the Buddha's words from this period). This period was said to be an explicit attempt on the part of the Buddha to accommodate those disciples who were confounded during the first period, by teaching his insights in their most elementary form. The third period is called fangdeng (VAIPULYA) shiqi, where the "HĪNAYĀNA" teachings of the second period were superseded by teaching the aspiration for the MAHĀYĀNA. Various sutras that explicitly compare Mahāyāna favorably to "hīnayāna"-such as the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA-were supposedly products of this period. The fourth period is termed the bore shiqi, after its eponymous sutras, the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ. This was the stage of the Buddha's teaching career where he began to remove the boundaries separating Mahāyāna and "hīnayāna" by leading his audience from the presumption that there were two separate vehicles to instead a common realization of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The final period is called Fahua Niepan shiqi, after its two representative sutras, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA. The teachings associated with this period are described as the "consummate" or "perfect" teachings (YUANJIAO) because they espouse the idea of one vehicle (or the one buddha vehicle; C. YISHENG; S. EKAYĀNA), which Tiantai claimed was the truest form of the Buddha's original intention (benyuan; see PuRVAPRAnIDHĀNA). The Tiantai school also compares these five stages of the teachings to the five stages in the clarification of milk (see WUWEI, "five tastes"). See also TIANTAI BAJIAO.
wuzhong xuanyi. (J. goshu no gengi; K. ojong hyonŭi 五種玄義). In Chinese, "five categories of profound meaning"; a list of five general hermeneutical issues that should be addressed prior to undertaking an in-depth exegesis of any SuTRA, attributed to TIANTAI ZHIYI (538-597) and emblematic of scriptural exegesis in the TIANTAI SCHOOL. These five are (1) explicating the meaning of the text's title (shiming), (2) analyzing the fundamental intent of the sutra (bianben), (3) clarifying its principal themes or doctrines (mingzong), (4) expounding the sutra's "function" or impact on its audience (lunyong), and (5) classifying the sutra (PANJIAO), viz., delineating its place within the entire corpus of sutras expounded by the Buddha. These five issues typically would be addressed by the commentator prior to beginning the exegesis of the sutra proper. See also SANFEN KEJING; JIAOXIANG PANSHI.
Xuanzang. (J. Genjo; K. Hyonjang 玄奘) (600/602-664). Chinese monk, pilgrim, and patriarch of the Chinese YOGĀCĀRA tradition (FAXIANG ZONG) and one of the two most influential and prolific translators of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese, along with KUMĀRAJĪVA (344-413); in English sources, his name is seen transcribed in a variety of ways (now all outmoded), including Hsüan-tsang, Hiuen Tsiang, Yuan Chwang, etc. Xuanzang was born into a literati family in Henan province in either 600 or 602 (although a consensus is building around the latter date). In 612, during a state-supported ordination ceremony, Xuanzang entered the monastery of Jingtusi in Luoyang where his older brother was residing as a monk. There, Xuanzang and his brother studied the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA and various MAHĀYĀNA texts. When the Sui dynasty collapsed in 618, they both fled the capital for the safety of the countryside. In 622, Xuanzang was given the complete monastic precepts and was fully ordained as a monk (BHIKsU). By this time Xuanzang had also studied earlier translations of the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, JNĀNAPRASTHĀNA, and *TATTVASIDDHI under various teachers but came to doubt the accuracy of those translations and the veracity of their teachings. In order to resolve his doubts, Xuanzang embarked on an epic journey to India in 627, in flagrant disregard of the Taizong emperor's (r. 626-629) edict against traveling abroad. His trek across the SILK ROAD and India is well known, thanks to his travel record, the DA TANG XIYU JI, his official biography, and the famous Ming-dynasty comic novel based on Xuangzang's travels, XIYU JI ("Journey to the West"). (See "Routes of Chinese Pilgrims" map.) According to these sources, Xuanzang visited the various Buddhist pilgrimage sites of the subcontinent (see MAHĀSTHĀNA) and spent years at NĀLANDĀ monastery mastering Sanskrit, including fifteen months studying the texts of the Indian Yogācāra tradition under the tutelage of the 106-year-old sĪLABHADRA. In 645, Xuanzang returned to the Tang capital of Chang'an with over six hundred Sanskrit manuscripts that he had acquired in India, along with images, relics, and other artifacts. (These materials were stored in a five-story stone pagoda, named the DAYAN TA, or Great Wild Goose Pagoda, that Xuanzang later built on the grounds of the monastery of DA CI'ENSI; the pagoda is still a major tourist attraction in Xi'an.) The Taizong and Gaozong emperors (r. 649-683) honored Xuanzang with the title TREPItAKA (C. sanzang fashi; "master of the Buddhist canon") and established a translation bureau (yijing yuan) in the capital for the master, where Xuanzang supervised a legion of monks in charge of transcribing the texts, "rectifying" (viz., clarifying) their meaning, compiling the translations, polishing the renderings, and certifying both their meaning and syntax. Xuanzang and his team developed an etymologically precise set of Chinese equivalencies for Buddhist technical terminology, and his translations are known for their rigorous philological accuracy (although sometimes at the expense of their readability). While residing at such sites as HONGFUSI, Da ci'ensi, and the palace over an eighteen-year period, Xuanzang oversaw the translation of seventy-six sutras and sāstras in a total of 1,347 rolls, nearly four times the number of texts translated by Kumārajīva, probably the most influential of translators into Chinese. (Scholars have estimated that Xuanzang and his team completed one roll of translation every five days over those eighteen years of work.) Xuanzang's influence was so immense that he is often recognized as initiating the "new translation" period in the history of the Chinese translation of Buddhist texts, in distinction to the "old translation" period where Kumārajīva's renderings hold pride of place. Among the more important translations made by Xuanzang and his translation team are the foundational texts of the Yogācāra school, such as the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), ASAnGA's MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, and the YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA, and many of the major works associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA, including definitive translations of the JNānaprasthāna and the encyclopedic ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ, as well as complete translations of VASUBANDHU's ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA and SAMGHABHADRA's *NYĀYĀNUSĀRA. He translated (and retranslated) many major Mahāyāna sutras and sāstras, including the massive MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, in six hundred rolls; this translation is given a place of honor as the first scripture in the East Asian Buddhist canons (see DAZANGJING; KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG). Also attributed to Xuanzang is the Chinese translation of the famed PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA, or "Heart Sutra," probably the most widely read and recited text in East Asian Buddhism. Because Xuanzang himself experienced a palpable sense of the Buddha's absence while he was sojourning in India, he also translated the Nandimitrāvadāna (Da aluohan Nantimiduo luo suoshuo fazhu ji, abbr. Fazhu ji, "Record of the Duration of the Dharma Spoken by the Great Arhat NANDIMITRA"), the definitive text on the sixteen ARHAT protectors (see sOdAsASTHAVIRA) of Buddhism, which became the basis for the LOUHAN cult in East Asia.
yāna. (T. theg pa; C. sheng; J. jo; K. sŭng 乘). In Sanskrit, "vehicle," "conveyance"; a common Sanskrit term for any means of transportation (in Pāli materials and in many of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, the term is generally used in this literal sense). In MAHĀYĀNA literature, the term takes on great significance in the metaphorical sense of a mode of transportation along the path to enlightenment, becoming a constituent of the term Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") itself. In Mahāyāna SuTRAs and sĀSTRAs, this rhetorical sense of the term is often put to polemical use, with the followers of the Buddha being placed into three or two vehicles. The three vehicles are the BODHISATTVAYĀNA or Mahāyāna, the PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA, and the sRĀVAKAYĀNA. The two vehicles are the Mahāyāna and the HĪNAYĀNA (the "lesser vehicle," or even more disparagingly, "base vehicle" or "vile vehicle"), which subsumes the pratyekabuddhayāna and the srāvakayāna. Other uses of the term yāna include the BUDDHAYĀNA and the EKAYĀNA ("one vehicle"), whose precise relationship to the bodhisattvayāna and the Mahāyāna is discussed in the scholastic literature. Among the Mahāyāna sutras, the most celebrated expression of the rhetoric of the yānas occurs in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") where, in the parable of the burning house, a father promises to reward his children with three different carriages (yāna) when in fact there is only a single magnificent carriage. With the rise of tantric Buddhism, the Mahāyāna itself is divided into two, the PĀRAMITĀYĀNA or "perfection vehicle," referring to the path to buddhahood involving successive mastery of the perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) as set forth in the sutras, and the MANTRAYĀNA or "mantra vehicle," referring to the path to buddhahood as set forth in the TANTRAs (although some scholars have argued that the proper term here is not yāna, but naya, meaning "mode" or "principle"). The tantric teachings are also variously referred to as the GUHYAMANTRAYĀNA ("secret mantra vehicle"), the PHALAYĀNA ("fruition vehicle"), and, most famously, as the VAJRAYĀNA ("diamond vehicle" or "thunderbolt vehicle").
Ye shes sde. (Yeshe De) (fl. late eighth/early ninth century). A Tibetan translator (LO TSĀ BA) during the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet; a native of Ngam shod of the Sna nam clan, also referred to by the clan name Zhang. He is said to have been a disciple of both PADMASAMBHAVA and sRĪSIMHA, from whom he received tantric instructions, especially in the SEMS SDE (mind class) of RDZOGS CHEN. He collaborated with some fifteen Indian scholars, among them Jinamitra, sīlendrabodhi, and Dānasīla, on the translation of as many as 347 different works, if the later canonical records are correct. His translations includes upwards of 163 Mahāyāna sutras, among them the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, AVATAMSAKASuTRA, and RATNAKutASuTRA collections, translations of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI and other basic MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA treatises, as well as a number of works by his contemporaries sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA. He is also credited with the translation of tantric works that would come to be known as the "old translations" used by the RNYING MA sect. He is said to have been a practitioner of the VAJRAKĪLAYA tantras. He is also author of a number of original compositions, among them the Lta ba'i khyad par ("Differences in Views"), preserved in both a BSTAN 'GYUR and DUNHUANG version, which divides the Madhyamaka school into Sautrāntika-Madhyamaka and Yogācāra-Madhyamaka. See also DPAL BRTSEGS; KLU'I RGYAL MTSHAN.
yixin chuanxin. (J. ishin denshin; K. isim chonsim 以心傳心). In Chinese, "mind-to-mind transmission." An oft-repeated phrase used mainly by the East Asian CHAN traditions to refer to a special transmission of the "mind" of the Buddha from master to disciple in a "telepathic" way that does not rely on words or letters (see JIAOWAI BIECHUAN and BULI WENZI). In an attempt to distinguish itself from the other Buddhist traditions that sought the teachings of the Buddha in sutras and commentaries, the burgeoning Chan tradition of the eighth and ninth centuries emphasized the nonverbal transmission of the Buddha's teachings. The notion of mind-to-mind transmission has thus served as an important trope in the self-fashioning of the Chan tradition. Mind-to-mind transmission is often explained by reference to a famous Chan legend that first appears in the Tiansheng guangdeng lu. While at Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA), the Buddha is said to have raised a flower in front of a large assembly, whereupon the elder MAHĀKĀsYAPA smiled in response. The Buddha then announced that he had thereby entrusted his "treasury of the true dharma eye" (ZHENGFAYANZANG) to Mahākāsyapa, thus recognizing him as the Buddha's successor and first patriarch (ZUSHI). For this legend, see NIANHUA WEIXIAO.
Yogasutras: Famous work by Patanjali, on which Yoga is founded. It is essentially a mental discipline in eight stages (see: Yoga) for the attainment of spiritual freedom without neglecting physical and moral preparation.
Yogasutras: Famous work by Patanjali (q.v.) on which is founded Yoga, one of the great systems of Indian philosophy (q.v.). It is essentially a mental discipline in eight stages (see Yoga) for the attainment of spiritual freedom without neglecting physical and moral preparation. In philosophic outlook, the sutras (q.v.) and most commentaries on them are allied to the Sankhya (q.v.), yet not without having theistic leanings. -- K.F.L.
yoga sutras. ::: the oldest known writing on the subject of yoga, written by the sage Patanjali, a yogi of ancient India, and considered to be the most authoritative text on yoga; also known as
Yogācārabhumisāstra. [alt. Yogācārabhumi] (T. Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa'i bstan bcos; C. Yuqieshidi lun; J. Yugashijiron; K. Yugasaji non 瑜伽師地論). In Sanskrit, "Treatise on the Stages of Yogic Practice"; an encyclopedic work that is the major treatise (sĀSTRA) of the YOGĀCĀRA school of Indian Buddhism. It was widely influential in East Asia and Tibet, being translated into Chinese by XUANZANG between 646 and 648 and into Tibetan circa 800. Authorship is traditionally ascribed to ASAnGA (or, in China, to MAITREYA), but the size and scope of the text suggest that it is the compilation of the work of a number of scholars (possibly including Asanga) during the fourth century CE. The work is divided into five major sections. The first and longest, comprising approximately half the text, is called the "Multiple Stages" (Bahubhumika or Bhumivastu) and sets forth the stages of the path to buddhahood in seventeen sections. The two most famous of these sections (both of which are preserved in Sanskrit and which circulated as independent works) are the sRĀVAKABHuMI and the BODHISATTVABHuMI, the latter providing one of the most detailed discussions of the bodhisattva path (MĀRGA) in Indian literature. In this section, many of the central doctrines of the Yogācāra school are discussed, including the eight consciousnesses, the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA, and the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA). The structures and practices of the paths of the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA are presented here in the form that would eventually become normative among MAHĀYĀNA scholasts in general (not just adherents of Yogācāra). The second section, "Compendium of Resolving [Questions]" (ViniscayasaMgrahanī), considers controversial points that arise in the previous section. The third section, "Compendium of Interpretation" (VyākhyānasaMgrahanī), examines these points in light of relevant passages from the sutras; it is interesting to note that the majority of the texts cited in this section are Sanskrit ĀGAMAs rather than Mahāyāna sutras. The fourth, called "Compendium of Synonyms" (ParyāyasaMgraha) considers the terms mentioned in the sutras. The fifth and final section, "Compendium of Topics" (VastusaMgraha), considers central points of Buddhist doctrine, including PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA and BODHI. This section also contains a discussion of VINAYA and (in the Chinese version) ABHIDHARMA.
Yogācāra. (T. Rnal 'byor spyod pa; C. Yuqiexing pai; J. Yugagyoha; K. Yugahaeng p'a 瑜伽行派). In Sanskrit, "Practice of YOGA"; one of the two major MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools (along with MADHYAMAKA) in India, known especially for its doctrines of "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA) or "representation-only" (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ), the TRISVABHĀVA, and the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. In addition, much of the exposition of the structure of the Mahāyāna path (MĀRGA) and of the Mahāyāna ABHIDHARMA derives from this school. The texts of the school were widely influential in Tibet and East Asia. Although several of the terms associated with the school occur in such important Mahāyāna sutras as the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, and especially the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, the exposition of the key doctrines was largely the work of two Indian scholastics of the fourth to fifth centuries CE, the half brothers ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU and their commentators, especially STHIRAMATI and DHARMAPĀLA. Asanga's major works include the central parts of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, and the ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. Vasubandhu's most famous Yogācāra works are the VIMsATIKĀ and the TRIMsIKĀ (his most famous work of all, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, is said to have been composed prior to his conversion to the Mahāyāna). Among the "five books of MAITREYA" (see BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA), three are particularly significant in Yogācāra: the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA, and the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA. Important contributions to Yogācāra thought were also made by the logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI. Although Yogācāra and Madhyamaka engaged in polemics, in the latter phases of Buddhism in India, a synthesis of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka took place in the works of such authors as sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA; Tibetan doxographers dubbed this synthesis YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. ¶ Yogācāra authors offered detailed presentations and analyses of virtually all of the important topics in Buddhist thought and practice, built upon an edifice deriving from meditative experience. The school is perhaps most famous for the doctrines of "mind-only" (cittamātra) and "representation-only" (vijNaptimātra), according to which the conception of the objects of experience as existing external to and independent of the consciousness perceiving them was regarded as the fundamental ignorance and the cause of suffering. Instead of the standard six consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA) posited by other Buddhist schools (the five sensory consciousnesses and the mental consciousness), some Yogācāra texts described eight forms of consciousness: these six, plus the seventh "afflicted mind" (KLIstAMANAS), which mistakenly generates the false notion of a perduing self (ĀTMAN), and the eighth foundational, or "storehouse," consciousness (ālayavijNāna). This foundational consciousness is the repository of seeds (BĪJA) or imprints (VĀSANĀ) produced by past actions (KARMAN) that fructify as experience, producing simultaneously consciousness and the objects of consciousness. The afflicted mind mistakenly regards the foundational consciousness as a permanent and independent self. The doctrine of the three natures (trisvabhāva), although variously interpreted, is also often explained in light of the doctrine of representation-only. The imaginary nature (PARIKALPITA) refers to misconceptions, such as the belief in self and in the existence of objects that exist apart from consciousness. The dependent nature (PARATANTRA) encompasses impermanent phenomena, which are products of causes and conditions. The consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) is reality, classically defined as the absence of the imaginary nature in the dependent nature. By removing these latent predispositions from the ālayavijNāna and overcoming the mistaken bifurcation of experience between a perceiving subject and perceived objects (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA), a transformation of consciousness (ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI) occurs which turns the deluded mind of the sentient being into the enlightenment cognition of the buddhas (BUDDHAJNĀNA), with the ālayavijNāna being transformed into the mirrorlike wisdom (ĀDARsAJNĀNA). In the realm of soteriology, much of what would become the standard Mahāyāna elaboration of the five paths (PANCAMĀRGA) and the bodies (KĀYA, e.g., TRIKĀYA) of a buddha is found in works by Yogācāra authors, although there are important differences between Yogācāra and Madhyamaka on a number of key soteriological questions, including whether there is one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) or three final vehicles (TRIYĀNA), that is, whether all beings are destined for buddhahood, or whether some, such as the ARHATs of the mainstream Buddhist schools, are stuck in a soteriological dead end. ¶ Not all the scholastics regarded as Yogācāra exegetes adhered to all of the most famous doctrines of the school. The most common division of the school is into those who do and do not assert the existence of eight consciousnesses (and hence the ālayavijNāna). The former, who include Asanga and Vasubandhu, are called "followers of scripture" (āgamānusārin), and the latter, who include the famous logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI, are called "followers of reasoning" (nyāyānusārin). Yogācāra strands of Buddhism were extremely influential in the development of indigenous East Asian schools of Buddhism, including the mature schools of HUAYAN and even CHAN. For specifically East Asian analogues of Yogācāra, see FAXIANG ZONG, XIANG ZONG, DI LUN ZONG, and SHE LUN ZONG.
Yoga: (Skr. "yoking") Restraining of the mind (see Manas), or, in Patanjali's (q.v.) phrase: citta vrtti nirodha, disciplining the activity of consciousness. The object of this universally recommended practice in India is the gaining of peace of mind and a deeper insight into the nature of reality. On psycho-physical assumptions, several aids are outlined in all works on Yoga, including moral preparation, breath-control, posture, and general toning up of the system. Karma or kriya Yoga is the attainment of Yoga ends primarily by doing, bhakti Yoga by devotion, jnana Yoga by mental or spiritual means. The Yogasutras (q.v.) teach eight paths: Moral restraint (see yama), self-culture (see niyama), posture (see asana), breath-control (see prandyama), control of the senses (see pratyahara), concentration (see dharana), meditation or complete surrender to the object of meditation (see samadhi). See Hathayoga. -- K.F.L.
