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class:program



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now begins generated list of local instances, definitions, quotes, instances in chapters, wordnet info if available and instances among weblinks


OBJECT INSTANCES [2] - TOPICS - AUTHORS - BOOKS - CHAPTERS - CLASSES - SEE ALSO - SIMILAR TITLES

TOPICS
vim_commands
vimrc
SEE ALSO


AUTH

BOOKS
Buddhahood_in_This_Life__The_Great_Commentary_by_Vimalamitra
Infinite_Library
The_Blue_Cliff_Records
The_Divine_Milieu
The_Holy_Teaching_of_Vimalakirti__A_Mahayana_Scripture

IN CHAPTERS TITLE

IN CHAPTERS CLASSNAME

IN CHAPTERS TEXT
00.05_-_A_Vedic_Conception_of_the_Poet
02.05_-_Robert_Graves
03.04_-_Towardsa_New_Ideology
03.12_-_TagorePoet_and_Seer
05.02_-_Gods_Labour
1.01f_-_Introduction
1.01_-_Hatha_Yoga
1.020_-_The_World_and_Our_World
1.02_-_To_Zen_Monks_Kin_and_Koku
1.03_-_To_Layman_Ishii
1.06_-_Agni_and_the_Truth
1.06_-_The_Ascent_of_the_Sacrifice_2_The_Works_of_Love_-_The_Works_of_Life
1.07_-_Hui_Ch'ao_Asks_about_Buddha
1.11_-_Works_and_Sacrifice
1.12_-_Dhruva_commences_a_course_of_religious_austerities
1.19_-_Equality
1.19_-_The_Victory_of_the_Fathers
1.21_-_Families_of_the_Daityas
1.439
1956-09-05_-_Material_life,_seeing_in_the_right_way_-_Effect_of_the_Supermind_on_the_earth_-_Emergence_of_the_Supermind_-_Falling_back_into_the_same_mistaken_ways
1.hcyc_-_59_-_Two_monks_were_guilty_of_murder_and_carnality_(from_The_Shodoka)
1.poe_-_Lenore
1.rb_-_Sordello_-_Book_the_Fifth
2.01_-_Mandala_One
2.03_-_The_Supreme_Divine
2.18_-_The_Evolutionary_Process_-_Ascent_and_Integration
2_-_Other_Hymns_to_Agni
3.02_-_Mysticism
32.12_-_The_Evolutionary_Imperative
3_-_Commentaries_and_Annotated_Translations
BOOK_II._--_PART_I._ANTHROPOGENESIS.
Book_of_Genesis
DS3
r1919_07_27
Talks_500-550
Talks_With_Sri_Aurobindo_2
The_Act_of_Creation_text
The_Anapanasati_Sutta__A_Practical_Guide_to_Mindfullness_of_Breathing_and_Tranquil_Wisdom_Meditation
The_Book_of_Joshua
The_Dwellings_of_the_Philosophers
The_Poems_of_Cold_Mountain

PRIMARY CLASS

program
vim
SIMILAR TITLES
Buddhahood in This Life The Great Commentary by Vimalamitra
The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti A Mahayana Scripture
vim
vim commands
vimrc

DEFINITIONS


TERMS STARTING WITH

vimala. ::: purity; unblemished; without stain or defect

vimalā

vimalā. (T. dri ma med pa; C. ligou di; J. rikuji; K. igu chi 離垢地). In Sanskrit, "immaculate" or "stainless"; the name of the second of the ten bodhisattva stages, or BHuMI. On this bhumi, the bodhisattva engages in the perfection of morality (sĪLAPĀRAMITĀ) and is unstained by even subtle types of unwholesome actions performed by body, speech, or mind. It is said that from this bhumi onward, the bodhisattva is untainted by killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, senseless prattle, covetousness, harmful intent, or wrong views, even during dreams. He performs the ten virtues of protecting life, giving gifts, maintaining sexual ethics, speaking truthfully, speaking harmoniously, speaking kindly, speaking sensibly, nonattachment, helpful intent, and right views without the slightest taint of a conception of self (ĀTMAGRAHA). The bodhisattva remains on this stage until he is able to enter into all worldly forms of SAMĀDHI.