Yongsong Chinjong. (龍城震鐘) (1864-1940). Korean monk during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945), also known as Paek Yongsong; leader of a conservative group of monastic reformers, and one of the thirty-three signatories to the Korean Declaration of Independence in 1919. Ordained at the monastery of HAEINSA in 1879, he received full monastic precepts five years later and became a disciple of Taeŭn Nango (1780-1841) at the hermitage of Ch'ilburam. Later, he had a great awakening while he was studying the JINGDE CHUANDENGLU at the monastery of SONGGWANGSA, where he became a disciple of the SoN master HWANSoNG CHIAN. One year after Korea was annexed by Japan, he established the monastery of Taegaksa and a Son center (Sonhagwon) in Seoul in an attempt to propagate Buddhism among a wider public. On March 1, 1919, he signed the Korean Declaration of Independence as a representative of the Buddhist community and was consequently incarcerated by the Japanese colonial government for eighteen months. During his year and a half in prison, he translated many sutras (such as the voluminous AVATAMSAKASuTRA, or Hwaomgyong) from literary Chinese into han'gŭl, the Korean vernacular script, in order to make more Buddhist texts accessible to ordinary Koreans. After his release from prison in March 1921, he established a community known as the Taegakkyo (Teaching of Great Awakening) and a translation center called Samjang Yokhoe (Society for Translating the TRIPItAKA), and devoted most of his time to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. In 1928 he published the journal Mua ("No Self") and with HANYoNG CHoNGHO also published the journal Puril ("Buddha Sun"). In May 1929, he and 127 other monks submitted a petition to the Japanese colonial government asking for the restoration of the tradition of celibacy in the Buddhist monasteries. Because of his interest in ensuring the continuance of the BHIKsU and BHIKsUnĪ traditions, Yongsong personally established many ordination platforms and transmitted the complete monastic precepts (kujokkye) several times during his career. He also stressed the need for monasteries to be self-sustaining economically. In accordance with his plan for self-sustenance, he participated in the management of a mine in Hamgyong province, and in 1922, he bought some land in Manchuria and ran a farm on the compounds of a branch of the Taegakkyo. He also started a Ch'amson Manil Kyolsahoe (Ten-Thousand Day Meditation Retreat Society) at the monastery of Ch'ilbulsa and attracted many followers from other monasteries. Yongsong was a prolific writer who left behind many works, including his famous Kwiwon chongjong ("The Orthodox Teaching that Returns to the Source"), a tract that compared Buddhism to Confucianism, Daoism, and Christianity, a modern twist on the old "three teachings" syncretism of medieval East Asian philosophy. This work was one of the first attempts by Buddhists to respond to the inroads made by Christianity in modern Korea. In his treatment, he suggests that Confucianism presented a complete moral doctrine but was deficient in transcendental teachings; Daoism was deficient in moral teachings but half-understood transcendental teaching; Christianity was fairly close to the Buddhist ch'on'gyo ("teachings of [humans] and divinities"), which taught the kinds of meritorious actions that would lead to rebirth in heavenly realms but was completely ignorant of the transcendental teaching. Only Buddhism, Yongsong concluded, presented all facets of both moral and transcendental teachings. Yongsong's other works include his Kakhae illyun, Susim non, and Ch'onggong wonil. See also IMWoTKO.
Yuzunenbutsushu. (融通念佛宗). In Japanese, "School of Consummate-Interfusion Recitation of the Buddha's Name"; one of the first Japanese PURE LAND schools. The school was founded by the TENDAISHu monk RYoNIN (1072-1132), who claimed to have a direct revelation from the buddha Amida (S. AMITĀBHA) regarding the principle of YuZuNENBUTSU, in which every individual benefits from both his own and other's chanting of the Buddha's name ( J. nenbutsu; C. NIANFO) through a mutual transfer of merit. Ryonin traveled around Japan to teach the practice and spread the school, keeping a register of new adherents as he traveled. Indeed, carrying this register of adherents became a privilege of the leader of the school. Ryonin also made Dainenbutsuji (Great Recitation of the Buddha's Name Temple), in the osaka area, the center for his campaign in 1127. ¶ The Yuzunenbutsu school declined after six generations. When the sixth patriarch of the school Ryochin (d. 1182) died without a successor, the register of adherents was entrusted to the Iwashimizu Hachiman shrine, in the hopes that the HACHIMAN KAMI cum BODHISATTVA resident there would select the next patriarch of the school. About 140 years later, the Yuzunenbutsu school was revitalized through the efforts of Homyo (1279-1349), who claimed to have received a revelation from Hachiman. After becoming Ryonin's seventh successor in 1321, Homyo restored Dainenbutsuji and several other branch temples that had long been neglected. He also received imperial patronage from the monarch Godaigo (r. 1318-1339), who added his name and the names of many government officials to the school's register of adherents. After Homyo's death, the school declined again as other pure land schools gained popularity, until 1689, when Daitsu (1649-1716) became the forty-sixth patriarch of the school. Daitsu rejuvenated the school, ardently propagating the school's teachings and the practice of chanting the Buddha's name. Daitsu systematized the school's teachings: he established an academic institute and wrote two treatises, the Yuzu enmonsho ("Essay on the Complete Teachings of Perfect Interpenetration [Yuzu]") and the Yuzunenbutsu shingesho ("Essay on Faith and Understanding in the Yuzunenbutsu"). In the former text, Daitsu lists five classifications of the Buddhist teachings in ascending order (the teaching of humans and divinities, HĪNAYĀNA, gradual, sudden, and consummate teachings) and classified Yuzunenbutsu teachings in the fifth category of the "consummate teachings" (see YUANJIAO); he also discusses the school's daily practice of chanting Amida Buddha's name ten times while facing west. The Yuzunenbutsu school remains active today at its head temple of Dainenbutsuji, although it is relatively small in size compared to the major Japanese pure land schools of JoDOSHu and JoDO SHINSHu. The AVATAMSAKASuTRA and the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA are the principal scriptures of the school, with the three major pure land sutras (JINGTU SANBUJING) of secondary importance.
Zenrin kushu. (禪林句集). In Japanese, "Phrase Collection of the ZEN Grove"; a lengthy collection of more than four thousand Zen phrases-specifically capping phrases (JAKUGO) or appended phrases (AGYO)-culled from Buddhist SuTRAs, discourse records (YULU), koan collections (see C. GONG'AN), and various Chinese belletristic classics. The collection was edited by a certain Ijushi in 1688. Ijushi's collection is based on a shorter phrase book entitled the Kuzoshi, compiled by the Zen master Toyo Eicho (1428-1504) of the MYoSHINJI lineage of the RINZAISHu. Beginning with single-character phrases, the Zen phrases in the Zenrin kushu are sequentially organized according to their number of Sinographs. The Zenrin kushu is one of the most commonly used collections in Japanese koan training today.
Zenrin shokisen. (禪林象器箋). In Japanese, "A Composition on the Images and Utensils of the Zen Grove"; compiled by the ZEN historian MUJAKU DoCHu in the RINZAISHu; a comprehensive catalogue of regulations, events, utensils, and accoutrements used by the Zen (C. CHAN) tradition. The preface was prepared by Mujaku in 1741. More than just a simple catalogue, Mujaku's Zenrin shokisen also meticulously notes the possible origin and history of each catalogued item and also expounds upon the significance of its implementation during his day, making it an invaluable tool for the study of Zen in practice. His research is based on an exhaustive list of sources (a total of 488 selections) beginning with sutras and commentaries to Chinese and Japanese classics, lamplight histories (see CHUANDENG LU), and poetry. A handwritten copy of the text is currently housed at MYoSHINJI in Kyoto.
Zhenjing Kewen. (J. Shinjo Kokubun; K. Chinjong Kŭngmun 眞浄克文) (1025-1102). Chinese CHAN master in the HUANGLONG PAI collateral line branch of the LINJI ZONG; also known as Yun'an, Baofeng, and Letan. Zhenjing was a native of Shanfu in present-day Henan province. He became a student of a certain master Guang of the North Pagoda in Fuzhou (present-day Hubei province) and was given the name Kewen. After receiving the monastic precepts at age twenty-four, Zhenjing began studying the sutras and commentaries, but left for the South to seek out teachers of Chan. In 1065, Zhenjing spent a summer retreat on Mt. Dawei and had his first awakening experience upon hearing the words of the Chan master YUNMEN WENYAN from another monk. Zhenjing eventually became a disciple of the eminent Chan master HUANGLONG HUINAN (1002-1069) in Jicui and inherited his Linji lineage. At the request of the local king, Zhenjing moved to Jinleng, where he became the founding abbot of a monastery named Baoningsi. Zhenjing later retired to Gao'an, where he built a small hermitage named Toulao'an. Six years later, he moved to the monastery of Guizongsi on LUSHAN and again to Letan at the request of the famed statesman ZHANG SHANGYING. Along with his colleagues Huanglong Zuxin (1025-1100) and Donglin Changcong (1025-1091), Zhenjing helped to build their teacher Huanglong Huinan's lineage into one of the most prosperous in China. He retired to the hermitage of Yun'an, where he passed away in 1102. Zhenjing left numerous disciples and students, many of whom were statesmen and officials from Jiangxi province. His teachings can be found in the Yun'an Zhenjing chanshi yulu.
Zhongguan lun shu. (J. Chugan ronsho; K. Chunggwan non so 中觀論疏). In Chinese, "Commentary on the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ"; composed by the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG monk JIZANG in 608. Jizang begins with his observations on Sengrui's (378-444?) preface to their teacher KUMĀRAJĪVA's translation of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā. He then analyzes the twenty-seven chapters of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā in a manner consistent with other scholars of the San lun tradition. Jizang contends that the middle way is a path traversed by the buddhas and BODHISATTVAs and explains its contents in terms of conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA), absolute truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA), and neither conventional nor absolute truth. (See also SANDI.) Jizang supports his arguments by citing numerous sutras, commentaries, and theories of other teachers. For his analysis of emptiness (suNYATĀ), Jizang frequently makes recourse to the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA.
Zhujing yao ji. (J. Shokyo yoshu; K. Chegyong yo chip 諸經要集). In Chinese, "Collection of the Essentials of the Various Scriptures," edited by the Chinese monk Daoshi (d. 683); also known as the Shan'e yebao lun ("Treatise on Good and Evil Karmic Retribution"). As the title implies, the Zhujing yao ji is a collection of what Daoshi considered to be essential passages from more than two hundred primary sources, including various sutras, VINAYAs, and commentaries. Many of the passages that were chosen by Daoshi for inclusion in his collection are concerned with the issue of KARMAN and retribution, hence the text's alternative title. The entire collection is comprised of a total of thirty sections: (1) the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), (2) worshiping STuPAs, (3) controlling thoughts, (4) entering the way, (5) praises and chants, (6) lighting incense, (7) receiving requests, (8) receiving vegetarian feasts (ZHAI), (9) breaking fast, (10) wealth, (11) poverty, (12) leading others, (13) repaying debt to others, (14) releasing living beings, (15) the flourishing of merit, (16) choosing friends, (17) staying alert, (18) six classifications of beings (GATI), (19) cause of karman, (20) desire and defilements, (21) four types of birth, (22) retributions, (23) ten evils, (24) deception, (25) laziness, (26) wine and meat, (27) divination, (28) hell, (29) mortuary customs, and (30) miscellaneous matters.
Zongjing lu. (J. Sugyoroku; K. Chonggyong nok 宗鏡録). In Chinese, "Records of the Mirror of the Source"; composed c. 961 by the Song-dynasty CHAN master YONGMING YANSHOU (904-975), in one hundred rolls; also called "Records of the Mirror of the Mind" (Xinjing lu). The "source" (zong), Yanshou says in the preface to the Zongjing lu, refers to the "one mind" (YIXIN), which functions like a mirror that is able to reflect all dharmas. This comprehensive collection offers an exhaustive elaboration of the Chan teaching of "one mind" by systematizing the doctrinal and meditative positions of the various Chan traditions of past and present. The Zongjing lu consists of three main sections: exemplifications of the source (biaozong zhang), questions and answers (wenda chang), and citations (yinzheng chang). The first section, which comprises much of the first roll, offers a general overview of the treatise, focusing on Chan's "source" in the one mind. The massive second section, corresponding to the second half of the first roll through the ninety-third roll, offers various explanations on the one mind through a question raised at the beginning of each section, followed by Yanshou's detailed response. His explanations are typically accompanied by extensive citations from various sutras and commentaries, such as the YUANJUE JING and the DAZHIDU LUN. Throughout this exhaustive survey and explanation of doctrinal matters, Yanshou underscores the importance of the one mind or one dharma as the underlying source of all external phenomena. The third and final section, which comprises the last seven rolls of the collection, validates the previous explanations through quotations of hundreds of scriptures and sayings of eminent Chan masters; its aim is to help those of inferior spiritual capacity give rise to faith. Many of these quotations are from materials that are no longer extant, thus providing an important overview of Chan during Yanshou's time. Yanshou's goal throughout this work is to present his distinctive vision of Chan as a pansectarian tradition that subsumes not only the different Chan lineages, but also such doctrinal traditions as TIANTAI, HUAYAN, and FAXIANG. Much of the source material that Yanshou compiled in the Zongjing lu may derive from GUIFENG ZONGMI's similarly massive Chanyuan ji ("Chan Collection"), only the prolegomenon to which survives (see CHANYUAN ZHUQUANJI DUXU). The collection was influential not only in China, but also in Koryo-period Korean SoN and the five mountain (GOZAN) schools of Ashikaga-period Japanese ZEN.
Zuting shiyuan. (J. Sotei jion; K. Chojong sawon 祖庭事苑). In Chinese, "Garden of Matters from the Patriarchs' Hall," edited in eight rolls by Mu'an Shanxiang (d.u.) in 1108; the oldest encyclopedia of the Chinese CHAN tradition. This collection includes over 2,400 items related to Chan pedagogy, culled from Buddhist and secular stories, proverbs, numerological lists, personal names, local dialects, and so forth. Mu'an is said to have embarked on this project in response to the growing number of monks who were unable to understand the rich content and context of the many GONG'AN exchanges found in Chan literature. Mu'an's material is drawn from over twenty important Chan sources, such as the discourse records (YULU) of YUNMEN WENYAN, XUEDOU CHONGXIAN, and FAYAN WENYI, and YONGJIA XUANJUE's popular ZHENGDAO GE. The encyclopedia functions as a glossary for these works, offering explanations for their difficult technical terms and obscure names (which are not necessarily Chan or Buddhist in origin), and drawing his explanations from Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist materials, as well as such secular sources. For example, the first roll of the encyclopedia provides a glossary of the Yunmen lu, which discusses the author Yunmen Wenyan, offers definitions of terms and explanations of names appearing in the text, drawing on sources ranging from the Shiji ("Book of History") to the AGAMA SuTRAs, and fills out the myriad numerical lists that appear in the text, such as the three vehicles (C. sansheng; S. TRIYĀNA), the three baskets of the canon (C. sanzang; S. TRIPItAKA), the eight teachings of Tiantai (see WUSHI BAJIAO), etc. Mu'an's exhaustive collection meticulously traces the source of each item and provides a detailed commentary on each. The Zuting shiyuan was republished in 1154, and numerous editions were published during the Tokugawa period in Japan.
KEYS (10k)
1 Patañjali
1 NARADA BHAKTI SUTRAS
1 Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche
NEW FULL DB (2.4M)
7 Bodhidharma
3 Paramahansa Yogananda
3 Ikkyu
2 Swami Satchidananda
2 Gautama Buddha
1:For those who have an intense urge for Spirit and wisdom, it sits near them, waiting.
~ Patañjali, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, [T5],#KEYS
2:Pure devotion is gained through the grace of great souls, or through a little of the divine grace. To come in contact with a great soul is indeed extremely difficult. It is impossible to know them fully. Yet, it is infallible in its effect. ~ NARADA BHAKTI SUTRAS, #KEYS
3:The ground is composed of gold, the trees are wish-fulfilling trees, and the rain is the rainfall of nectar. All beings are dakas and dakinis; the calls of the birds are the sounds of Dharma; the sounds of nature, wind, water, and fire reverberate as the Vajra Guru mantra; and all thoughts are expressions of wisdom and bliss. So here the perception of purity is much vaster and more omnipresent than in the sutras.
~ Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, Guru Yoga,#KEYS
*** WISDOM TROVE ***
1:Zen has nothing to do with letters, words, or sutras. ~ d-t-suzuki, @wisdomtrove 2:According to the Sutras, evil deeds result in hardships and good deeds result in blessings. ~ bodhidharma, @wisdomtrove 3:All the sutras in the world are useless. All the lectures of all the teachers don't really mean anything. They are only words. They point in a direction, that is their only use. ~ frederick-lenz, @wisdomtrove 4:The parallels to modern physics [with mysticism] appear not only in the Vedas of Hinduism, in the I Ching, or in the Buddhist sutras, but also in the fragments of Heraclitus, in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi, or in the teachings of the Yaqui sorcerer Don Juan. ~ fritjof-capra, @wisdomtrove 5:To have a body is to suffer. Does anyone with a body know peace? Those who understand this detach themselves from all that exists and stop imagining or seeking anything. The sutras say, "To seek is to suffer. To seek nothing is bliss." When you seek nothing, you're on the Path. ~ bodhidharma, @wisdomtrove 6:These Sutras are reminiscent of the Four Noble Truths of Lord Buddha: the misery of the world, the cause of misery, the removal of that misery, and the method used to remove it. Patanjali tells us that pain can be avoided. He further tells us that its cause is ignorance. ~ swami-satchidananda-saraswati, @wisdomtrove 7:To find Buddha, you have to see your nature. Whoever sees his nature is a Buddha. If you don't see your nature, invoking buddhas, reciting sutras, making offerings, and keeping precepts are all useless. Invoking buddhas results in good karma, reciting sutras results in a good memory, keeping precepts results in good rebirth, and making offerings results in future blessings-but no Buddha. ~ bodhidharma, @wisdomtrove 8:. . . the fools of this world prefer to look for sages far away. They don't believe that the wisdom of their own mind is the sage . . . the sutras say, "Mind is the teaching." But people of no understanding don't believe in their own mind or that by understanding this teaching they can become a sage. They prefer to look for distant knowledge and long for things in space, buddha-images, light, incense, and colors. They fall prey to falsehood and lose their minds to insanity. ~ bodhidharma, @wisdomtrove 9:If you know that everything comes from the mind, don't become attached. Once attached, you're unaware. But once you see your own nature, the entire Canon becomes so much prose. It's thousands of sutras and shastras only amount to a clear mind. Understanding comes in midsentence. What good are doctrines? The ultimate Truth is beyond words. Doctrines are words. They're not the Way. The Way is wordless. Words are illusions. . . . Don't cling to appearances, and you'll break through all barriers. . . . ~ bodhidharma, @wisdomtrove *** NEWFULLDB 2.4M ***
1:Zen has nothing to do with letters, words, or sutras. ~ D T Suzuki, #NFDB
2:According to the Sutras, evil deeds result in hardships and good deeds result in blessings. ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
3:For those who have an intense urge for Spirit and wisdom, it sits near them, waiting.
~ Patañjali, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, [T5],#NFDB
4:The first translation of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, then, was into Arabic, and that is how yoga got its first foreign following; ~ Rujuta Diwekar, #NFDB
5:Don't read the sutras - practice meditation. Don't take up the broom - practice meditation. Don't plant tea seeds - practice meditation. ~ Ikkyu, #NFDB
6:If your house has Cold Mountain poems They are better for you than sutras Hang them up where you can see them Read them and read them again ~ Hanshan, #NFDB
7:When nonviolence in speech, thought, and action is established, one’s aggressive nature is relinquished and others abandon hostility in one’s presence. Yoga Sutras ~ Rolf Gates, #NFDB
8:All the sutras in the world are useless. All the lectures of all the teachers don't really mean anything. They are only words. They point in a direction, that is their only use. ~ Frederick Lenz, #NFDB
9:The Yoga Sutras offers a clear roadmap for the evolution of consciousness from ordinary states of awareness such as waking, dreaming, and sleeping - to higher states of consciousness. ~ Deepak Chopra, #NFDB
10:Every day, priests minutely examine the Law And endlessly chant complicated sutras. Before doing that, though, they should learn How to read the love letters sent by the wind and rain, The snow and moon. ~ Ikkyu, #NFDB
11:"Every day, priests minutely examine the Law And endlessly chant complicated sutras. Before doing that, though, they should learn How to read the love letters sent by the wind and rain, The snow and moon." ~ Ikkyu|□∧◯, #NFDB
12:Patanjali specifically says that there are three paths to the goal of yoga. And they are, control of the breath, control of posture, and light-filled herbs. It says it right there. Stanza 6 of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. ~ Terence McKenna, #NFDB
13:Samadhi is the word used by Patanjali in his classic work, the Yoga Sutras, to describe the final stage in meditation, in which the mind is completely concentrated and a superconscious mode of knowing comes into play. ~ Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, #NFDB
14:The Puranas, the Tantras, and all the other books, even the Vyasa Sutras, are of secondary, or tertiary authority, but primary are the Vedas. ~ Abhedānanda (Swami), in Vedanta philosophy: five lectures on reincarnation Abhedānanda (Swami), p. 294, #NFDB
15:If you see your nature, you don't need to read sutras or invoke buddhas. Erudition and knowledge are not only useless but also cloud your awareness. Doctrines are only for pointing to the mind. Once you see your mind, why pay attention to doctrines? ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
16:Doctrines, scriptures, sutras, essays, are not to be regarded as systems to be followed. They merely contribute to understanding. They should be for us a source of stimulation, and nothing more... Adopted, rather than used as a stimulus, they are a hindrance. ~ Wei Wu Wei, #NFDB
17:Among all the sutras I have expounded,
Lotus Sutra is the first and foremost!
If you are able to uphold the Lotus Sutra,
it means you are able to uphold the body of a Buddha!”
(LS 11: 3.35)
Lotus Sutra, Chapter 11, Section 3, Paragraph 35 ~ Gautama Buddha,#NFDB
18:The highest Hindu intellectual training was based on the practice of yoga, and produced, as its fruit, those marvellous philosophical systems, the six Darshanas and the Brahma Sutras, which are still the delight of scholars and the inspiration of occultists and mystics. ~ Annie Besant, #NFDB
19:We have been teaching together [with Kaz] now for more than twenty years in sesshins, in international travel programs in Japan and China, as well as intensives on Buddhism that focus on the work of Zen Master Dogen and Ryokan, as well as on many of the Mahayana sutras. ~ Joan Halifax, #NFDB
20:To have a body is to suffer. Does anyone with a body know peace? Those who understand this detach themselves from all that exists and stop imagining or seeking anything. The sutras say, "To seek is to suffer. To seek nothing is bliss." When you seek nothing, you're on the Path. ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
21:These Sutras are reminiscent of the Four Noble Truths of Lord Buddha: the misery of the world, the cause of misery, the removal of that misery, and the method used to remove it. Patanjali tells us that pain can be avoided. He further tells us that its cause is ignorance. (115) ~ Swami Satchidananda, #NFDB
22:Among all shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas are the foremost. So is the Lotus Sutra; among all sutras, it is the foremost! Just as the Buddha is the King of the Law; so is the Lotus Sutra, it is the King of all Sutras!"
(LS 23:2.16)
Lotus Sutra, Chapter 23, Section 2, Paragraph 16 ~ Gautama Buddha,#NFDB
23:When carving stone, the sculptor removes everything that is not the statue. […] The art of revealing beauty lies in removing what conceals it. So, too, Patanjali [in the Yoga Sutras] tells us that wholeness exists within us. Our work is to chisel away at everything that is not essence, not Self. ~ Judith Hanson Lasater, #NFDB
24:The great scriptures of yoga ― The Bhagavad Gita, The Yoga Sutras, and The Upanishads ― clearly describe how the subtle causes of external war emanate from the internal world. The real causes of war lie rooted in the individual's unwillingness to listen to the voice of the heart, the inner conscience. ~ Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, #NFDB
25:There are immeasurable star misty aeons of universes more numerous than the sands in all the galaxies, multiplied by a billion lightyears of multiplication, in fact if I were to go on you'd be scared and couldn't comprehend and you'd despair so much you'd drop dead,' that's what he just about said in one of those sutras---- ~ Jack Kerouac, #NFDB
26:This time it is different. Today I have sought a spiritual teacher, I have read the sutras, and as a result I have now recognized the enemy!” It has been stated: The old days when you could Ruin me at will are now gone; I can see you now, so where are you off to? I shall tear down your arrogance.197 ~ Thupten Jinpa, #NFDB
27:Next comes svadhyaya or study. This means study that concerns the true Self, not merely analyzing the emotions and mind as the psychologists and psychiatrists do. Anything that will elevate your mind and remind you of your true Self should be studied: the Bhagavad Gita, the Bible, the Koran, these Yoga Sutras, or any uplifting scripture. Study ~ Swami Satchidananda, #NFDB
28:Shankara commented on Krishna, on the Upanishads, on the Brahma Sutras. Ramanuja commented on the ancient enlightened people, Vallabha did the same. It has always been so in the East, because much dust gathers as time passes. Now, the Upanishads were written in a totally different world. That man has disappeared, that mind has disappeared, that world no more exists. ~ Rajneesh, #NFDB
29:The droning of the Sutras washed over Satoshi as he entered the Temple, the voice of the member of the faithful chosen for the honour catching with emotion, ‘And so did fire rain down upon Her face, for her children had betrayed her.’
‘Inane rubbish,’ Satoshi thought to himself as he donned the heavy metal chain that all penitents were required to wear. ~ Luke E T Hindmarsh,#NFDB
30:Every day, priests minutely examine the Law And endlessly chant complicated sutras. Before doing that, though, they should learn How to read the love letters sent by the wind and rain, the snow and moon. [bk1sm.gif] -- from Ikkyu and the Crazy Cloud Anthology: A Zen Poet of Medieval Japan, by Ikkyu / Translated by Sonya Arutzen
~ Ikkyu, Every day, priests minutely examine the Law
,#NFDB
31:To find Buddha, you have to see your nature. Whoever sees his nature is a Buddha. If you don't see your nature, invoking buddhas, reciting sutras, making offerings, and keeping precepts are all useless. Invoking buddhas results in good karma, reciting sutras results in a good memory, keeping precepts results in good rebirth, and making offerings results in future blessings-but no Buddha. ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
32:If you are thinking, you can't understand Zen. Anything that can be written in a book, anything that can be said - all this is thinking . . . but if you read with a mind that has cut off all thinking, then Zen books, sutras and Bibles are all the truth. So is the barking of a dog or the crowing of a rooster. All things are teaching you at every moment, and these sounds are even better teaching than Zen books. ~ Seungsahn, #NFDB
33:The ground is composed of gold, the trees are wish-fulfilling trees, and the rain is the rainfall of nectar. All beings are dakas and dakinis; the calls of the birds are the sounds of Dharma; the sounds of nature, wind, water, and fire reverberate as the Vajra Guru mantra; and all thoughts are expressions of wisdom and bliss. So here the perception of purity is much vaster and more omnipresent than in the sutras.
~ Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche, Guru Yoga,#NFDB
34:In the yoga sutras, they have this beautiful analogy that the journey of life is like the flight of an eagle, or the journey over multiple lifetimes is like a flight of an eagle. First, the eagle stretches its wings high, high, high, and experiences everything that the world has to offer in terms of flight. It's growing and flying and it's experiencing, and then it brings its wings down gracefully and that is the completion of the journey. ~ Karan Bajaj, #NFDB
35:It came to my mind that in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, in Indian spiritual literature, and in the Bhagavad Gita, and when I started reading about outstanding yogis and people of exceeding spiritual power such as Ramana Maharshi, or Yogananda, they all had the ability to do what we would call - I don't know what you would even call it - psychic phenomenon, magic, transform objects, be able to perceive the future, the past and the present simultaneously. ~ Fred Alan Wolf, #NFDB
36:From my youth I piled studies upon studies, In sutras and sastras I searched and researched, Classifying terms and forms, oblivious to fatigue. I entered the sea to count the sands in vain And then the Tathagata scolded me kindly As I read "What profit in counting your neighbor's treasure?" My work had been scattered and entirely useless, For years I was dust blown by the wind.
~ Hsuan Chueh of Yung Chia, 52 - From my youth I piled studies upon studies (from The Shodoka)
,#NFDB
37:. . . the fools of this world prefer to look for sages far away. They don't believe that the wisdom of their own mind is the sage . . . the sutras say, "Mind is the teaching." But people of no understanding don't believe in their own mind or that by understanding this teaching they can become a sage. They prefer to look for distant knowledge and long for things in space, buddha-images, light, incense, and colors. They fall prey to falsehood and lose their minds to insanity. ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
38:The sutras liken reincarnation to the relationship between teachers and students. A singing teacher teaches students how to sing. His students learn techniques and benefit from direct experiential advice from their teacher. But the teacher doesn't remove a song from his throat and insert it into a student's mouth. Similarly, reincarnation is a continuity of everything we have learnt, like lighting one candle from another, or a face and its reflection in a mirror. ~ Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse, #NFDB
39:lost-and-found items left behind on trains and in stations, and the unusual, strange items among them—the ashes of cremated people, wigs, prosthetic legs, the manuscript of a novel (the stationmaster read a little bit of it and found it dull), a neatly wrapped, bloodstained shirt in a box, a live pit viper, forty color photos of women’s vaginas, a large wooden gong, the kind Buddhist priests strike as they chant sutras … “Sometimes you’re not sure what to do with them,” the stationmaster said. ~ Haruki Murakami, #NFDB
40:If you know that everything comes from the mind, don't become attached. Once attached, you're unaware. But once you see your own nature, the entire Canon becomes so much prose. It's thousands of sutras and shastras only amount to a clear mind. Understanding comes in midsentence. What good are doctrines? The ultimate Truth is beyond words. Doctrines are words. They're not the Way. The Way is wordless. Words are illusions. . . . Don't cling to appearances, and you'll break through all barriers. . . . ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
41:I engaged - started engaging in yoga as a physical practice, but very quickly found out there was something broader to it, and that it was actually helpful for my pain, and started to get into meditation, started to study the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita and a lot of the scriptures associated with yoga, the Yoga Sutras, and very quickly came to this conclusion that this had a huge impact on my ability to lead, but, more importantly, the ability to control my sympathetic nervous system, which had a direct tie to the pain in my arm. ~ Mark T Bertolini, #NFDB
42:Paper windows bamboo walls hedge of hibiscus when guests arrive wormwood soup serves as tea the poor people I meet are mostly content rare is the rich man who isn't vain or wasteful I move my bookstand to read sutras by moonlight I honor the buddhas with a vase of wild flowers everyone says Tushita Heaven is fine but how can it match this old hut of mine [2615.jpg] -- from The Zen Works of Stonehouse: Poems and Talks of a 14th Century Chinese Hermit, Translated by Red Pine
~ Shiwu (Stonehouse), Paper windows bamboo walls hedge of hibiscus
,#NFDB
43:our nature is the mind. and the mind is our nature.this nature is the same as the mind of all buddhas. buddhas of the past and future only transmit this mind. beyond this mind there’s no buddha anywhere.but deluded people don’t realize that their own mind is the buddha.they keep searching outside.they never stop invoking buddhas or worshipping buddhas and wondering where is the buddha? don’t indulge in such illusions. just know your mind. beyond your mind there’s no other buddha.the sutras say, "everything that has form is an illusion."they also say, "wherever you are, there’s a buddha." your mind is the buddha. don’t use a buddha to worship a buddha. ~ Bodhidharma, #NFDB
44:More appalling than the scale of death was the spectacle of the bereaved survivors. “They didn’t cry,” Kaneta said. “There was no emotion at all. The loss was so profound, and death had come so suddenly. They understood the facts of their situation individually—that they had lost their homes, lost their livelihoods, and lost their families. They understood each piece, but they couldn’t see it as a whole, and they couldn’t understand what they should do, or sometimes even where they were. I couldn’t really talk to them, to be honest. All I could do was stay with them, and read the sutras and conduct the ceremonies. That was the thing I could do. ~ Richard Lloyd Parry, #NFDB
45:A sutra is, so to speak, the bare thread of an exposition, the absolute minimum that is necessary to hold it together, unadorned by a single "bead" of elaboration. Only essential words are used. Often, there is no complete sentence-structure. There was a good reason for this method. Sutras were composed at a period when there were no books. The entire work had to be memorized, and so it had to be expressed as tersely as possible. Patanjali's Sutras, like all others, were intended to be expanded and explained. The ancient teachers would repeat an aphorism by heart and then proceed to amplify it with their own comments, for the benefit of their pupils. In some instances these comments, also, were memorized, transcribed at a later date, and thus preserved for us. ~ Prabhavananda, #NFDB
46:author class:Hsuan Chueh of Yung Chia
In my early years, I set out to acquire learning, And I studied commentaries and inquired into Sutras and Shastras. Distinguishing among terms and characteristics, I didn't know how to stop. Entering the sea to count the sands I exhausted myself in vain. But the Thus Come One reprimanded this folly: What benefit is there in counting other's treasures?! Unsuccessful all along, I felt I had practiced in vain. Many years I wasted as a transient, like dust in the wind. [bk1sm.gif] -- from Song of Enlightenment: By Great Master Yung Chia of the T'ang Dynasty, Edited by Tripitaka Master Hua / Translated by International Institute for the Translation of Buddhist Texts
~ my early years, I set out to acquire learning (from The Song of Enlightenment)
,#NFDB
47:Markandeya Purana along with Bhagavat Purana is considered to be quite a celebrated work. Ranked seventh in the list of Puranas, probably one of the oldest works, its recitation is believed to free one from taints of sin. Named after the sage Markandeya, who acquired its knowledge from Brahma, the creator, its narration starts with sage Jaimini (author of Mimamsa sutras) approaching the wise birds (Dronaputras appearing as birds residing in the Himalayas) to get answers at the behest of Markandeya. Initially the Purana gets answers to the five basic questions: How was Vishnu born as a mortal? How Draupadi became the wife of five Pandavas? Why did Balabadra undertake the penance (pilgrimage) for having committed brahmanicide (killing of Brahmins) and why were the children of Draupadi destroyed so unceremoniously? These questions cover the whole gamut of ancient history, logic, morality, astronomy and so forth. ~ B.K. Chaturvedi (2004), in Markandeya Purana, Preface, #NFDB
48:7 “Chitta vritti nirodha” (Yoga Sutras I:2), which may also be translated as “cessation of the modifications of the mind-stuff.” Chitta is a comprehensive term for the thinking principle, which includes the pranic life forces, manas (mind or sense consciousness), ahamkara (egoity), and buddhi (intuitive intelligence). Vritti (literally “whirlpool”) refers to the waves of thought and emotion that ceaselessly arise and subside in man’s consciousness. Nirodha means neutralization, cessation, control. 8 The six orthodox (Vedas-based) systems are Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya, and Vaisesika. Readers of a scholarly bent will delight in the subtleties and broad scope of these ancient formulations as summarized in English in A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, by Prof. Surendranath Dasgupta (Cambridge Univ. Press). 9 Not to be confused with the “Noble Eightfold Path” of Buddhism, a guide to man’s conduct, as follows: (1) right ideals, (2) right motive, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right means of livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right remembrance (of the Self), and (8) right realization (samadhi). ~ Paramahansa Yogananda, #NFDB
49:In the ashes on the hearth Saigyo traced and retraced the word, "pity." He had yet to learn to accept life with all its good and evils, to love life in all its manifestations by becoming one with nature. And for this he had abandoned home, wife, and child in that city of conflict. He had fled to save his own life, not for any grandiose dream of redeeming mankind; neither had he taken vows with the thoughts of chanting sutras to Buddha; nor did he aspire to brocaded ranks of the high prelates. Only by surrendering to nature could he best cherish his own life, learn how man should live, and therein find peace. And if any priest accused him of taking the vows out of self-love, not to purify the world and bring salvation to men, Saigyo was ready to admit that these charges were true and that he deserved to be reviled and spat upon as a false priest. Yet, if driven to answer for himself, he was prepared to declare that he who had not learned to love his own life could not love mankind, and that what he sought now was to love that life which was his. Gifts he had none to preach salvation or the precepts of Buddha; all that he asked was to be left to exist as humbly as the butterflies and the birds. ~ Eiji Yoshikawa, #NFDB
50:It is clear that Bhu Mandala, as described in the Bhagvatam, can be interpreted as a geocentric map of the solar system out ot Saturn. But an obvious and important question is: Did some real knowledge of planetary distances enter into the construction of the Bhu Mandala system, or are the correlations between Bhu Mandala features and planetary orbits simply coincidental?
Being a mathematician interested in probability theory, Thompson is better equipped than most to answer this question and does so through computer modelling of a proposed 'null hypothesis' -- i.e.,
'that the author of the Bhagvatam had no access to correct planetary distances and therefore all apparent correlations between Bhu Mandala features and planetary distances are simply coincidental.'
However, the Bhu Mandala/solar system correlations proved resilient enough to survive the null hypothesis. 'Analysis shows that the observed correlations are in fact highly improbable.' Thompson concludes:
'If the dimensions given in the Bhagvatam do, in fact, represent realistic planetary distances based on human observation, then we must postulate that Bhagvata astronomy preserves material from an earlier and presently unknown period of scientific development ... [and that] some people in the past must have had accurate values for the dimensions of the planetary orbits. In modern history, this information has only become available since the development of high-quality telescopes in the last 200 years. Accurate values of planetary distances were not known by Hellenistic astronomers such as Claudius Ptolemy, nor are they found in the medieval Jyotisa Sutras of India. If this information was known it must have been acquired by some unknown civilization that flourished in the distant past. ~ Graham Hancock,#NFDB
51:The ancient rishi Patanjali6 defines yoga as “neutralization of the alternating waves in consciousness.”7 His short and masterly work, Yoga Sutras, forms one of the six systems of Hindu philosophy. In contradistinction to Western philosophies, all six Hindu systems8 embody not only theoretical teachings but practical ones also. After pursuing every conceivable ontological inquiry, the Hindu systems formulate six definite disciplines aimed at the permanent removal of suffering and the attainment of timeless bliss. The later Upanishads uphold the Yoga Sutras, among the six systems, as containing the most efficacious methods for achieving direct perception of truth. Through the practical techniques of yoga, man leaves behind forever the barren realms of speculation and cognizes in experience the veritable Essence. The Yoga system of Patanjali is known as the Eightfold Path.9 The first steps are (1) yama (moral conduct), and (2) niyama (religious observances). Yama is fulfilled by noninjury to others, truthfulness, nonstealing, continence, and noncovetousness. The niyama prescripts are purity of body and mind, contentment in all circumstances, self-discipline, self-study (contemplation), and devotion to God and guru. The next steps are (3) asana (right posture); the spinal column must be held straight, and the body firm in a comfortable position for meditation; (4) pranayama (control of prana, subtle life currents); and (5) pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses from external objects). The last steps are forms of yoga proper: (6) dharana (concentration), holding the mind to one thought; (7) dhyana (meditation); and (8) samadhi (superconscious experience). This Eightfold Path of Yoga leads to the final goal of Kaivalya (Absoluteness), in which the yogi realizes the Truth beyond all intellectual apprehension. ~ Paramahansa Yogananda, #NFDB
52:English version by Garma C. C. Chang
Obeisance to the perfect Marpa.