vimarsha. ::: consideration; examination; test; reasoning; discussion; knowledge; intelligence; reflection

vimen ::: n. --> A long, slender, flexible shoot or branch.

viminal ::: a. --> Of or pertaining to twigs; consisting of twigs; producing twigs.

vimineous ::: a. --> Of or pertaining to twigs; made of pliant twigs.
Producing long, slender twigs or shoots.


vim ::: n. --> Power; force; energy; spirit; activity; vigor.

vimokkhamukha. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

vimokkha. See VIMOKsA

vimoksamārga

vimoksamārga. (S). See VIMUKTIMĀRGA.

vimoksamukha. (P. vimokkhamukha; T. rnam par thar pa'i sgo; C. jietuo men; J. gedatsumon; K. haet'al mun 解門). In Sanskrit, "gates to deliverance," or "doors of liberation"; three points of transition between the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realms, which, when contemplated, lead to liberation (VIMOKsA) and NIRVĀnA: (1) emptiness (sUNYATĀ), (2) signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), and (3) wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). The three are widely interpreted. In mainstream Buddhist materials, emptiness (sunyatā) entails the recognition that all compounded (SAMSKṚTA) things of this world are devoid of any perduring self (ĀTMAN) and are thus unworthy objects of clinging. By acknowledging emptiness, the meditator is thus able to turn away from this world and instead advert toward nirvāna, which is uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA). Signlessness (ānimitta) is a crucial stage in the process of sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA): as the frequent refrain in the SuTRAs states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions created by the intrusion of ego (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process. Signlessness is produced through insight into impermanence (ANITYA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to attachments to anything experienced through the senses; once the meditator has abandoned all such attachments to the senses, he is then able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has no sensory signs of its own by which it can be recognized. Wishlessness is produced through insight into suffering (DUḤKHA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to all the intentions (āsaya) and aspirations (PRAnIDHĀNA) one has toward any compounded dharma. As the Buddha's famous simile of the raft also suggests, the adept must finally abandon even the attachment to the compounded religious system that is Buddhism in order to experience nirvāna, the summum bonum of the religion. Once the meditator has abandoned all such aspirations, he will then be able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has nothing to do with anything that can be desired (VAIRĀGYA). ¶ In the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the three are explained in terms of three types of concentration (SAMĀDHI) on the sixteen aspects of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. The four aspects of the first truth, of suffering (DUḤKHASATYA), are impermanence, misery, emptiness, and selflessness. The four aspects of the second truth, origination (SAMUDAYASATYA), are cause, origination, strong production, and condition. The four aspects of the third truth, cessation (NIRODHASATYA), are cessation, pacification, exaltedness, and emergence. The four aspects of the fourth truth, path (MĀRGASATYA), are path, suitability, achievement, and deliverance. According to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, the samādhi associated with signlessness observes the four aspects of cessation; the samādhi of emptiness observes emptiness and selflessness, two of the four aspects of suffering; and the samādhi of wishlessness observes the remaining ten aspects. ¶ In YOGĀCĀRA texts, such as the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are related to the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA) of the imaginary (PARIKALPITA), the dependent (PARATANTRA), and the consummate (PARINIsPANNA), respectively. In the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, it is said that the samādhi of emptiness understands the selflessness of persons and phenomenal factors (DHARMA), the samādhi of wishlessness views the five aggregates (SKANDHA) as faulty, and the samādhi of signlessness views nirvāna as the pacification of the aggregates. Elsewhere in that text, the three are connected to the four seals (CATURMUDRĀ) that certify a doctrine as Buddhist. The statements "all compounded factors are impermanent" and "all contaminated things are suffering" are the cause of the samādhi of wishlessness. "All phenomena are devoid of a perduring self" is the cause of the samādhi of emptiness. "Nirvāna is peace" is the cause of the sāmadhi of signlessness. According to another interpretation, emptiness refers to the lack of a truly existent entity in phenomena, signlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent cause, and wishlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent effect.