I am the Yogi who perceives the Ultimate Truth.
In the Origin of the Unborn, I first gain assurance;
On the Path of Non-extinction, slowly
I perfect my power;
With meaningful symbols and words
Flowing from my great compassion,
I now sing this song
From the absolute realm of Dharma Essence.
Because your sinful Karma has created
Dense blindness and impenetrable obstruction,
You cannot understand the meaning
Of Ultimate Truth.
Listen, therefore, to the Expedient Truth.
In their spotless, ancient Sutras,
All the Buddhas in the past, repeatedly
Admonished with the eternal Truth of Karma --
That every sentient being is one's kinsman.
This is eternal Truth which never fails.
Listen closely to the teaching of Compassion.
I, the Yogi who developed by his practices,
Know that outer hindrances are but a shadow-show,
And the phantasmal world
A magic play of mind unborn.
By looking inward into the mind is seen
Mind-nature -- without substance, intrinsically void.
Through meditation in solitude, the grace
Of the Succession Gurus and the teaching
Of the great Naropa are attained.
The inner truth of the Buddha
Should be the object of meditation.
By the gracious instruction of my Guru,
Is the abstruse inner meaning of Tantra understood.
Through the practice of Arising and
Perfecting Yoga,
Is the Vital Power engendered
And the inner reason for the microcosm realized.
Thus in the outer world I do not fear
The illusory obstacles.
To the Great Divine Lineage I belong,
With innumerable yogis great as all Space.
When in one's own mind one ponders
On the original state of Mind,
Illusory thoughts of themselves dissolve
Into the Realm of Dharmadhatu.
Neither afflicter nor afflicted can be seen.
Exhaustive study of the Sutras
Teaches us no more than this.
~ Jetsun Milarepa, The Song of Perfect Assurance (to the Demons)
,#NFDB
53:12 Many uninformed persons speak of yoga as Hatha Yoga or consider yoga to be “magic,” dark mysterious rites for attaining spectacular powers. When scholars, however, speak of yoga they mean the system expounded in Yoga Sutras (also known as Patanjali’s Aphorisms): Raja (“royal”) Yoga. The treatise embodies philosophic concepts of such grandeur as to have inspired commentaries by some of India’s greatest thinkers, including the illumined master Sadasivendra. Like the other five orthodox (Vedas-based) philosophical systems, Yoga Sutras considers the “magic” of moral purity (the “ten commandments” of yama and niyama) to be the indispensable preliminary for sound philosophical investigation. This personal demand, not insisted on in the West, has bestowed lasting vitality on the six Indian disciplines. The cosmic order (rita) that upholds the universe is not different from the moral order that rules man’s destiny. He who is unwilling to observe the universal moral precepts is not seriously determined to pursue truth. Section III of Yoga Sutras mentions various yogic miraculous powers (vibhutis and siddhis). True knowledge is always power. The path of yoga is divided into four stages, each with its vibhuti expression. Achieving a certain power, the yogi knows that he has successfully passed the tests of one of the four stages. Emergence of the characteristic powers is evidence of the scientific structure of the yoga system, wherein delusive imaginations about one’s “spiritual progress” are banished; proof is required! Patanjali warns the devotee that unity with Spirit should be the sole goal, not the possession of vibhutis — the merely incidental flowers along the sacred path. May the Eternal Giver be sought, not His phenomenal gifts! God does not reveal Himself to a seeker who is satisfied with any lesser attainment. The striving yogi is therefore careful not to exercise his phenomenal powers, lest they arouse false pride and distract him from entering the ultimate state of Kaivalya. When the yogi has reached his Infinite Goal, he exercises the vibhutis, or refrains from exercising them, just as he pleases. All his actions, miraculous or otherwise, are then performed without karmic involvement. The iron filings of karma are attracted only where a magnet of the personal ego still exists. ~ Paramahansa Yogananda, #NFDB
54:And so, by means both active and passive, he sought to repair the damage to his self-esteem. He tried first of all to find ways to make his nose look shorter. When there was no one around, he would hold up his mirror and, with feverish intensity, examine his reflection from every angle. Sometimes it took more than simply changing the position of his face to comfort him, and he would try one pose after another—resting his cheek on his hand or stroking his chin with his fingertips. Never once, though, was he satisfied that his nose looked any shorter. In fact, he sometimes felt that the harder he tried, the longer it looked. Then, heaving fresh sighs of despair, he would put the mirror away in its box and drag himself back to the scripture stand to resume chanting the Kannon Sutra.
The second way he dealt with his problem was to keep a vigilant eye out for other people’s noses. Many public events took place at the Ike-no-o temple—banquets to benefit the priests, lectures on the sutras, and so forth. Row upon row of monks’ cells filled the temple grounds, and each day the monks would heat up bath water for the temple’s many residents and lay visitors, all of whom the Naigu would study closely. He hoped to gain peace from discovering even one face with a nose like his. And so his eyes took in neither blue robes nor white; orange caps, skirts of gray: the priestly garb he knew so well hardly existed for him. The Naigu saw not people but noses. While a great hooked beak might come into his view now and then, never did he discover a nose like his own. And with each failure to find what he was looking for, the Naigu’s resentment would increase. It was entirely due to this feeling that often, while speaking to a person, he would unconsciously grasp the dangling end of his nose and blush like a youngster.
And finally, the Naigu would comb the Buddhist scriptures and other classic texts, searching for a character with a nose like his own in the hope that it would provide him some measure of comfort. Nowhere, however, was it written that the nose of either Mokuren or Sharihotsu was long. And Ryūju and Memyoō, of course, were Bodhisattvas with normal human noses. Listening to a Chinese story once, he heard that Liu Bei, the Shu Han emperor, had long ears. “Oh, if only it had been his nose,” he thought, “how much better I would feel! ~ Ry nosuke Akutagawa,#NFDB
55:After their time in the monastery, most young men and women will return to their villages, having completed their training with the elders. They are now accepted as “ripe,” as initiated men and women, respected in their community. Outwardly they will have learned the religious forms and sacred rituals of the Buddhist community. Inwardly, these ancient forms are intended to awaken an unshakable virtue and inner respect, fearlessness in the face of death, self-reliance, wisdom, and profound compassion. These qualities give one who leaves the monastery the hallmark of a mature man or woman. Perhaps as you read about this ordination process, its beauty will strike a chord in you that intuitively knows about the need for initiations. This does not mean that you have to enter a monastery to seek this remarkable and wonderful training. By reading about this tradition, you may simply awaken that place in yourself, which exists in each of us, that longs for wholeness and integrity, because the awakening that comes through initiation is a universal story. In our time we need to reclaim rites of passage, we need to honor elders, we need to find ways to remind our young people and the whole of our communities of the sacredness of life, of who we really are. Remember, too, that initiation comes in many forms. I have a friend who has three children under the age of five. This is a retreat as intensive as any other, including sitting up all night in the charnel grounds. Marriage and family are a kind of initiation. As Gary Snyder says, All of us are apprentices to the same teacher that all masters have worked with—reality. Reality says: Master the twenty-four hours. Do it well without self-pity. It is as hard to get children herded into the car pool and down the road to the bus as it is to chant sutras in the Buddha Hall on a cold morning. One is not better than the other. Each can be quite boring. They both have the virtuous quality of repetition. Repetition and ritual and their good results come in many forms: changing the car filters, wiping noses, going to meetings, sitting in meditation, picking up around the house, washing dishes, checking the dipstick. Don’t let yourself think that one or more of these distracts you from the serious pursuits. Such a round of chores is not a set of difficulties to escape so that we may do our practice that will put us on the path. It IS our path. ~ Jack Kornfield, #NFDB
56:If Samkhya-Yoga philosophy does not explain the reason and origin of the strange partnership between the spirit and experience, at least tries to explain the nature of their association, to define the character of their mutual relations. These are not real relationships, in the true sense of the word, such as exist for example between external objects and perceptions. The true relations imply, in effect, change and plurality, however, here we have some rules essentially opposed to the nature of spirit.
“States of consciousness” are only products of prakriti and can have no kind of relation with Spirit the latter, by its very essence, being above all experience. However and for SamPhya and Yoga this is the key to the paradoxical situation the most subtle, most transparent part of mental life, that is, intelligence (buddhi) in its mode of pure luminosity (sattva), has a specific quality that of reflecting Spirit. Comprehension of the external world is possible only by virtue of this reflection of purusha in intelligence. But the Self is not corrupted by this reflection and does not lose its ontological modalities (impassibility, eternity, etc.). The Yoga-sutras (II, 20) say in substance: seeing (drashtri; i.e., purusha) is absolute consciousness (“sight par excellence”) and, while remaining pure, it knows cognitions (it “looks at the ideas that are presented to it”). Vyasa interprets: Spirit is reflected in intelligence (buddhi), but is neither like it nor different from it. It is not like intelligence because intelligence is modified by knowledge of objects, which knowledge is ever-changing whereas purusha commands uninterrupted knowledge, in some sort it is knowledge. On the other hand, purusha is not completely different from buddhi, for, although it is pure, it knows knowledge. Patanjali employs a different image to define the relationship between Spirit and intelligence: just as a flower is reflected in a crystal, intelligence reflects purusha. But only ignorance can attribute to the crystal the qualities of the flower (form, dimensions, colors). When the object (the flower) moves, its image moves in the crystal, though the latter remains motionless. It is an illusion to believe that Spirit is dynamic because mental experience is so. In reality, there is here only an illusory relation (upadhi) owing to a “sympathetic correspondence” (yogyata) between the Self and intelligence. ~ Mircea Eliade,#NFDB
57:Try any one of these things each day: A) Sleep eight hours. B) Eat two meals instead of three. C) No TV. D) No junk food. E) No complaining for one whole day. F) No gossip. G) Return an e-mail from five years ago. H) Express thanks to a friend. I) Watch a funny movie or a stand-up comic. J) Write down a list of ideas. The ideas can be about anything. K) Read a spiritual text. Any one that is inspirational to you. The Bible, The Tao te Ching, anything you want. L) Say to yourself when you wake up, “I’m going to save a life today.” Keep an eye out for that life you can save. M) Take up a hobby. Don’t say you don’t have time. Learn the piano. Take chess lessons. Do stand-up comedy. Write a novel. Do something that takes you out of your current rhythm. N) Write down your entire schedule. The schedule you do every day. Cross out one item and don’t do that anymore. O) Surprise someone. P) Think of ten people you are grateful for. Q) Forgive someone. You don’t have to tell them. Just write it down on a piece of paper and burn the paper. It turns out this has the same effect in terms of releasing oxytocin in the brain as actually forgiving them in person. R) Take the stairs instead of the elevator. S) I’m going to steal this next one from the 1970s pop psychology book Don’t Say Yes When You Want to Say No: when you find yourself thinking of that special someone who is causing you grief, think very quietly, “No.” If you think of him and (or?) her again, think loudly, “No!” Again? Whisper, “No!” Again, say it. Louder. Yell it. Louder. And so on. T) Tell someone every day that you love them. U) Don’t have sex with someone you don’t love. V) Shower. Scrub. Clean the toxins off your body. W) Read a chapter in a biography about someone who is an inspiration to you. X) Make plans to spend time with a friend. Y) If you think, “Everything would be better off if I were dead,” then think, “That’s really cool. Now I can do anything I want and I can postpone this thought for a while, maybe even a few months.” Because what does it matter now? The planet might not even be around in a few months. Who knows what could happen with all these solar flares. You know the ones I’m talking about. Z) Deep breathing. When the vagus nerve is inflamed, your breathing becomes shallower. Your breath becomes quick. It’s fight-or-flight time! You are panicking. Stop it! Breathe deep. Let me tell you something: most people think “yoga” is all those exercises where people are standing upside down and doing weird things. In the Yoga Sutras, written in 300 B.C., there are 196 lines divided into four chapters. In all those lines, ONLY THREE OF THEM refer to physical exercise. It basically reads, “Be able to sit up straight.” That’s it. That’s the only reference in the Yoga Sutras to physical exercise. Claudia always tells me that yogis measure their lives in breaths, not years. Deep breathing is what keeps those breaths going. ~ James Altucher, #NFDB
58:For now, the Simple Daily Practice means doing ONE thing every day. Try any one of these things each day: A) Sleep eight hours. B) Eat two meals instead of three. C) No TV. D) No junk food. E) No complaining for one whole day. F) No gossip. G) Return an e-mail from five years ago. H) Express thanks to a friend. I) Watch a funny movie or a stand-up comic. J) Write down a list of ideas. The ideas can be about anything. K) Read a spiritual text. Any one that is inspirational to you. The Bible, The Tao te Ching, anything you want. L) Say to yourself when you wake up, “I’m going to save a life today.” Keep an eye out for that life you can save. M) Take up a hobby. Don’t say you don’t have time. Learn the piano. Take chess lessons. Do stand-up comedy. Write a novel. Do something that takes you out of your current rhythm. N) Write down your entire schedule. The schedule you do every day. Cross out one item and don’t do that anymore. O) Surprise someone. P) Think of ten people you are grateful for. Q) Forgive someone. You don’t have to tell them. Just write it down on a piece of paper and burn the paper. It turns out this has the same effect in terms of releasing oxytocin in the brain as actually forgiving them in person. R) Take the stairs instead of the elevator. S) I’m going to steal this next one from the 1970s pop psychology book Don’t Say Yes When You Want to Say No: when you find yourself thinking of that special someone who is causing you grief, think very quietly, “No.” If you think of him and (or?) her again, think loudly, “No!” Again? Whisper, “No!” Again, say it. Louder. Yell it. Louder. And so on. T) Tell someone every day that you love them. U) Don’t have sex with someone you don’t love. V) Shower. Scrub. Clean the toxins off your body. W) Read a chapter in a biography about someone who is an inspiration to you. X) Make plans to spend time with a friend. Y) If you think, “Everything would be better off if I were dead,” then think, “That’s really cool. Now I can do anything I want and I can postpone this thought for a while, maybe even a few months.” Because what does it matter now? The planet might not even be around in a few months. Who knows what could happen with all these solar flares. You know the ones I’m talking about. Z) Deep breathing. When the vagus nerve is inflamed, your breathing becomes shallower. Your breath becomes quick. It’s fight-or-flight time! You are panicking. Stop it! Breathe deep. Let me tell you something: most people think “yoga” is all those exercises where people are standing upside down and doing weird things. In the Yoga Sutras, written in 300 B.C., there are 196 lines divided into four chapters. In all those lines, ONLY THREE OF THEM refer to physical exercise. It basically reads, “Be able to sit up straight.” That’s it. That’s the only reference in the Yoga Sutras to physical exercise. Claudia always tells me that yogis measure their lives in breaths, not years. Deep breathing is what keeps those breaths going. ~ James Altucher, #NFDB
59:Vasana is determinism that feels like free will. I’m reminded of my friend Jean, whom I’ve known for almost twenty years. Jean considers himself very spiritual and went so far in the early nineties as to walk way from his job with a newspaper in Denver to live in an ashram in western Massachusetts. But he found the atmosphere choking. “They’re all crypto Hindus,” he complained. “They don’t do anything but pray and chant and meditate.” So Jean decided to move on with his life. He’s fallen in love with a couple of women but has never married. He doesn’t like the notion of settling down and tends to move to a new state every four years or so. (He once told me that he counted up and discovered that he’s lived in forty different houses since he was born.) One day Jean called me with a story. He was on a date with a woman who had taken a sudden interest in Sufism, and while they were driving home, she told Jean that according to her Sufi teacher, everyone has a prevailing characteristic. “You mean the thing that is most prominent about them, like being extroverted or introverted?” he asked. “No, not prominent,” she said. “Your prevailing characteristic is hidden. You act on it without seeing that you’re acting on it.” The minute he heard this, Jean became excited. “I looked out the car window, and it hit me,” he said. “I sit on the fence. I am only comfortable if I can have both sides of a situation without committing to either.” All at once a great many pieces fell into place. Jean could see why he went into an ashram but didn’t feel like he was one of the group. He saw why he fell in love with women but always saw their faults. Much more came to light. Jean complains about his family yet never misses a Christmas with them. He considers himself an expert on every subject he’s studied—there have been many—but he doesn’t earn his living pursuing any of them. He is indeed an inveterate fence-sitter. And as his date suggested, Jean had no idea that his Vasana, for that’s what we’re talking about, made him enter into one situation after another without ever falling off the fence. “Just think,” he said with obvious surprise, “the thing that’s the most me is the thing I never saw.” If unconscious tendencies kept working in the dark, they wouldn’t be a problem. The genetic software in a penguin or wildebeest guides it to act without any knowledge that it is behaving much like every other penguin or wildebeest. But human beings, unique among all living creatures, want to break down Vasana. It’s not good enough to be a pawn who thinks he’s a king. We crave the assurance of absolute freedom and its result—a totally open future. Is this reasonable? Is it even possible? In his classic text, the Yoga Sutras, the sage Patanjali informs us that there are three types of Vasana. The kind that drives pleasant behavior he calls white Vasana; the kind that drives unpleasant behavior he calls dark Vasana; the kind that mixes the two he calls mixed Vasana. I would say Jean had mixed Vasana—he liked fence-sitting but he missed the reward of lasting love for another person, a driving aspiration, or a shared vision that would bond him with a community. He displayed the positives and negatives of someone who must keep every option open. The goal of the spiritual aspirant is to wear down Vasana so that clarity can be achieved. In clarity you know that you are not a puppet—you have released yourself from the unconscious drives that once fooled you into thinking that you were acting spontaneously. ~ Deepak Chopra, #NFDB
24 Yoga
5 Poetry
5 Integral Yoga
2 Philosophy
2 Buddhism
1 Psychology
1 Occultism
17 Swami Krishnananda
7 Swami Vivekananda
5 Patanjali
2 Thubten Chodron
2 The Mother
2 Sri Aurobindo
2 Satprem
2 Hsuan Chueh of Yung Chia
2 Aldous Huxley
17 The Study and Practice of Yoga
5 Patanjali Yoga Sutras
4 Talks
3 The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma
3 The Lotus Sutra
2 The Perennial Philosophy
2 How to Free Your Mind - Tara the Liberator
2 Bhakti-Yoga
2 Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin
2 Agenda Vol 01
0 1958-10-10, #Agenda Vol 01, #unset, #Zen
To know life utterly Oh, there is a very interesting thing in this regard! And its strange, but this particular knowledge reminds me of one of my sutras1 (which I read out, but no one understood or understood only vaguely, like that):
It is the Supreme Lord who has ineluctably decreed the place you occupy in the universal concert, but whatever be this place, you have equally the same right as all others to ascend the supreme summits right to the supramental realization.