vimoksamukha

vimoksa. (P. vimokkha; T. rnam par thar pa; C. jietuo; J. gedatsu; K. haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberation" or "deliverance"; the state of freedom from rebirth, achieved by the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, or BODHISATTVA paths (MĀRGA). In mainstream Buddhist literature, this liberation is said to be of three types, corresponding to the three "doors to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA): (1) emptiness (sUNYATĀ), (2) signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), and (3) wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). Another set of eight grades of liberation (vimoksa) is associated with the attainment of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). In Pāli sources, these grades refer to eight levels in the extension of consciousness that accompany the cultivation of increasingly more advanced states of dhyāna (P. JHĀNA). The eight grades are (1) the perception of material form (RuPA) while remaining in the subtle-materiality realm; (2) the perception of external material forms while not perceiving one's own form; (3) the development of confidence through contemplating the beautiful; (4) passing beyond the material plane with the idea of "limitless space," one attains the plane of limitless space (ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), the first level of the immaterial realm; (5) passing beyond the plane of limitless space with the idea of "limitless consciousness," one attains the plane of limitless consciousness (VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA); (6) passing beyond the plane of limitless consciousness with the idea "there is nothing," one attains the plane of nothingness (ĀKINCANYĀYATANA); (7) passing beyond the plane of nothingness one attains the plane of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA); and (8) passing beyond the plane of neither perception nor nonperception one attains the cessation of consciousness (viz., NIRODHASAMĀPATTI). In the Mahāyāna ABHIDHARMA, it is said that the first two grades enable bodhisattvas to manifest different forms for the sake of others, the third controls their attitude toward those forms (by seeing that beauty and ugliness are relative), and the remaining five enable them to live at ease in order to help others.

vimoksa

vimoksaya ::: [for liberation]. [Gita 16.5]

vimudhatma ::: [one whose self is bewildered]. [Gita 3.6, 27]

vimuktimārga

vimuktimārga. (T. rnam par grol ba'i lam; C. jietuodao; J. gedatsudo; K. haet'alto 解道). In Sanskrit, "path of liberation"; a technical term that refers to the second of a two-stage process of abandoning the afflictions (KLEsA). As one proceeds from the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) to the adept path where there is nothing more to learn (AsAIKsAMĀRGA), the klesas are abandoned in sequence through repeated occasions of yogic direct perception (YOGIPRATYAKsA), consisting of two moments. The first is called the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (uninterrupted path), in which the specific klesa or set of klesas is actively abandoned; this is followed immediately by the vimuktimārga [alt. vimoksamārga], which is the state of having abandoned, and thus being liberated from, the klesa.

vimukti. (P. vimutti; T. rnam par grol ba; C. jietuo; J. gedatsu; K. haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberation." See VIMOKsA.

vimukti

VIM ::: 1. (messaging) Vendor Independent Messaging.2. (text, tool) Vi Improved. (1999-06-15)

VIM 1. "messaging" {Vendor Independent Messaging}. 2. "text, tool" {Vi Improved}. (1999-06-15)

Vimalakīrtinirdesa

Vimalakīrtinirdesa. (T. Dri med grags pas bstan pa'i mdo; C. Weimo jing; J. Yuimagyo; K. Yuma kyong 維摩經). In Sanskrit, "Vimalakīrti's Instructions"; one of the most beloved Indian Mahāyāna sutras, renowned especially for having a layman, the eponymous VIMALAKĪRTI, as its protagonist. The text probably dates from around the second century CE. Among the seven translations of the sutra into Chinese, the most famous is that made by KUMĀRAJĪVA in 406. His translation seems to have been adapted to appeal to Chinese mores, emphasizing the worldly elements of Vimalakīrti's teachings and introducing the term "filial piety" into the text. The sutra was also translated by XUANZANG in 650. The sutra was translated into Tibetan twice, the more famous being that of Chos nyid tshul khrims in the ninth century. It has also been rendered into Sogdian, Khotanese, and Uighur. The original Sanskrit of the text was lost for over a millennia until a Sanskrit manuscript was discovered in the PO TA LA palace in Tibet in 2001. The narrative of the sutra begins with the Buddha requesting that his leading sRĀVAKA disciples visit his lay disciple Vimalakīrti, who is ill. Each demurs, recounting a previous meeting with Vimalakīrti in which the layman had chastised the monk for his limited understanding of the dharma. The Buddha then instructs his leading bodhisattva disciples to visit Vimalakīrti. Each again demurs until MANJUsRĪ reluctantly agrees. Vimalakīrti explains that his sickness is the sickness of all sentient beings, and goes on to describe how a sick bodhisattva should understand his sickness, emphasizing the necessity of both wisdom (PRAJNĀ) and method (UPĀYA). A large audience of monks and bodhisattvas then comes to Vimalakīrti's house, where he delivers a sermon on "inconceivable liberation" (acintyavimoksa). Among the audience is sĀRIPUTRA, the wisest of the Buddha's srāvaka disciples. As in other Mahāyāna sutras, the eminent srāvaka is made to play the fool, repeatedly failing to understand how all dichotomies are overcome in emptiness (suNYATĀ), most famously when a goddess momentarily transforms him into a female. Later, a series of bodhisattvas take turns describing various forms of duality and how they are overcome in nonduality. Vimalakīrti is the last to be invited to speak. He remains silent and is praised for this teaching of the entrance into nonduality. The sutra is widely quoted in later literature, especially on the topics of emptiness, method, and nonduality. It became particularly famous in East Asia because the protagonist is a layman, who repeatedly demonstrates that his wisdom is superior to that of monks. Scenes from the sutra are often depicted in East Asian Buddhist art.