0 1958-10-17, #Agenda Vol 01, #unset, #Zen
(Mother brings with her the continuation of the first seven sutras written by Her, probably in 1957.)
[See p. 119]
03.02 - Yogic Initiation and Aptitude, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 03, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
Shankara, at the very outset of his commentary on the sutras, in explaining the very first words, speaks of a fourfold sadhana to acquire fitnessfitness, we may take it, for understanding the sutras and the commentary and naturally for attaining the Brahman. It seems therefore to be an absolute condition that one must first acquire fitness, develop the right and adequate capacity before one should think of spiritual initiation.
The question, however, can be raised the moderns do raise it and naturally in the present age of science and universal educationwhy should not all men equally have the right to spiritual sadhana? If spirituality is the highest truth for man, his greatest good, his supreme ideal, then to deny it to anyone on the ground, for example, of his not being of the right caste, class, creed, or sex, to keep anyone at a distance on such or similar grounds is unreasonable, unjust, reprehensible. These notions, however, are born of a sentimental or idealistic or charitable disposition, but unfortunately they do not stand the impact of the realities of life. If you simply claim a thing or even if you possess a lawful right to a worthy object, you do not acquire thereby the capacity to enjoy it. Were it so, there would be no such thing as mal-assimilation. In the domain of spiritual sadhana there are any number of cases of defective metabolism. Those that have fallen, strayed from the Path, become deranged or even have had to leave the body, make up a casualty list that is not small. They were misfits, they came by their fate, because they encroached upon a thing they were not actually entitled to, they were dragged into a secret, a mystery to which their being was insensible.
1.007 - Initial Steps in Yoga Practice, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
A fixed place, a fixed time, and a fixed method of concentration are called for. In one of the aphorisms of the sutras of Patanjali, which is very relevant to this point, it is said that the practise should be for a long period: sa tu drghakla nairantarya satkra sevita dhabhmi (I.14). If we want to establish ourselves in yoga, some conditions are to be fulfilled. One condition he mentions is that the practice should be for a protracted period I said at least five years, and not less than five years. It should be repeatedly done every day, without missing even a single day. Even if we have a temperature, fever or a headache, we should not miss it, because these are obstacles. The more we try to exert our will in the practice of concentration, the more will the body also try to revolt. It will create all kinds of complications we will have indigestion, we will have a stomachache, we will have a headache, we will have fever all sorts of things will come. As a matter of fact, it is specifically mentioned in the Yoga sutras that we will fall sick. It will be an obstacle, and we should not think, "Today I am sick; I will not meditate." That is what it wants, and then it has succeeded. So, first of all, a little guarded way of living may be called for to see, as far as possible, that we do not become so ill that we cannot even sit for a few minutes of meditation. By a regulation of diet and living in a climate that is not too extreme, etc., one can be somewhat free from the anxiety of falling ill to the extent that it would prevent us from doing anything at all in the spiritual field.
Dirghakala is a protracted period of practice. Nairantarya is practice without remission of effort; that means to say, it has to be done every day at the same time. The third condition is that we must have great love for it. We must have immense affection for our practice. We know how much affection a novelist has for his own work; how much affection an artist has for the painting that he does; how much affection a musician has for his ragas. Every artisan, every engineer, every artist, and every professional has immense affection for his own or her own profession. One cannot have disgust for a profession and then succeed in it; nor should one take to it as a kind of suffering or pain. Suppose an artist feels, "Oh, this painting is a great torture and suffering for me," then a good painting will not come forth, because there is no love for it. So, the practice of yoga will yield fruits only if we have a real love for the practice; and if we have love for it, it will also have love for us. When we protect it, it will protect us. It is said in the yoga shastras that yoga will protect us like a mother it will feed us and take care of us, protect us in every direction at all times, visibly as well as invisibly. Sa tu drghakla nairantarya satkra sevita dhabhmi (I.14) then we get established. .
1.008 - The Principle of Self-Affirmation, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
It is also necessary here to make a distinction between the necessary and the unnecessary aspects of life, or the essentials and the non-essentials, we may say. We have umpteen kinds of perceptions and relationships in life. I see a tree in front of me, I see the Ganga flowing, I see the sun rising these are all perceptions. But I need not worry too much about these perceptions since they are indeterminate to a large extent, and except for the fact that they are cognitions and perceptions of certain facts outside, they do not mean much in my personal emotional life or volitional undertakings. In two important sutras, Patanjali draws a distinction between 'indeterminate perceptions' and 'determinate perceptions'. The determinate ones are those which have a direct connection with our daily life we cannot avoid them, and they control us to a large extent. The indeterminate ones are like the tree in front, for example. It is merely a perception and a knowledge of something that is there, but it is not going to harass us or control us in any visible or palpable manner.
These perceptions or we may call them cognitions of the determinate and indeterminate character are designated in the language of Patanjali as vrittis. Sometimes they are equated with what they call kleshas. A klesha is a peculiar term used in yoga psychology meaning a kind of affliction. Unless we enter into the philosophical background of yoga, it will be difficult to appreciate why a perception is called an affliction. We shall look into the details of this subject as we proceed further why every perception is a kind of affliction upon us, why it is a pain and not something desirable.
1.009 - Perception and Reality, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
The masters, whose records we have in such scriptures as the Upanishads, for example, tell us that there is a cosmic mystery behind this operation of individuality namely, the diversification of the Comic Principle. We cannot ask as to why it happened, because the intellect is interfering here. We are asking the reason why the intellect is there at all, and why individuality is there at all. That question cannot be asked because this intellect is an effect of individuality, and now we are trying to find the cause thereof. "Unbridled intellect is an obstacle," says Sankara in his commentary on the Brahma sutras, because the intellect will insist that there is diversity. It will oblige us to accept that individuality is real, objects are real, our relationships to them must be real, and so forth. So we should not take the advice of the intellect hereafter. The mystery of cosmic manifestation, which is the diversification of the cosmic principle, is regarded as the controlling principle behind the existence and the functioning of the individual.
Nowadays, our scientists also have conjectured the possibility of the universe having been once upon a time constituted as a sort of a cosmic atom. One scientist said, "The whole cosmos was like an atom." By "an atom", he means an indivisible something. The whole universe originally was like an atom, and that atom split into two parts. This is also mentioned in the Manu Smriti, prior to the declaration of this scientist. In the first chapter of the Manu Smriti we find the process of creation described, and instead of an atom, Manu says "anda" it was like an egg. Well, the scientist says "an atom". Does an atom not look something like an egg? It split into two parts. This original split of the atom into two parts is the cause of all our problems today. And it goes on, splitting and splitting two became four, four became eight, eight became sixteen, and umpteen, a millionfold and uncountable in number. These little split parts are the individuals you, me, and everybody included. We are struggling to become the original atom once again, as something unnatural has happened to us.
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Thus arises the need to be cautious in the adjustment of the mind and the judgement of values in life. The sutras of Patanjali that I referred to give only a hint, and do not enter into details the hint being that the vrittis or the modifications of the mind are of a twofold character, which I translated as determinate and indeterminate, and have to be gradually controlled. This control of the vrittis or the modifications of the mind is regarded as yoga: yoga citta vtti nirodha (I.2). Yoga is the control of the modifications of 'the stuff' of the mind, the very substance of psychological action. Not merely the external modifications, but the very 'stuff' of it, the very root of it, has to be controlled, and this is done in and by successive stages. We have always to move from the effect to the cause in the manner indicated in this analysis that we have made.
Ultimately it comes to this, that our perceptions are our problems. They become a problem because we pass judgements on these perceptions. Mere perceptions as they are, left alone to themselves, would be a different matter altogether. But we do not simply perceive an object and keep quiet. The moment we perceive something, we pass a judgement on it. "Oh, this is something. This is a snake." This is a perception. "Oh, it is dangerous." This is a judgement. "I have to run away from it." This is another judgement. "This is a mango." This is one judgement. "It is very sweet." This is a second judgement. "I must eat it." This is a third judgement. We go on passing judgement after judgement of various complex characters on an object of perception. So, judgements become subsequent effects of the perception of an object.
1.00c - INTRODUCTION, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Patanjali Yoga sutras
reaching, the goal. This statement, though, apparently, very
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
world is taken out of corresponding atoms and goes back to
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
take the upward bend again, and go back to the original
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
vibrations of light, when they are very low, we do not see;
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
reason can explain the world? The sensible will be the limit to
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
1.01f - Introduction, #The Lotus Sutra, #Anonymous, #Various
Reciting the sutras with contentment.
I also see bodhisattvas
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Among the eight hundred disciples of Bodhisattva Varaprabha there was a man named Yaaskma who was attached to prot. Even though he had repeatedly recited the sutras he never became versed in them and forgot the greater part. That is why he was called Yaaskma, Fame Seeker.
But because he had also planted various roots of good merit, he was able to meet innumerable hundreds of thousands of myriads of kois of buddhas whom he rendered homage to, honored, revered, and praised.
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He abandoned recitation of the sutras,
And, forgetting them,
1.01 - Prayer, #Bhakti-Yoga, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Bhakti has been the one constant theme of our sages. Apart from the special writers on Bhakti, such as Shndilya or Narada, the great commentators on the Vysa- sutras, evidently advocates of knowledge (Jnna), have also something very suggestive to say about love. Even when the commentator is anxious to explain many, if not all, of the texts so as to make them import a sort of dry knowledge, the sutras, in the chapter on worship especially, do not lend themselves to be easily manipulated in that fashion.
There is not really so much difference between knowledge (Jnana) and love (Bhakti) as people sometimes imagine. We shall see, as we go on, that in the end they converge and meet at the same point. So also is it with Rja-Yoga, which when pursued as a means to attain liberation, and not (as unfortunately it frequently becomes in the hands of charlatans and mystery-mongers) as an instrument to hoodwink the unwary, leads us also to the same goal.
1.01 - SAMADHI PADA, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Patanjali Yoga sutras
street and you do not hear them. Why? Because your mind has
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
form, or an elephant form, or a man form, is not outside; all
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
just as in brutes and idiots; it only acts to injure others. No
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Chitta manifests itself in all these different forms - scattering,
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
the result is misery.
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
struggling towards knowledge, but you and I have to struggle
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
discovery of truth does not contradict the past truth, but fits
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
9. SK^IHlTjHId) T^q: II %\\
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
which is called Smrti.
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
make and unmake it at any time. The Samshara is left by
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Restraint does not come in one day, but by long continued
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
16 . cTcTT II ?UI
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
17. II ?vs||
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
the PuruSa, the essence of intelligence. There is no liberation
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
the mind as the object of meditation, before we have reached
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
thought to come into the mind, thus making it an entire
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
concentration? All old tendencies of restlessness, and
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
any need to create. Secondly, it says the theory of God is an
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
20. V 4} INM^II <{4* II II
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Isvara (the Supreme Ruler) is a special PuruSa,
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
you will have to think of infinite knowledge around it, so that
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
man with a little knowledge, I must also admit that there is
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
these words need not necessarily have the same sound.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
any part of the tongue or palate; M represents the last sound in
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Why should there be repetition? We have not forgotten that
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
29. cTcfi II II
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
These glimpses streng then the mind and make the student
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Making the mind take the form of one object for some time
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
instantly we want to react evil, and every reaction of evil
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Pranayama. Patanjali, the father of the Yoga Philosophy,
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
is on the left side, and in the middle of this spinal column is
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
brain, and the less the needle of the Prana has made these
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
order to lesson these disturbances as much as possible all
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
heart, with petals downwards, and ruunning through it the
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
39. II V\\\
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
received (the self, the mind and external objects),
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
Sound here means vibration; meaning, the nerve currents
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
your ears there is a wave produced in your China along with
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
A process similar to the preceding is applied again, only, the
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
The concentration without reasoning being
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
reason cannot go, and where the testimony of others cannot
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
50. cT^T: 4w>l<) KM Id ^l4t II ||
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
51. cTFITFf HTN ^RTN: II H? II
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
as such, It cannot be born, It cannot die, It is immortal,
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Patanjali Yoga sutras
1.01 - THAT ARE THOU, #The Perennial Philosophy, #Aldous Huxley, #Philosophy
I am not competent, nor is this the place to discuss the doctrinal differences between Buddhism and Hinduism. Let it suffice to point out that, when he insisted that human beings are by nature non-Atman, the Buddha was evidently speaking about the personal self and not the universal Self. The Brahman controversialists, who appear in certain of the Pali scriptures, never so much as mention the Vedanta doctrine of the identity of Atman and Godhead and the non-identity of ego and Atman. What they maintain and Gautama denies is the substantial nature and eternal persistence of the individual psyche. As an unintelligent man seeks for the abode of music in the body of the lute, so does he look for a soul within the skandhas (the material and psychic aggregates, of which the individual mind-body is composed). About the existence of the Atman that is Brahman, as about most other metaphysical matters, the Buddha declines to speak, on the ground that such discussions do not tend to edification or spiritual progress among the members of a monastic order, such as he had founded. But though it has its dangers, though it may become the most absorbing, because the most serious and noblest, of distractions, metaphysical thinking is unavoidable and finally necessary. Even the Hinayanists found this, and the later Mahayanists were to develop, in connection with the practice of their religion, a splendid and imposing system of cosmological, ethical and psychological thought. This system was based upon the postulates of a strict idealism and professed to dispense with the idea of God. But moral and spiritual experience was too strong for philosophical theory, and under the inspiration of direct experience, the writers of the Mahayana sutras found themselves using all their ingenuity to explain why the Tathagata and the Bodhisattvas display an infinite charity towards beings that do not really exist. At the same time they stretched the framework of subjective idealism so as to make room for Universal Mind; qualified the idea of soullessness with the doctrine that, if purified, the individual mind can identify itself with the Universal Mind or Buddha-womb; and, while maintaining godlessness, asserted that this realizable Universal Mind is the inner consciousness of the eternal Buddha and that the Buddha-mind is associated with a great compassionate heart which desires the liberation of every sentient being and bestows divine grace on all who make a serious effort to achieve mans final end. In a word, despite their inauspicious vocabulary, the best of the Mahayana sutras contain an au thentic formulation of the Perennial Philosophya formulation which in some respects (as we shall see when we come to the section, God in the World) is more complete than any other.
In India, as in Persia, Mohammedan thought came to be enriched by the doctrine that God is immanent as well as transcendent, while to Mohammedan practice were added the moral disciplines and spiritual exercises, by means of which the soul is prepared for contemplation or the unitive knowledge of the Godhead. It is a significant historical fact that the poet-saint Kabir is claimed as a co-religionist both by Moslems and Hindus. The politics of those whose goal is beyond time are always pacific; it is the idolaters of past and future, of reactionary memory and Utopian dream, who do the persecuting and make the wars.
1.01 - To Watanabe Sukefusa, #Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin, #unset, #Zen
Good deeds, no matter how many you perform, need no repentance. But evil deeds, even minor ones, are a cause of endless regret and heartache. According to what is written in the sutras, even if a person erects a pagoda twenty yojanas in height, adorns it with the seven precious gems, and enshrines Buddha relics in it, so that every arhat in the world comes to revere it, the arising in his mind of even a single angry thought becomes a fire that will at once turn into a great, all-consuming conflagration. The fires of wrath and anger consume entire forests of merit and virtue.
Until now, your mother could not devote herself to good works because from the time you were born she lavished her every moment on you, caring for you and seeing that you were provided with everything necessary for your upbringing. If she did find time to enter the family altar room, the sutras and dharanis she recited were always dedicated to your good health and long life, without a thought for her own karmic future, and heedless of her own physical exhaustion. Now, having retired in recent years from her former busy life, she has time to spend quietly on Buddhist devotions-but you come around, hatching your malicious schemes to frustrate and upset her, spreading silly rumors at the yearend cleaning, thinking up ways to anger her at the busy year-end season. What a bitterly cruel thing to do.
How heartwarming it is to see ordinary sons and daughters attending to their duty to their parents with benevolent smiles on their faces, sparing no expense to provide for their needs and amusement:
1.025 - Sadhana - Intensifying a Lighted Flame, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
In the practice of one reality, ekatattva abhyasah, mentioned by Sage Patanjali in one of his sutras for the purpose of restraining the modifications of the mind, there are, again, grades of approach. The one reality is not necessarily the Absolute Reality, though that is the aim, ultimately. As was mentioned previously, a reality, for the purpose of practice, is that condition which can fulfil a particular need of a specific state of mind under a given condition. So until the Absolute Reality is reached, all other realities are relative realities. Every reality, as far as we are concerned empirically, is relative subject to transcendence. Nevertheless, it is a reality to us, which only goes to prove that we are also only relative realities. We, as individuals, are not absolute realities and, therefore, we are satisfied with what is relative. We are not in daily contact with the Absolute; what we are in contact with is a relative reality. And inasmuch as the subject experiencing and the object experienced are on the same level or degree of reality, it goes without saying that the empirical subjects that we all are come under relative reality, and not the Absolute Reality.
In the concentration of the mind on one reality, ekatattva, what is intended is that the attention should be focused on a system or order of values which is immediately superior to, or transcendent to, the current state of affairs, the present state of experience, and the conditions through which we are passing through at this moment. Anything which can include particulars in a more organised whole can be regarded as a higher reality for this purpose. There are tentative realities created for the purpose of practical convenience by organisations, associations or systems which we have created for the purpose of subjugating the individual ego and compelling it to affiliate itself to a larger body to which also it ought to belong and is made to belong.
1.02 - Meditating on Tara, #How to Free Your Mind - Tara the Liberator, #Thubten Chodron, #unset
actually know or agree with what the Buddha taught. For example, some people say, Im Buddhist, but they dont want to hear teachings on the sutras
spoken by the Buddha. They just want to receive blessings and initiations
1.02 - Outline of Practice, #The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma, #Bodhidharma, #Buddhism
heart and without complaint of injustice." The sutras say, "When
you meet with adversity don't be upset, because it makes sense."
--
imagining or seeking anything. The sutras say, "To seek is to suffer.
To seek nothing is bliss." When you seek nothing, you're on
1.02 - SADHANA PADA, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Patanjali Yoga sutras
studies at all. The Yogi is supposed to have finished his period
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
disturbance is a drawback. These argumentations and
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
only cause of all our misery. What else can make us
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
Ignorance is taking that which is non-eternal, impure,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
think we feel pleasure or pain.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
this argument is without much value, but the most curious part
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
result of past experience, and these are both the result of past
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
my whole mind has become a huge wave of anger, feel it, see
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
How are these fine Samskaras to be controlled? We have to
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
12. 5: Wkl4l II ?RII
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
goodness, bring their fruits in this life. The Yogis even hold
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
only send our electricity through these nerve channels. Why
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
of) species, life, and expression of pleasure and pain.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
15. qRu I FT d IM'HWj' R g: bcf
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
how vain, how dream-like is this world. Then he catches a
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
junction of the seer and the seen.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
and came to him, and told him, You are the king of the gods,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
with the mind and the world, the PuruSa thinks itself
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
Tamas. The Tcimcis material is all that is dark, all that is
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
become grosser, and finally produce this universe. The finer is
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
did not know the reason, man found that that place where
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
from all ideas of personal God, is that intelligence is first in
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
This is again Sankhya philosophy. We have seen from this
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
yet at every moment we find we are not free. If one idea is a
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
which, coming through the Buddhi, becomes intelligence,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
both the powers, the experienced and its Lord.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
this sudden upheaval of the mind comes like a whirlwind one
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
control. Higher forces than we know in physical nature will
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
27. cT^f TO II Rvs II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
next will be that this China itself will realise that it melts
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
29.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
These, unbroken by time, place, purpose, and caste,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
be thought of. When the idea of receiving gifts comes, replace
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
35. 3#HIMfcl8Wi II V\W
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
comes to the Yogi.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
Then alone the Yogi becomes perfectly fixed in his ideal,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
the organs, and fitness for the realisation of the Self.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
organs and the body, by destroying the impurity.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
disturbances come into the body; but when you have got
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
49. MNINIH: II W II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
out, and the third action is when the breath is held in the lungs,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
53. II *vUI
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
every muscle and nerve will be under control, because the
--
2 There are 55 sutras in many versions of Patanjali Yoga Sutra. The 55th
Sutra is cfcf: hTUT II hh II "Pratyahara results in the absolute
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
1.02 - Skillful Means, #The Lotus Sutra, #Anonymous, #Various
What is the reason for this? Because after the parinirva of the Buddha it is hard to nd people who preserve, recite, and understand the meaning of the sutras like this. But if they should meet other buddhas they will immediately understand this teaching.
O riputra! You should wholeheartedly accept and preserve the words of the Buddha. The words of the Buddha Tathgatas are never false. There are no other vehicles, only the single buddha vehicle.
--
The Buddha teaches by means of sutras, verses,
Stories of his past deeds, and of past events,
--
I teach these sutras
Because they are the basis for entering the Mahayana.
I teach the Mahayana sutras
To those heirs of the buddhas
1.02 - Taras Tantra, #Tara - The Feminine Divine, #unset, #Zen
Within the framework of the sutras, the continual
presence of this emptiness-clarity at various stages is
--
word used is common to the sutras and tantras.
"Hidden meaning" is that which is applied to some
--
studied all the mysteries in the sutras, the philosophy
of madhyamika, or the epistemology of abhidharma
--
It is only in this epoch that sutras of the Greater
Vehicle and all the teachings of the tantras, which had
--
teachings and the sutras of the Greater Vehicle to his
- 55 -
1.02 - The Philosophy of Ishvara, #Bhakti-Yoga, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
In the fourth Pda of the fourth chapter of his sutras, after stating the almost infinite power and knowledge which will come to the liberated soul after the attainment of Moksha, Vysa makes the remark, in an aphorism, that none, however, will get the power of creating, ruling, and dissolving the universe, because that belongs to God alone. In explaining the Sutra it is easy for the dualistic commentators to show how it is ever impossible for a subordinate soul, Jiva, to have the infinite power and total independence of God. The thorough dualistic commentator Madhvchrya deals with this passage in his usual summary method by quoting a verse from the Varha Purna.
In explaining this aphorism the commentator Rmnuja says, "This doubt being raised, whether among the powers of the liberated souls is included that unique power of the Supreme One, that is, of creation etc. of the universe and even the Lordship of all, or whether, without that, the glory of the liberated consists only in the direct perception of the Supreme One, we get as an argument the following: It is reasonable that the liberated get the Lordship of the universe, because the scriptures say,
1.03 - A Parable, #The Lotus Sutra, #Anonymous, #Various
And who are seeking the Mahayana sutras.
You should teach it
--
Only the Mahayana sutras with pleasure,
Who never preserve even a single verse
1.03 - Bloodstream Sermon, #The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma, #Bodhidharma, #Buddhism
the mind to invoke a buddha!6 Buddhas don't recite sutras.17 Bud
dhas don't keep precepts.18 And buddhas don't break precepts.
--
buddhas, reciting sutras, making offerings, and keeping precepts
are all useless. Invoking buddhas results in good karma, reciting
--
who recite a few sutras or shastras24 and think it's the Dharma are
fools. Unless you see your mind, reciting so much prose is useless.
--
enment by invoking buddhas, reciting sutras, making offerings,
observing precepts, practicing devotions, or doing good works?
--
The sutras say, "A tathagata's forms are endless. And so is his
awareness." The endless variety of forms is due to the mind. Its
--
existing, because a tathagata's real body never changes. The sutras
say, "People should realize that the buddha-nature is something
--
mind. Beyond your mind there's no other buddha. The sutras say,
"Everything that has form is an illusion." They also say, "Wherever
--
The sutras say, "All appearances are illusions." They have no fixed
existence, no constant form. They're impermanent. Don't cling to
--
Even if you can explain thousands of sutras and shastras,37
unless you see your own nature yours is the teaching of a mortal,
--
thousands of sutras and shastras only amount to a dear mind.
Understanding comes in midsentence. W hat good are doctrines?
--
If you see your nature, you don't need to read sutras or
invoke buddhas. Erudition and knowledge are not only useless but
--
buddhas and read sutras. But they remain blind to their own divine
nature, and they don't escape the W heel.
--
who don't see their nature and think reading sutras, invoking
buddhas, studying long and hard, practicing morning and night,
--
wrong. The sutras say, "Since icchantikas45 are incapable of belief,
killing them would be blameless, whereas people who believe reach
--
Hence the sutras tell us to move without moving, to travel
without traveling, to see without seeing, to laugh without laughing,
--
standing. And the sutras say, "Go beyond language. Go beyond
thought." Basically, seeing, hearing, and knowing are completely
--
According to the sutras, evil deeds result in hardships and
good deeds result in blessings. Angry people go to hell and happy
--
karma. If you don't see your nature, quoting sutras is no help.
I could go on, but this brief sermon will have to do.
1.03 - To Layman Ishii, #Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin, #unset, #Zen
"Long ago, when Lin-chi practiced for three years at Huang-po's temple, he received words of sanction from Huang-po's disciple Chen Tsun-su: 'Someone whose practice is this pure and genuine is certain to become a great shade tree for the beings of the world.'k Lin-chi was by that time widely versed in the sutras and commentaries, and he had exhaustively investigated the precepts as well.
Today's students lack this extensive knowledge of the scriptures or precepts. Because of that, they confound their own feelings, perceptions, and understanding for absolute truth, go around shooting off their mouths and retailing their half-baked ideas to others, and end up making a total waste of their lives.
1.03 - YIBHOOTI PADA, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Patanjali Yoga sutras
3. ^ TRTN: II XII
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
By the conquest of that comes light of knowledge.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
8. II--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
subsided, as control itself will be a wave. Yet this lower
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
The one-pointedness of the China is when it grasps in
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
14. wf II ?* II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
Samyama on these he knows the past and future.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
By perceiving the impressions, knowledge of past
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
mind, past, present, and future.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
23. HWT ^
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
25. IRHII
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
knowledge of the world.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
32. 'fcHHI'sSMi Wl II Xk II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
35. II ^ II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
These are obstacles to Samadhi; but they are powers
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
the Yogi. It is one bit of the universal mind. Now, however, it
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
and the Akasa comes divine hearing.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
There is no reason why I should. The Yogi wants to feel the
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
make himsef as light as a particle, he can make himself huge,
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
the mind on the thing itself. Then on the knowledge that it is
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
He attains aloneness, independence. Then that man is free.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
multiples comes discrimination.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
the power of discrimination acquired by the above-mentioned
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
universe, from gods to the lowest atom, that it is called
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
1.04 - KAI VALYA PADA, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
Patanjali Yoga sutras
then dies, and so on, and in this way much time will be lost in
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
Mantrams, which have power, when repeated under proper
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
nature.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
these practices and struggles to become religious are only
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
competition is necessary to progress. In the animal the man
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
These different minds, which will act in these different
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
7. #R: II vs II
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
can only manifest themselves in proper environments. Only
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
only; thus, consecutiveness of desires will not be broken.
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
dharmanam
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
16. d^lMTO^fNrl^ ^ ^Idl^l IdH, II ? $ II 3
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
changing. Mind itself is continuously changing. The mind and
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
gives its light to everything. It is its power that is percolating
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
chiterapratisankramayastadakarapattau
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
world has some object for that combination, some third thing
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
The thoughts that arise as obstructions to that are
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
foundation of knowledge within themselves. Truth to them
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
31. cTcfi ^cTT^ WWW
--
Patanjali Yoga sutras
33. TpTRT %^q , 3T
1.04 - Wake-Up Sermon, #The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma, #Bodhidharma, #Buddhism
those who practice is freedom from appearances. The sutras say,
"Detachment is enlightenment because it negates appearances."
--
The sutras say, "Those who free themselves from all appearances
are called buddhas." The appearance of appearance as no appear
--
sion there is no other buddha-nature. The sutras say, "Buddhas
have only become buddhas while living with the three poisons and
--
vehicle of buddhas. T he sutras say, "No vehicle is the vehicle of
buddhas."
--
from sages. The sutras say that the impartial Dharma is something
that mortals can't penetrate and sages can't practice. T he impartial
--
The sutras say, "Not to let go of wisdom is stupidity." When
the mind doesn't exist, understanding and not understanding are
--
you live in a land of purity. The sutras say, "If you fill a land with
impurity and filth, no buddha will ever appear." Impurity and filth
--
The sutras say, "When you see no appearance, you see the buddha."
This is what's meant by being free from appearances of the mind.
--
Way. The sutras say, "Buddhas don't preach the Dharma. They
don't liberate mortals. And they don't experience buddhahood."
--
in this life and receives no reward. The sutras say, "W ho creates no
karma obtains the Dharma." This isn't an empty saying. You can
--
The sutras say, "Despite believing in buddhas, people who
same holds for those who imagine that buddhas are subject to
--
their own mind is the sage. The sutras say, "Among men of no
understanding, don't preach this sutra." And the sutras say, "Mind
is the teaching." But people of no understanding don't believe in
--
The sutras say, "When you see that all appearances are not
appearances, y ou see the tathagata." The myriad doors to the truth
1.053 - A Very Important Sadhana, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
A daily recitation with the understanding of the meaning of such hymns as the Purusha Sukta from the Veda, for instance, is a great svadhyaya, as Vachaspati Mishra, the commentator on the Yoga sutras, mentions. Also, the Satarudriya which we chant daily in the temple without perhaps knowing its meaning is a great meditation if it is properly understood and recited with a proper devout attitude of mind. Vachaspati Mishra specifically refers to two great hymns of the Veda the Purusha Sukta and the Satarudriya which he says are highly purifying, not only from the point of view of their being conducive to meditation or concentration of mind, but also in other purifying processes which will take place in the body and the whole system due to the chanting of these mantras. These Veda mantras are immense potencies, like atom bombs, and to handle them and to energise the system with their forces is a spiritual practice by itself. This is one suggestion.
There are various other methods of svadhyaya. It depends upon the state of ones mind how far it is concentrated, how far it is distracted, what these desires are that have remained frustrated inside, what the desires are that have been overcome, and so on. The quality of the mind will determine the type of svadhyaya that one has to practise. If nothing else is possible, do parayana of holy scriptures the Sundara Kanda, the Valmiki Ramayana or any other Ramayana, the Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana, the Srimad Bhagavadgita, the Moksha Dharma Parva of the Mahabharata, the Vishnu Purana, or any other suitable spiritual text. It has to be recited again and again, every day at a specific time, in a prescribed manner, so that this sadhana itself becomes a sort of meditation because what is meditation but hammering the mind, again and again, into a single idea? Inasmuch as abstract meditations are difficult for beginners, these more concrete forms of it are suggested. There are people who recite the Ramayana or the Srimad Bhagavata 108 times. They conduct Bhagvat Saptaha. The purpose is to bring the mind around to a circumscribed form of function and not allow it to roam about on the objects of sense.
1.070 - The Seven Stages of Perfection, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
This is the meaning in substance of these sutras: tad abhvt sayogbhva hna tadde kaivalyam (II.25); vivekakhyti aviplav hnopya (II.26); tasya saptadh prntabhmi praj (II.27). What is the way to this attainment? Discriminative knowledge is the way, which has to be attained by the practice of the limbs of yoga and there is no other alternative. Nanya panth vidyate ayanya (R.V. X.90.16), says the Rig Veda. We cannot have any other, simpler method here. There is only one method. This is a single-track approach, and everyone has to proceed along the same road which others have trodden from ancient times. This is the viveka khyati that is referred to here. The enlightenment that follows understanding of the true nature of things this is viveka khyati. This understanding should be perpetual; it should be second nature to us.
The understanding in respect of the true nature of things, which we are trying to entertain in ourselves as the faculty of correct perception, is to be the only way of looking at things. That is the only method we can adopt in seeing, and this is the only way we can think. There is no other way of thinking. Our life should be a continuous process, aviplava, of the manifestation of this understanding, so that even in our day-to-day life, in our working hours also, our mind should think only in this manner and there should be no other way of thinking just as even when we are intensely busy we cannot forget our identity of personality, and even the heaviest business cannot obliterate the consciousness of the world that is in front of us or that we are awake to at this time. A thing that is in front of us is visible to us, even if we are intensely busy with any amount of enterprise, because that kind of awareness has become part of our very existence; so should become this aviplava viveka khyati. The moment we open our eyes, the moment we think, the moment we feel, the moment we act or react, this should be the attitude. This is the continuous operation of viveka khyati, which is the only way to salvation. No other way is there.
This viveka khyati,or understanding, arises by stages; it does not suddenly burst like a bomb. In the beginning it very gradually reveals itself by effort, and later on it becomes a spontaneous feature. In one of the sutras we are told that there are at least seven stages of the manifestation of this understanding. The number seven is very holy, and it has been held holy in all religions and in all mystical fields, whether of the East or the West. Something very strange it is. In all the scriptures we see this number seven mentioned as a holy number. These are supposed to be the stages of the ascent of the soul to its perfection.
The earlier stages are those of personal effort, exertion and deliberate attempt, whereas the later ones are automatic. We are merely carried away by the momentum of past effort where, on account of the diminution of the intensity of individuality-consciousness, the question of personal effort does not arise. The gravitational pull of a totally different realm takes us by the hand and we are led along the direction of that pull, which is a different thing altogether from the pull of this earth, against which we have to put forth effort in the earlier stages.
--
The powers that are mentioned in the Yoga sutras, which a yogi is supposed to attain by practice, are the experiences one passes through on account of the ascent of consciousness to higher degrees of perfection. One does not meditate merely for the sake of powers. They automatically arise. They are the spontaneous reactions that follow from nature outside due to the harmony one establishes with nature as a whole. Powers are nothing but the outcome of harmony with nature. When there is disharmony, there is weakness; when there is harmony, there is strength, because it is nature that is powerful. Nobody else can be strong; and the strength of nature comes to us when we are in harmony with it.
At present, our body, our mind everything is in disharmony with nature. The earth, fire, water, air, ether every element is in disharmony with us. Thus we have hunger, thirst, heat, cold, fear of death, and all sorts of things. All these troubles arise on account of a dissonant attitude which the body-mind complex has adopted in respect of natural forces.
1.075 - Self-Control, Study and Devotion to God, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
The advice intended by these sutras propounding the yamas and the niyamas is that no one, not even the best of students of yoga, can be free from the possibility of a reversion. There is no such thing as the best of students everyone is in some stage which is other than the best. And so, there is always a chance of it being possible for one to listen to the calls of the realms which one has attempted to transcend, inasmuch as the senses, or the means of perception belonging to the earlier stages, are still present.
It may look many a time that soaring high into the realms or empyreans of yoga in the higher stages would be like a bird flying into the sky, higher and higher, not knowing that its feet are tied with a thread to a peg at the bottom, on the surface of the earth, though the thread may be miles long. Imagine a kite which has been tied with a thread to a peg in the ground a thread which is some five miles long, or ten miles long. The kite can go up and never know that it has been tied like that because it seems free. But, a stage will come when it will feel its limitations and know that it is not possible for it to go further because it is already restrained by certain conditions, which is the thread in this example.
1.078 - Kumbhaka and Concentration of Mind, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
This is precisely the thing to be noted in the practice of yoga. This tendency has to be brought back to its original causative condition. Why has this urge arisen? Why are we running like this? Why is this total energy, or sum total of what we are, pressing itself forward? What is the purpose? What is the intention? What does it seek? And, why are we so restless? This subject was studied to some extent in the sutras preceding those which we are studying now. Now we are actually at the point of practice after having a comprehensive understanding of the causes of this urge within us; and the practice consists of a gradual retention of the breath, of the flow of this outward tendency in us, the prana, by the technique called pranayama. We were trying to understand an outline of this process previously.
Patanjalis sutras relevant to this subject are very few. Bhya bhyantara stambha vtti dea kla sakhybhi parida drgha skma (II.50) is a comprehensive sutra, followed by bhya bhyantara viaya kepi caturtha (II.51). There are some people who cannot brea the in with force; there is a shallow intake of breath. There are others who cannot brea the out with force. It depends upon the peculiarity of the individual. They can brea the out, but they cannot brea the in there is shallow breathing in, though there is a satisfactory breathing out; and conversely, there are others of a different nature.
The pranayama technique intends to shorten the period of these inhalation and exhalation processes in order that the force with which this process goes on, or continues, is brought to the minimum so that there is no strength in this flow, though the flow is tending to go outward and inward as it has been doing ever since the birth of the individual. How long does the breath remain outside in exhalation? How long does it remain inward in inhalation? These are the things to be observed, which is what is meant by these two terms in the sutra. Desa is space, or place, or location. The extent or the measure, spatially, of the movement of the prana during the process of respiration is the meaning of the term desa in the sutra.
1.07 - The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, #Sex Ecology Spirituality, #Ken Wilber, #Philosophy
The major [contemplative] traditions we have studied in their original languages present an unfolding of meditation experience in terms of a stage model: for example, the Mahamudra from the Tibetan Buddhist tradition; the Visuddhimagga from the Pali Theravada tradition; and the Yoga sutras from the Sanskrit Hindu tradition. The models are sufficiently similar to suggest an underlying common invariant sequence of stages, despite vast cultural and linguistic differences as well as styles of practice.
This developmental model has also been found to be consistent with the stages of mystical or interior prayer found in the Jewish (Kabbalist), Islamic (Sufi), and Christian mystical traditions (see, for example, Chirban's chapter in Transformations), and Brown has also found it in the Chinese contemplative traditions. Theorists such as Da Avabhasha have given extensive hermeneutic and developmental readings from what now appears to be at least a representative sampling from every known and available contemplative tradition (see, for example, The Basket of Tolerance), and they are in fundamental and extensive agreement with this overall developmental model.
1.081 - The Application of Pratyahara, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
With this, the Samadhi Pada of the Yoga sutras concludes. From the Vibhuti Pada onwards, we are given a passport to enter into the inner realm of yoga, which is concentration, meditation, and communion with the noble, great object of meditation. The Vibhuti Pada begins with dharana, or concentration of mind. Dea bandha cittasya dhra (III.1): The fixing of the attention of the mind on the given object wholeheartedly, spontaneously and entirely is called concentration.
1.083 - Choosing an Object for Concentration, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
Dea bandha cittasya dhra (III.1). Tatra pratyaya ekatnat dhynam (III.2). These two sutras at the commencement of the Vibhuti Pada of the Yoga sutras of Patanjali define the processes of concentration and meditation. The fixing of the attention of the mind on a particular objective is called concentration, and the continuous flow of the mind uninterruptedly for a protracted period in respect of that objective is called meditation. This fixing of the mind on the objective is itself a very difficult task, and the very fact that so much preparation had to be done in the form of yamas, niyamas, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, etc. for getting into this mood of concentration should prove the nature of the difficulty. The mind will not agree to concentration on anything exclusively because the structure of the mind is like a web which has its warps and woofs and is not a compact substance like a piece of diamond. It is a fabric constituted of various individual and isolated functions which get together into a so-called compactness and create the appearance of there being such a thing as a self-identical mind.