Vimalakīrti

Vimalakīrti. (T. Dri med grags pa; C. Weimojie; J. Yuimakitsu; K. Yumahil 維摩詰). Sanskrit proper name of a mythical Indian Buddhist layman. He is the subject of an eponymous sutra that describes his victories in debates with elite MAHĀYĀNA BODHISATTVAs. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA.

Vimalamitra

Vimalamitra. (T. Dri med bshes gnyen). An Indian master revered in Tibet as one of the chief figures in the transmission of the RDZOGS CHEN teachings of the RNYING MA sect, especially of the "heart drop" (SNYING THIG) tradition. He is said to have received rdzogs chen teachings from both JNānasura and sRĪSIMHA. According to legend, Vimalamitra transmitted these teachings to Tibet when he was invited (when he was supposedly already two hundred years old) to come to Tibet by King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, arriving either before or after the king's death in 799. He remained in Tibet for thirteen years, before leaving for China. While in Tibet, he collaborated in the translation of a number of texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan, including the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, the GUHYAGARBHATANTRA, and the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). Vimalamitra is especially renowned for his transmission of the teachings of the "instruction class" (MANG NGAG SDE), which were gathered in a collection named after him, the BI MA SNYING THIG. He is also said to have concealed treasure texts (gter ma) at a hermitage above BSAM YAS monastery. The works attributed to him preserved in the Tibetan canons are all tantric in subject matter, with two exceptions, a commentary on the SAPTASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Seven Hundred Lines") and a commentary on the PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra. Both are straightforward exegetical works, which prompted the Tibetan historian 'Gos lo tsā ba to report in his DEB THER SNGON PO ("Blue Annals") that these commentaries were not the product of the tantric master revered in Rnying ma, and that in fact there must have been two Vimalamitras.

Vimalaprabhā

Vimalaprabhā. (T. Dri med 'od). In Sanskrit, "Stainless Light," the most important commentary on the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. It is traditionally attributed to Pundarīka, one of the kings of sAMBHALA.

Vimana (Sanskrit) Vimāna A car or chariot of the gods, capable of traveling through the air. While Indian mythology speaks of the devas or gods as possessing rapid self-moving chariots or vehicles with which they traverse space, gods was often used by ancient Indians for their highly intellectual, extremely scientific forefathers of now forgotten antiquity. Thus, the vimanas which were used by the Atlanteans are spoken of as being self-moving and carrying their occupants through the air (cf SD 2:427-8).

Vimānavatthu. In Pāli, "Accounts of the Celestial Abodes," the sixth book of the Pāli KHUDDAKANIKĀYA. The text contains accounts of the heavenly abodes (P. vimāna, lit. "mansion, palace") of various divinities (DEVA), which they acquired as rewards for meritorious deeds performed in previous lives. Its eighty-three stories were told to Moggallāna (MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA) and other saints during their sojourns in celestial realms, who in turn related them to the Buddha. The Vimānavatthu appears in the Pali Text Society's English translation series as Stories of the Mansions.

Vimānavatthu

Vimarsha: Dissatisfaction, displeasure; impatience.

Vimoksha (Sanskrit) Vimokṣa Final emancipation, liberation; nirvana.