The mind is constituted, to some extent, in a way similar to the structure of the physical body. That means to say, even as the body is not a compact indivisible whole and is constituted of many, many minute parts, down to the most minute called cells and organisms, and yet the body appears to be a single concrete substance, so is the case with the mind. It is constituted of functions vrittis, as they are called and yet it appears to be a single entity. This singleness of its existence is an appearance, not a substantiality or reality, even as the single concrete presentation of the physical body is only an appearance. It is not there really. The peculiar structure of the mind namely, its internal disparity of character prevents it from focusing itself wholly on any objective. What is it that prevents the concentration of the mind on any one thing continuously? It is the mind itself. The nature of the mind is averse to the requisitions of concentration. Concentration is the flow of a single vritti, one continuous idea hammering itself upon an object that is presented before it. But the mind is not made up of a single idea. The mind has hundreds and thousands of ideas hidden within it, and it is made up of these ideas, like a cloth is made up of threads. Because of this composite character of the mind, which is made up of fine elements inside in the form of these vrittis, it becomes difficult for it to gather its forces into a single focus.
1.089 - The Levels of Concentration, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
See where we have gone now from a currency note we have gone to the electric energy. This so-called currency note of so many dollars, pounds or rupees is nothing but electric energy which has been compounded into grosser substances, and we have given an appellation to each stage of the development of this object in its grossified forms. In the subtlest form we call it electrical energy; when it grossifies we call it chemical substance; when it grossifies further we call it wooden pulp; still grosser we call it paper; then further we invest it with some imaginary value called money. This is what has happened to all the objects in the world. The Yoga sutras tell us that this is not the way of looking at things. We cannot have samyama on an object, we cannot enter into the nature of an object, we cannot commune with the object, we cannot become the object, unless we know what the object is. We have ultimately found out that the so-called currency note is something quite different from what we are conceiving in our mind at the present moment. The stages, or the bhumis, which the sutra refers to here are the stages of the development of the manifestation of the object.
To refresh our memory, we can go back to one or two definitions of Patanjali given in the Samadhi Pada, which we studied long ago. The gross form of the object is a compound of several factors, says Patanjali: tatra abda artha jna vikalpai sa
1.094 - Understanding the Structure of Things, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
These few sutras which we have been studying are very difficult ones hard nuts to crack. But they are very important in the sense that an understanding of their import is necessary for the purpose of a whole-souled absorption in the object of meditation, the object of samyama, for the purpose of acquiring powers of mastery over nature. These powers are called siddhis which are described in the further sutras.
1.096 - Powers that Accrue in the Practice, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
The aphorisms of the Vibhuti Pada that follow, henceforward, pertain mainly to the powers that one acquires by the practice of samyama. These themes are of practically no help to a beginner or a novitiate in yoga because Patanjali is only describing the consequences of certain practices. The methodology of these different types of practices is also kept a great secret by the sutra itself, so that merely by a casual reading we cannot make sense out of it. Perhaps this secret has been kept in check deliberately by the author, so that people may not misconceive the meaning of the admonition given in the sutras and get into trouble. Very guarded words have been used, whose meanings will not be clear on a mere linguistic study or the making out of a grammatical meaning of the words. They are all connotative of deep essences of practice.
We need not go into the details of every one of these sutras because not only will they be of no help to anyone here who is attempting to practise yoga, but also it may stir up some kind of unnecessary enthusiasm in the minds of some people which may not be to their advantage, since it cannot be pursued under the existing conditions of these days. However, I shall try to give a general idea as to what is at the back of this system which the author of the sutras is trying to explain as a philosophical and psychological background.
As I mentioned previously, these powers are of three kinds, or categories: the objective, the subjective and the Absolute, or we may call it the Universal. Powers that one gains in respect of the objective world are of one kind; those pertaining to the subjective faculties are of a different kind; and those that are intended to bring about the salvation of the spirit, ultimately, are of a third kind altogether. The secret of this practice, or rather the technique behind this samyama in respect of any chosen object, is given in a sutra in the Samadhi Pada itself, which we studied long ago.
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As I mentioned, these sutras are very terse and convey no meaning at all on a casual, superficial reading. To give only an instance, I am mentioning this sutra which gives us the method of controlling the elements: sthla svarpa skma avaya arthavatva sayamt bhtajaya (III.45). Such a terrific thing Patanjali explains in one small sutra. All the five elements are controlled by a practice which is mentioned in this sutra: sthla svarpa skma avaya arthavatva sayamt bhtajaya. We have to practise samyama on the elements. How is it done? This is what he is telling us in this sutra; and from the meaning of it we can find out why it is useless for a beginner.
Patanjali says the five aspects of the elements have to be taken into consideration. These five aspects are mentioned in this sutra. Sthula is the first aspect; svarupa is the second aspect; suksma is the third aspect; anvaya is the fourth aspect; arthavatva is the fifth aspect. If we can understand what these words mean, then the meaning of the sutra is clear. Different interpreters give different meanings, because the sutra has no grammatical sense the words have only a secret mystical meaning behind them. But as far as it has been understood by people, what the sutra tells here is that we have to gradually master the elements by rising from their grosser state to their subtler state which is a method that can be adopted in respect of any other object also for the practice of samyama.
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The last one is called arthavatva, the purpose for which they exist. Everything exists for the liberation of the spirit. That was pointed out in sutras we studied earlier. Bhogpavargrtham dyam (II.18): The whole universe has been manifest for the purpose of providing the field of experience for the individuals therein, in order that they may gain salvation, ultimately, through experiences of this kind. These are the five aspects of the five elements, and we concentrate and do samyama on them.
Then what happens? Patanjali says one gets eight siddhis: anima, mahima, laghima, garima, prapti, prakamya, istava and vasitva. These are the eight powers that one gains by a control one acquires over the elements. If we hear what these eight siddhis are, we will leap in ecstasy. We can become small like a fibre of cotton, and we can become big like an iron hill as heavy as we can conceive, and as light as can be lifted up in the air and have the capacity to manipulate anything in the world in any manner whatsoever. Anima is the power by which one becomes very small. Mahima is the power by which one becomes very big. Laghima is the power by which one becomes very light. Garima is the power by which one becomes very heavy. Prapti is the power by which one can contact anything anywhere, whatever be the distance of that object. Prakamya is the capacity to fulfil any wish that is in the mind. Isatva is the capacity to bring anyone under ones subjection. And vasitva is the mastery over the whole universe. These are the powers, says Patanjali, that one can get by samyama on the five elements.
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Our main point is samyama. There is no use merely counting the number of rich persons in the world and trying to find out the means by which they have become rich. Well, that may be a good science as a kind of theoretical pursuit, but what do we gain by knowing how many rich people are there in this world and how they have become rich? We will not become rich by knowing these methods, because it is a science by itself and not merely a historical study or a survey that we make statistically. The science is a more important aspect of the matter than merely a statement of the consequences or results that follow by the pursuit of the science. What is the science? That is samyama, the subject that we have been studying all along. How are we able to concentrate the mind? For this purpose the author has taken great pains in some of the sutras to explain how the mind can be made to agree, wholeheartedly, with the pursuit of yoga, and how distractions can be eliminated. It is this that is the intention of the sutras, right from those which dealt with the nirodha parinama, etc., onwards.
The whole of yoga is summed up in one word: samyama. This is the entire system of Patanjali. How can we grasp the object in our consciousness? That is called meditation. This grasping of the object by consciousness is the gradual identification of consciousness with the object, and vice versa. How this can be done is the point on hand; and once this is understood, every other perfection will follow. We ourselves will be surprised at the powers that we gain. And as I mentioned, many times we will not even know that we have such powers. Only if we are rubbed hard will we know that the power is there.
There is an anecdote which is not mentioned in the Yoga sutras. Aurangzeb heard that Tulsidas had great powers, that he was a siddha. He wanted to see what powers Tulsidas had, so he ordered Tulsidas to come to his court. By some means they brought the saint to the court of Aurangzeb, and the emperor said, I want to see your powers. They say you are a person endowed with great occult forces. The saint said, I dont know what you are talking about. I have no powers. I myself have not seen any, and from where do these powers come? No, no, no, Aurangzeb said, I am not going to leave you like that. You must show me your powers. Tulsidas said, I do not have any powers. I have not exhibited any. Nor am I aware that I have any powers. So where comes this question of demonstrating before you? I myself do not know anything about them. Aurangzeb said, No! That is no good. I will not leave you. You must show them. If you are not going to show your powers, I will imprison you! And Aurangzeb put Tulsidas behind bars. Well, that is all; Tulsidas was in the prison of Aurangzeb. Then and there a miracle took place. They say huge, giant-like monkeys hundreds and thousands in number started demolishing the entire city of Aurangzeb. They threatened everybody, and they destroyed many. It was a ravaging experience. They started attacking the palace of Aurangzeb himself. The guards ran away; it was all confusion, and they did not know what had happened. Nobody could come out of the house. Everywhere were giant-like monkeys, showing their teeth and attacking.
Aurangzeb did not know what was happening. People were crying and complaining about the ravage that had been effected in the whole city by unknown monsters coming as huge monkeys. Then someone told him, We have made a mistake in imprisoning Tulsidas. Release him. He is a devotee of Rama, and so Ramas army must have come. Then Aurangzeb said, Let him off. Let him off! Go, ask him to leave. What this anecdote shows is, when we oppose a man of power, his power is seen. Otherwise, we cannot see the power. Even a lions power cannot be seen unless we oppose it. The lion will be sitting or lying down, crouching on the ground as if it has no strength at all. If we want to see the strength of a lion, we must attack it, and then its power will be seen immediately. Similarly, often the powers of a yogin are not known, as they are hidden.
1.097 - Sublimation of Object-Consciousness, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
In about four sutras we are given the final touches of the practice of samyama for the liberation of the spirit. They are very concisely treated inasmuch as many of the details have already been furnished in the Samadhi Pada itself, and there is no need to reiterate all those various aspects that have been touched upon in the relevant sutras in the first pada.
The particular type of meditation that is directly responsible for the liberation of the soul is meditation on the purusha, as the sutra tells us. Sattva puruayo atyantsamkrayo pratyaya aviea bhoga parr thatvt svrthasayamt puruajnam (III.36), says the sutra. The knowledge of the purusha is the knowledge of the Absolute. This comes by meditation on the purusha as the Ultimate Principle. No other kind of meditation can lead to liberation, though it can lead to various experiences, or powers. Also, it is the most difficult type of meditation because it requires qualifications not merely of the will or the thought, but also of the moral consciousness and the emotions. All these are known to us, as they have been described earlier.
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The sutra which I stated just now is a precise statement of the conditions of spiritual meditation. What the sutra literally means is: sattva and the purusha namely, the mind and the ultimate consciousness, purusha are opposed to each other in their characters. In what way are they opposed? That is not mentioned here. We have to understand what this difference is by studying the meaning of the implications provided in other sutras. The purusha is infinite, whereas the mind is externalised. This is the primary distinction. The mind cannot have infinite awareness. It is always projected outwardly through the senses, whereas the purusha is eternally aware of an infinitude of being. This is a great difference indeed.
Further, in certain other sutras we will be told as to what the differences are between purusha-consciousness and mind-consciousness, or object-consciousness, or world-consciousness, as we may call them. Externality and eternity cannot go together; they are different intrinsically. Eternity is not externality. Though linguistically we are able to understand what this difference is, the mind cannot comprehend the meaning of this. The externality that is the character of mind perception, or any kind of world perception, is involved in a time process, which is what is called duration a passage or a movement of time whereas there is no such passage or duration in eternity. It is an eternal now, a word with which we are familiar but which meaning is not clear to us.
There is no such thing as past, present and future for the purusha, but there is such a thing as past, present and future for the mind. Something happened yesterday; something is happening today; something will happen tomorrow. This is how we think, isnt it? But the purusha is not aware of this kind of distinction of past, present and future. There is a sudden awareness of a totality of existence and, therefore, there is an abolition of all duration and time-consciousness. There is an extinction of the difference created by the time process, as well as the difference created by the interference of space between objects. The mind cannot comprehend everything at one stroke.
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Traka sarvaviaya sarvathviaya akrama ca iti vivekajam jnam (III.55). This taraka knowledge is of such a nature that its object is everything, as different from the mental knowledge which is provided to us now, at present, which has only certain objects as its contents, and not all objects. A certain set of objects becomes the content of mental consciousness, empirically. But here, there is sarva visayatva anything that is existent is a constant and perpetual content of this consciousness. It is not merely sarva visaya, but is also sarvatha visaya it is aware of everything in every condition, not only in one condition. For example, we are aware of objects in one condition only, not in all conditions. In the earlier sutras we have been told that every object undergoes various conditions the parinamas mentioned. And we cannot be aware of all the parinamas, or all the transformations of the past, present and future at one stroke, because of the limited character of the mind in its capacity to know things. Only the present is known. The past is not known. The future is not known.
But here, there is knowledge of all conditions of the objects even those conditions which the object has not undergone and are yet to come. They also will be known at one stroke that is sarvatha visaya. Sarvaviaya sarvathviaya all knowledge, and knowledge of every condition of everything, every state through which one passed, through which one passes and through which one has to pass all these will become contents of this awareness. How, in what manner, does it become a content of awareness? One after another, successively? No. Akramam. Akramam means not successive, but simultaneous. Instantaneous awareness of all conditions that are possible, at any period of time this is called viveka jnana.Traka sarvaviaya sarvathviaya akrama ca iti vivekajam jnam (III.55).
These are only stories to the mind which is sunk in the mire of world-consciousness. One cannot even dream of what this state of affairs is. What can be meant by simultaneous awareness of all things and simultaneous awareness of every condition of all things? This is called sarva jnatritva; this is omniscience. And this is designated by the term vivekajam jnanam, knowledge born of discriminative understanding, which is a peculiar term used in the yoga psychology. It is also called taraka, the saving knowledge. This information is given to us in these sutras to give us a comfort spiritually, that we are not merely entering into a lions den where we find nothing but death, but that we are entering into a new type of life altogether, where eternity embraces us with a new life which is durationless and, therefore, deathless. This contemplation is the only technique, the only method, the only means of the salvation of the soul.
Sattva puruayo uddhi smye kaivalyam iti (III.56). Kaivalya, or ultimate independence of the spirit, arises when there is equanimity of the structural character of sattva and the purusha. Sattva means the mind, or we may call it prakriti; purusha is the consciousness. When there is similarity established between the two, then the one does not remain as an object of the other, nor is one a subject in relation to the other. When the two become one on account of the intense purity of the experiencing consciousness, infinity enters into experience. This is kaivalya, this is moksha sattva puruayo uddhi smye kaivalyam iti (III.56). These sutras have given us, in a concise manner, the principles of spiritual contemplation.
It has to be taken for granted that the conditions which are stated in earlier sutras as necessary for this practice are already acquired to an appreciable degree. In fact, everything that is of importance in the practice of yoga has been mentioned in the Samadhi Pada itself. That one pada is sufficient it is a complete statement of the entire process of yoga practice. The other sections are like an elaborate commentary on those instructions which are given in the Samadhi Pada. We have to recall to our minds, once again, what are these conditions. One of the main things mentioned in the Samadhi Pada were vairagya and abhyasa, and tivra samvegatva intense ardour of the aspiring spirit is required in order that success may become imminent.
The ardour of the soul was stated to be a very essential condition for quick success. What is the ardour; what is the fervour; what is the aspiring spirit; what is its intensity? That will be the factor which will judge the quickness of the success. Of course, the other things that were mentioned in the Samadhi Pada are the different methods of practice. How the mind can be fixed on different objects initially so that later on it can be fixed on any object, for the matter of that, for the purpose of samyama, was mentioned in the Samadhi Pada. The world of objects becomes, finally, the object of meditation. The methods of Patanjali are really those stated to be what he calls savitarka, savichara, sananda and sasmita samadhis. These are the secrets of Patanjalis yoga, and everything else is an explanation thereof. We have studied this what savitarka means, etc.
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Thus, there is a very scientific methodology provided to us in these sutras, which have to be studied gradually, stage by stage, in their successive intensity and applicability. Many authors think that the sutras of Patanjali in respect of yoga are concluded with the Vibhuti Pada because in it he mentions that kaivalya is attained. What else is there to say, afterwards? Some people are of the opinion that there are only three sections of Patanjali, not four sections, but there are others who think that there should be four sections, not three, because each section is called a pada Samadhi Pada, Sadhana Pada, Vibhuti Pada and Kaivalya Pada. A pada is a quarter, and we cannot have three quarters; quarters are always four. So, inasmuch as the word pada is used in respect of each section, it is the opinion of many that four sections must be there, not three. And the fourth section has a meaning of its own. Though it is not directly connected with practice, it furnishes certain details. Just as there are people who think that the Bhagavadgita ends with the eleventh chapter and the successive chapters are additions, as a kind of commentary, there are others who think that they are not simply additions; they have an organic connection with what has preceded.
So is the case with these sutras. The Kaivalya Pada is a metaphysical disquisition of Patanjali, where we find his philosophical peculiarities as distinct from other schools of thought, which of course have great relevance to the practice which he has described in the earlier sutras.
1.098 - The Transformation from Human to Divine, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
Likewise is our puny understanding of the higher achievements of which yoga speaks. We have subtle peculiarities in our nature, and that particular weakness is what is to be subjugated and sublimated in yoga. This has been mentioned again and again in the sutras of Patanjali, in various manners, various ways, at different stages. Though there are many stages which each individual has to experience, each for oneself, adepts have classified them into certain groups. The language of the system of Patanjali tells us that there are four important conditions of utter transformation; and these are given specific names in the Yoga Shastras.
When one steps over the ordinary human level and places ones feet on the next higher level, that condition is called prathama kalpita. It is a peculiar term which implies an experience of a first form of enlightenment. The first enlightenment that comes through yoga is called prathama kalpita. The next stage of enlightenment is called madhu bhumika, which literally means very sweet, like honey. Very exquisite is the experience, very delicious; that is what the word madhu actually means here madhu bhumika. The third transformation is called prajna jyotis. There is a flash of the supernal light of the purusha, or the Absolute. We begin to enter into the daylight of the Eternal. And the last stage is supposed to be the borderl and of the communion of the individual with the Absolute, the Universal. That is called atikranta bhavaniya, which surpasses all comprehension. No thought can understand or imagine what it is. Even the highest stretch of imagination cannot conceive what it is. Therefore, it is designated as atikranta bhavaniya.
1.099 - The Entry of the Eternal into the Individual, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
We have been told much about it in earlier sutras. But essentially, the law of prakriti is such that it has no internal distinction within itself. To create internal distinctions or differences of bodies, personalities, individualities, etc., would be a result of disharmony of some kind or the other. In the totality of nature, internal differences are unknown, just as the body, our individual bodily organism, has no feeling of internal differences. There is a principle which brings all these forces together and creates in us a sense of oneness. Likewise in nature, there is a principle which brings all the forces together. The more we approach this centre of unification of nature, the more are we natural, and the more we depart from it, the more are we unnatural. This is the meaning of this particular sutra, nimmita aprayojaka praktn varaabheda tu tata ketrikavat (IV.3): The instrumental cause, which is the practice of yoga, is not actually the creator of the powers or siddhis, but only an agent which allows the operation of natural forces, in the same way as the farmer operates as an instrumental cause in the movements of waters in the fields. This is the literal meaning of this sutra.
To sum up the teaching of these two sutras cited just now, the present state of existence of a human individual is unnatural, and we should not make the mistake of thinking that we are living a normal life. Our present way of life is abnormal in the sense that it does not harmonise with what eternally exists. The temporal features that we are manifesting in our personal lives are the opposites of the eternal features of prakriti. Hence, yoga is an instrumental agent in bringing about conditions by which there is a spontaneity of entry of eternal laws into our personality. And in this process of the entry of the eternal characters of prakriti into us, we develop various powers. Thus, the powers, or siddhis, are nothing but experiences which are incumbent upon our gradual proximity to the ultimate nature of prakriti. This is what the sutra tells us.
1.09 - Taras Ultimate Nature, #How to Free Your Mind - Tara the Liberator, #Thubten Chodron, #unset
explained the denitive and complete view. For this reason, not all sutras
describe the ultimate nature of phenomena in exactly the same way.
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of selessness as interpretable and others as denitive. Interpretable explanations or sutras give a provisional description of emptiness that requires
further interpretation in order to reach the nal view, the Buddhas actual
1.107 - The Bestowal of a Divine Gift, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
The process of recession of the effect into the cause is one of the methods prescribed in the earlier sutras. It is a discriminative analysis of the causes of the activity of these vrittis which have come to the surface of consciousness at the present moment, and is a very difficult thing to practice because we cannot find out the causes when they are actually operating. Nevertheless, this is one of the methods prescribed in the sutra. When we are overwhelmed from all sides by the vrittis, we will not be allowed even to think of the causes which have given rise to this circumstance. But this overwhelming will not continue for a long time. There is an ebb and a flow of these vrittis; they are not always in the same condition. The force of the samskaras, the impressions of past experience which have been held in check for a long time by the practice of yoga, gains entry into the realm of consciousness and acts in respect of its own desired object.
The exhaustion of a karma is effected by various ways, and these samskaras or vrittis that come up confronting the yogin are nothing but the powers of karma, forces of karma the potencies, or apurvas, of previous karmas which have not yet been undergone by experience. Some of the karmas have to be undergone by direct experience, as they cannot be opposed. It is not that everything must be opposed; that cannot succeed. Certain things have to be undergone by direct experience, whether they are pleasurable or miserable. They can be either way. When they are very powerful there is no other go than to bear the brunt of the onslaught, and then they diminish in their intensity. It is at that time that we have to practise this method of the recession of the effect into the cause not when the flood is upon the head. Only when it subsides can we can try to exercise our discrimination as to what has happened.
1.19 - The Victory of the Fathers, #The Secret Of The Veda, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
HE HYMNS addressed by the great Rishi Vamadeva to the divine Flame, to the Seer-Will, Agni are among the most mystic in expression in the Rig Veda and though quite plain in their sense if we hold firmly in our mind the system of significant figures employed by the Rishis, will otherwise seem only a brilliant haze of images baffling our comprehension. The reader has at every moment to apply that fixed notation which is the key to the sense of the hymns; otherwise he will be as much at a loss as a reader of metaphysics who has not mastered the sense of the philosophical terms that are being constantly used or, let us say, one who tries to read Panini's sutras without knowing the peculiar system of grammatical notation in which they are expressed. We have, however, already enough light upon this system of images to understand well enough what Vamadeva has to tell us about the great achievement of the human forefa thers.
In order to hold clearly in our minds at the start what that great achievement was we may put before ourselves the clear and sufficient formulas in which Parashara Shaktya expresses them. "Our fathers broke open the firm and strong places by their words, yea, the Angirases broke open the hill by their cry; they made in us the path to the great heaven; they found the
1.20 - TANTUM RELIGIO POTUIT SUADERE MALORUM, #The Perennial Philosophy, #Aldous Huxley, #Philosophy
While the Right Law still prevailed, innumerable were the converts who fathomed the depths of the Dharma by merely listening to half a stanza or even to a single phrase of the Buddhas teaching. But as we come to the age of similitude and to these latter days of Buddhism, we are indeed far away from the Sage. People find themselves drowning in a sea of letters; they do not know how to get at the one substance which alone is truth. This was what caused the appearance of the Fathers (of Zen Buddhism) who, pointing directly at the human mind, told us to see here the ultimate ground of all things and thereby to attain Buddhahood. This is known as a special transmission outside the scriptural teaching. If one is endowed with superior talents or a special sharpness of mind, a gesture or a word will suffice to give one an immediate knowledge of the truth. Hence, since they were advocates of special transmission, Ummon treated the (historical) Buddha with the utmost irreverence and Yakusan forbade his followers even to read the sutras.
Zen is the name given to this branch of Buddhism, which keeps itself away from the Buddha. It is also called the mystical branch, because it does not adhere to the literal meaning of the sutras. It is for this reason that those who blindly follow the steps of Buddha are sure to deride Zen, while those who have no liking for the letter are naturally inclined towards the mystical approach. The followers of the two schools know how to shake the head at each other, but fail to realize that they are after all complementary. Is not Zen one of the six virtues of perfection? If so, how can it conflict with the teachings of the Buddha? In my view, Zen is the outcome of the Buddhas teaching, and the mystical issues from the letters. There is no reason why a man should shun Zen because of the Buddhas teaching; nor need we disregard the letters on account of the mystical teachings of Zen. Students of scriptural Buddhism run the risk of becoming sticklers for the scriptures, the real meaning of which they fail to understand. By such men ultimate reality is never grasped, and for them Zen would mean salvation. Whereas those who study Zen are too apt to run into the habit of making empty talks and practising sophistry. They fail to understand the significance of letters. To save them, the study of Buddhist scriptures is recommended. It is only when these one-sided views are mutually corrected that there is a perfect appreciation of the Buddhas teaching.
Chiang Chih-chi
1.439, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
The sutras are meant to elucidate and establish the meanings of the texts. The commentaries try to do so by bringing in the opponents views, refuting them and arriving at conclusions after long discussions; there are also differences of opinion in the same school of thought;
Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi again protagonists and antagonists. Also different schools of thought interpret the same text in different ways and arrive at different conclusions, contrary to each other.
How then is the purpose of the sutras served?
15th November, 1938
1.550 - 1.600 Talks, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
The sutras are meant to elucidate and establish the meanings of the texts. The commentaries try to do so by bringing in the opponent's views, refuting them and arriving at conclusions after long discussions; there are also differences of opinion in the same school of thought;
551
--
How then is the purpose of the sutras served?
15th November, 1938
1.hcyc - 52 - From my youth I piled studies upon studies (from The Shodoka), #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
English version by Robert Aitken Original Language Chinese From my youth I piled studies upon studies, In sutras and sastras I searched and researched, Classifying terms and forms, oblivious to fatigue. I entered the sea to count the sands in vain And then the Tathagata scolded me kindly As I read "What profit in counting your neighbor's treasure?" My work had been scattered and entirely useless, For years I was dust blown by the wind. <
1.hcyc - In my early years, I set out to acquire learning (from The Song of Enlightenment), #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
English version by International Institute for the Translation of Buddhist Texts Original Language Chinese In my early years, I set out to acquire learning, And I studied commentaries and inquired into sutras and Shastras. Distinguishing among terms and characteristics, I didn't know how to stop. Entering the sea to count the sands I exhausted myself in vain. But the Thus Come One reprimanded this folly: What benefit is there in counting other's treasures?! Unsuccessful all along, I felt I had practiced in vain. Many years I wasted as a transient, like dust in the wind. [bk1sm.gif] -- from Song of Enlightenment: By Great Master Yung Chia of the T'ang Dynasty, Edited by Tripitaka Master Hua / Translated by International Institute for the Translation of Buddhist Texts <
1.is - Every day, priests minutely examine the Law, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
English version by Sonya Arutzen Original Language Japanese Every day, priests minutely examine the Law And endlessly chant complicated sutras. Before doing that, though, they should learn How to read the love letters sent by the wind and rain, the snow and moon. [bk1sm.gif] -- from Ikkyu and the Crazy Cloud Anthology: A Zen Poet of Medieval Japan, by Ikkyu / Translated by Sonya Arutzen <
1.jm - The Song of Perfect Assurance (to the Demons), #Milarepa - Poems, #Jetsun Milarepa, #Buddhism
In their spotless, ancient sutras,
All the Buddhas in the past, repeatedly
--
Exhaustive study of the sutras
Teaches us no more than this.
1.ss - Paper windows bamboo walls hedge of hibiscus, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
English version by Red Pine Original Language Chinese Paper windows bamboo walls hedge of hibiscus when guests arrive wormwood soup serves as tea the poor people I meet are mostly content rare is the rich man who isn't vain or wasteful I move my bookstand to read sutras by moonlight I honor the buddhas with a vase of wild flowers everyone says Tushita Heaven is fine but how can it match this old hut of mine [2615.jpg] -- from The Zen Works of Stonehouse: Poems and Talks of a 14th Century Chinese Hermit, Translated by Red Pine <
2.01 - On Books, #Evening Talks With Sri Aurobindo, #unset, #Zen
There are many persons who believe that 'Yoga' means the Raja Yoga of Patanjali. His sutras, aphorisms, are well known. It is a scientific method which resorts to:
Physico-vital processes depending on Pranayama and Asanas taken from Hatha Yoga.
3.2.01 - The Newness of the Integral Yoga, #Letters On Yoga II, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
The correspondent asked, "Is it not likely that the Darshanas and Upanishads will be forgotten in the next hundred years as the New Yoga establishes itself in the world? If it is possible to get the necessary things from your writings and the Mother's, who would care to read the enigmatic sutras and concealed formulas of the Darshanas, Upanishads and Vedas?"Ed.
***
6.0 - Conscious, Unconscious, and Individuation, #The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, #Carl Jung, #Psychology
cording to Ramanuja's commentary on the Vedanta sutras, 18 is
the highest self, the "collective aggregate of all individual
--
Amitdyur-dhydna Sutra. In: Buddhist Mahdyana sutras, Part II.
Translated by F. Max Miiller and Junjiro Takakusu. (Sacred
--
Vedanta sutras, 371
Venus: alchemical sign for, 301, 327;
BOOK II. -- PART II. THE ARCHAIC SYMBOLISM OF THE WORLD-RELIGIONS, #The Secret Doctrine, #H P Blavatsky, #Theosophy
says: -"This process, such as it is minutely described in the Vedic sutras, consists in rapidly
http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/sd/sd2-2-07.htm (5 von 10) [06.05.2003 03:36:47]
CASE 5 - KYOGENS MAN HANGING IN THE TREE, #The Gateless Gate, #Mumonkan, #unset
Buddhist sutras, that also is useless. If you can rightly answer the
question, you walk the road of killing the living and reviving the
Diamond Sutra 1, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
The voice that begins all sutras is that of Ananda, Shakyamunis cousin, who was born on the day of the Buddhas Enlightenment. As a child, Ananda impressed others with his perfect memory, and when he joined the Buddhas order, Shakyamuni repeated all the sermons he had missed in the intervening years. As it happened, Anandas entry into the homeless life also marked the beginning of the Buddhas prajna period when this and other teachings on the perfection of wisdom were spoken.
Nearly thirty years later, as the Buddha approached the time of his Nirvana, Ananda asked what words to place at the beginning of each sutra. The Buddha answered, Evan maya shrutan (Thus have I heard). Later, Ananda used this phrase to preface the hundreds of discourses he repeated from memory at Buddhisms First Council, held shortly after the Buddhas Nirvana in 383 B.C. However, what immediately follows is not a verbatim account but a summary of events, while the portion that Ananda quotes from memory does not begin until the second chapter. Despite this traditional attri bution, it is also possible that this sutra was recalled from memory by Vashpa or some other disciple at the meeting held immediately after the First Council. Vashpa was the First Patriarch of the Mahasanghikas, and it was the Mahasanghikas that gave rise to the Mahayana sects that taught and revered this and other scriptures on the perfection of wisdom. Thus, at the end of the Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines, when Ananda is enjoined not to forget this teaching, this could be interpreted as evidence that he didnt forget or evidence that he did.
--
Once: According to the system established by Chih-yi (530- 597) for ordering the Buddhas sutras, from the time of his Enlightenment the Buddhas teachings progressed through five periods: the Avatamsaka period of interpenetration of unity and multiplicity, which lasted three weeks and which comprised the teaching of the Avatamsaka Sutra; the Agama period of mental analysis, which lasted twelve years; the Vaipulya period of harmony and balance, which lasted eight years; the Prajna period of radical wisdom, which lasted twenty-two years and which included this and other perfection of wisdom sutras; and the Saddharma period of the full lotus, which lasted eight years and which concluded with the Lotus and Nirvana sutras. Since the Buddhas Enlightenment is said to have occurred in 432 B.C., this sutra would have been spoken around 400 B.C. (Note: I have followed Hajime Nakamuras dating of the Buddha, which is based on sources of the Northern tradition rather than the Southern tradition of Sri Lanka.)
Buddhist scholars, however, consider such an attri bution dubious and insist that, given the nature of this teaching, the scriptures of the prajna period could not have been composed much earlier than a century or two before the Christian Era when the first signs of Mahayana Buddhism appeared in India.
However, the sudden appearance of such sutras as this several centuries after the Buddhas Nirvana can also be seen as a reflection of the changing receptivity of their audience rather than proof of de novo compilation. Edward Conze, one of the first Westerners to devote himself to the study of these teachings and the teacher of many of those who now write on the subject, wrote, What seems to be doctrinal innovation may really be nothing but the gradual shifting of the line between esoteric and exoteric teachings. At first, even up to Ashoka (304-232 B.C.), the bulk of the doctrine, except for some moral maxims, and so on, was esoteric. (Buddhist Studies 1934-1972, p. 115) In the months that followed the au thentication of scriptures at Buddhisms First Council in 383 B.C., at least one other meeting was convened to consider additional sermons. Obviously, different groups of disciples honored different teachings, and such a sutra as this surely could not have been widely accepted by an audience that preferred asceticism and monastic discipline, which this sutra holds up to gentle rebuke.
Bhagavan: The term bhagavan was derived from bhaga (vulva) and originally meant like a vulva, and hence fecund or prosperous. Eventually, it was applied to one whose presence bestows prosperity. It is usually translated as Blessed One or World-Honored One and is one of every buddhas ten titles. Others that appear in this sutra include tathagata, sugata, and arhan.
--
Whereas most sutras begin with some miraculous event, such as the quaking of the earth or the radiation of light from the Buddhas brow, the Diamond Sutra begins with the Buddhas everyday routine and stresses the importance of charity, along with its counterpart of forbearance, and the perspective of prajna wisdom in the practice of both. Thus, the Buddha begins his instruction with his own example and uses an example that involves benefit to others as well as oneself.
Textual note: Kumarajiva and Bodhiruci give the time as shih-shih (when it was time to eat).
DS2, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
MOST BUDDHIST sutras begin with a question. Subhuti has just witnessed the compassion and detachment with which the Buddha performed his daily round of giving and receiving offerings, and he is moved to ask how others might do the same. Among the Buddhas disciples, Subhuti was foremost in his freedom from passion, for he was the one who best understood the doctrine of emptiness. On this occasion, he saw in the Buddhas actions the perfect realization of that doctrine.
Thus, he expresses his gratitude for such instruction by example and asks how others, not only monks but anyone who seeks to live an enlightened life, can follow in the Buddhas footsteps. The wording of his questions, however, reflects the understanding of someone on the Hinayana, or Lesser Path. But this is a Mahayana sutra.
--
Chiang Wei-nung says, In Buddhist sutras, it is sometimes said that women experience such great distractions that they cannot become buddhas but must first be reborn as men. The Dharma, however, is shared by all. If women first had to be reborn as men, this would be less than all. Still, the distractions of women are great. First is the distraction of motherhood. Second, they frequently confuse love for compassion. Compassion is impartial. It knows neither direction nor degree. Love, meanwhile, is a river of life and death, of endless rebirth. In the eyes of the Buddha there is neither male nor female. The reason he says the distractions of women are greater is because they need to take greater care. Yet, if they can make the great resolve to set forth on such a path, they, too, will
become buddhas. This is why Subhuti asks on behalf of both men and women.
DS3, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
realms of Form and Formlessness. Chiang Wei-nung, for example, says, When Buddhist sutras
divide beings into the Six States of Existence, it is to show their position on the wheel of rebirth.
--
translation of the sutras that make up the Maha Ratnakuta.
in whatever conceivable realm of being one might
--
Tseng Feng-yi says, Someone once asked Tsung-mi, The sutras tell us to liberate beings. But if
beings are not beings, why should we make an effort to liberate them? Tsung-mi replied, If beings
--
rid of liberating and not liberating? The questioner then asked, The sutras tell us that the Buddha is
eternal, but they also say he entered nirvana. If he is eternal, why did he enter nirvana? And if he
DS4, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
we should practice detachment when we give. Self-existence refers to the sutras statement that we
should not be attached to a thing; reward refers to the sutras statement that we should not be
attached to anything at all; and karmic fruit refers to the sutras statement that we should not be
attached to a sight, etc. Also, why warn against selfishness? Because if we are attached to
Talks 125-150, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
D.: Patanjali Yoga sutras speak of identification.
M.: Identification with the Supreme is only the other name for the destruction of the ego.
Talks 176-200, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
He had read, in the Sanskrit original, the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads and the sutras with commentaries by Sri Sankara and Ramanuja.
He asked: Is Maharshis teaching the same as Sankaras?
--- Overview of noun sutra
The noun sutra has 1 sense (no senses from tagged texts)
1. sutra ::: (a rule or aphorism in Sanskrit literature or a group of aphoristic doctrinal summaries prepared for memorization)
--- Synonyms/Hypernyms (Ordered by Estimated Frequency) of noun sutra
1 sense of sutra
Sense 1
sutra
=> Sanskrit literature
=> literature
=> writing, written material, piece of writing
=> written communication, written language, black and white
=> communication
=> abstraction, abstract entity
=> entity
--- Hyponyms of noun sutra
--- Synonyms/Hypernyms (Ordered by Estimated Frequency) of noun sutra
1 sense of sutra
Sense 1
sutra
=> Sanskrit literature
--- Coordinate Terms (sisters) of noun sutra
1 sense of sutra
Sense 1
sutra
-> Sanskrit literature
=> Hastinapura
=> Purana
HAS INSTANCE=> Ramayana
=> tantra
HAS INSTANCE=> Kamasutra
=> sutra
--- Grep of noun sutra
kamasutra
sutra
Wikipedia - Amitabha Sutra
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Wikipedia - Sutra -- A text in Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism, often a collection of aphorisms
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https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7727164-success-sutras-for-the-21st-century
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https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Mahaprajnaparamita_Sutra
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https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Shurangama_Sutra#History_and_Translation
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Secret Journey -- -- - -- 2 eps -- Manga -- Hentai Comedy Supernatural Fantasy -- Secret Journey Secret Journey -- Genjo Sanzo is on a journey, he has to travel to India to retrieve the holy sutras. Along the way, he happens to free Goku, a sex-addicted monkey sealed by Buddha. Together they travel to the west. -- -- Based on "Journey to the West". -- -- (Source: MU) -- OVA - Jan 29, 2016 -- 6,907 6.24
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