Vimposture et tromperie des diables. Paris, 1569.

ViMsatikā

ViMsatikā. (T. Nyi shu pa; C. Weishi ershi lun; J. Yuishiki nijuron; K. Yusik isip non 唯識二十). The "Twenty," also known as ViMsatikāvijNaptimātratāsiddhikārikā, the "Twenty Stanzas Proving Representation-Only," one of the most influential independent (i.e., noncommentarial) works of the fourth-or fifth-century Indian master VASUBANDHU. A short work in twenty verses, it outlines the basic position of the YOGĀCĀRA regarding the status of external objects, arguing that such objects do not exist apart from the consciousness that perceives them. He argues, for example, that the fact that objects appear to exist in an external world is not proof of that existence, since an external world also appears to exist in dreams. Therefore, all external phenomena are merely projections of consciousness (VIJNĀNA) and thus are representation-only (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ).

viMsatiprabhedasaMgha

viMsatiprabhedasaMgha. (T. dge 'dun nyi shu; C. ershi sengqie/shengwen cidi; J. nijusogya/shomonshidai; K. isip sŭngga/songmun ch'aje 二十僧伽/聲聞次第). In Sanskrit, "the twenty varieties of the SAMGHA" or "twenty members of the community"; a subdivision of the eight noble persons (AstĀRYAPUDGALA) into twenty based on different faculties (INDRIYA) and the ways in which they reach NIRVĀnA; a subdivision used in Mahāyāna works, particularly in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature, as a template to further identify as many as forty-eight ĀRYA BODHISATTVAs. Only those who have reached the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGA) or the religious life (srāmanya) that begins with the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) are included in this idealized saMgha. The twenty varieties are based on the eight noble persons, two for each of the four fruits of the noble path or religious life (ĀRYAMĀRGAPHALA; sRĀMAnYAPHALA). The four fruits, from lowest to highest, are stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), and worthy one (ARHAT). For each there is one who enters (SROTAĀPANNAPRATIPANNAKA, etc.) and one who abides (SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA, etc.) in a particular fruition. This list also includes the seven noble persons (P. ariyapuggala; S. ĀRYAPUDGALA) as found in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA. They are (1) the follower of faith (P. saddhānusāri; S. sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN); (2) the one liberated through faith (P. saddhāvimutta; S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA); (3) the bodily witness (P. kāyasakkhi; S. KĀYASĀKsIN); (4) the one liberated both ways (P. ubhatobhāgavimutta; S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA); (5) the follower of the dharma (P. dhammānusāri; S. DHARMĀNUSĀRIN); (6) the one who has attained understanding (P. ditthippatta; S. DṚstIPRĀPTA); and (7) the one liberated through wisdom (P. paNNāvimutta; S. PRAJNĀVIMUKTA).

Vimuktisena. [alt. Ārya Vimuktisena] (T. Grol sde). An Indian scholar-monk (likely from the sixth century CE) who is the author of the first extant commentary (vṛtti) on the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, a work associated with the name of MAITREYA or MAITREYANĀTHA, the most influential PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ commentary for Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vimuktisena connects the AbhisamayālaMkāra to the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ ("Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines"), making the otherwise cryptic AbhisamayālaMkāra comprehensible. In scholastic Tibetan Buddhism his name is linked with the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka synthesis, but Vimuktisena's view is more closely aligned to MADHYAMAKA, without the distinctive terminology associated with the PRAMĀnA school of DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI.

Vimuktisena


TERMS ANYWHERE

12. they do not regress in their liberation (S. nāsti vimuktihāniḥ; T. rnam par grol ba nyams pa med pa; C. jietuo zhijian wumie 解知見無滅)

17. one who is liberated dependent upon a specific occasion (S. samayavimukta; T. dus dang sbyor bar rnam par grol ba; C. shi jietuo 時解)

17. One who is liberated dependent upon particular occasions (SAMAYAVIMUKTA).

18. One who is liberated regardless of occasion (ASAMAYAVIMUKTA)

18. one who is liberated regardless of occasion (S. asamayavimukta; T. dus dang mi sbyor bar rnam par grol ba; C. bushi jietuo 時解)

19. One who is liberated through wisdom (PRAJNĀVIMUKTA)

19. one who is liberated through wisdom (S. prajNāvimukta; T. shes rab kyis rnam par grol ba; C. hui jietuo 慧解)

1. Vimalamitra

20. one who is liberated both ways (S. ubhayatobhāgavimukta; T. gnyis ga'i cha las rnam par grol ba; C. ju jietuo 解)

20. One who is liberated through both ways (UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA)

2. immaculate/stainless (S. vimalā; T. dri ma med pa; C. ligou di/wugou di 離垢地/無垢地)

7. power of knowing absorption, liberation, concentration, trance, affliction, purification, and acquisition (S. sarvadhyānavimoksasamādhisamāpattisaMklesavyavadānavyutthānajNānabala; T. bsam gtan dang rnam thar dang ting nge 'dzin dang snyoms par 'jug pa dang kun nas nyon mongs pa dang rnam par byang ba dang ldan pa thams cad mkhyen pa'i stobs; C. jinglü jietuo dengchi dengzhi zhili 靜慮解等持等至智力)

Abhivimana: As identical with himself; an epithet of the unlimited Supreme Being.

Abhidhammatthasangaha. In PAli, "Summary of the Meaning of Abhidharma"; a synoptic manual of PAli ABHIDHARMA written by the Sri Lankan monk ANURUDDHA (d.u.), abbot of the Mulasoma VihAra in Polonnaruwa, sometime between the eighth and twelfth centuries CE, but most probably around the turn of the eleventh century. (Burmese tradition instead dates the text to the first century BCE.) The terse Abhidhammatthasangaha Has been used for centuries as an introductory primer for the study of abhidharma in the monasteries of Sri Lanka and the THERAVADA countries of Southeast Asia; indeed, no other abhidharma text has received more scholarly attention within the tradition, especially in Burma, where this primer has been the object of multiple commentaries and vernacular translations. The Abhidhammatthasangaha includes nine major sections, which provide a systematic overview of PAli Buddhist doctrine. Anuruddha summarizes the exegeses appearing in BUDDHAGHOSA's VISUDDHIMAGGA, though the two works could hardly be more different: where the Visuddhimagga offers an exhaustive exegesis of THERAVADA abhidharma accompanied by a plethora of historical and mythical detail, the Abhidhammatthasangaha is little more than a list of topics, like a bare table of contents. Especially noteworthy in the Abhidhammatthasangaha is its analysis of fifty-two mental concomitants (CETASIKA), in distinction to the forty-six listed in SARVASTIVADA ABHIDHARMA and the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA. There is one major PAli commentary to the Abhidhammatthasangaha still extant, the PorAnatīkA, which is attributed to Vimalabuddhi (d.u.). The Abhidhammatthasangaha appears in the Pali Text Society's English translation series as Compendium of Philosophy.

Abhidharmadīpa. In Sanskrit, "Lamp of ABHIDHARMA"; an Indian scholastic treatise probably composed between 450 and 550 CE. Only fragments of the treatise (sixty-two of 150 folios) are extant; these were discovered in Tibet in 1937. The treatise is composed of two parts-the Abhidharmadīpa, written in verse (kArikA), and a prose autocommentary, the VibhAsAprabhAvṛtti-both of which were probably composed by the same anonymous author. The author, who refers to himself merely as the "DīpakAra" ("author of the Dīpa") may be Vimalamitra (d.u.), an otherwise-unknown disciple of SAMGHABHADRA. The structure of the text is modeled on that of the influential ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA, and almost half of the kArikA verses included in the Abhidharmadīpa are virtually identical to those found in the Abhidharmakosa. Although borrowing freely from the Kosa, the DīpakAra launches a harsh critique of VASUBANDHU's (whom he calls the "KosakAra," or "author of the Kosa") AbhidharmakosabhAsya, from the standpoint of SARVASTIVADA abhidharma. Vasubandhu is criticized for the SAUTRANTIKA tendencies betrayed in his doctrinal analyses and also for being a MahAyAnist adherent of the teachings of the "three natures" (TRISVABHAVA). As such, the Abhidharmadīpa's author seems to have been a follower of SAMGHABHADRA's *NYAYANUSARA, and the text helps to clarify the positions of SaMghabhadra and the orthodox VAIBHAsIKAs. The DīpakAra shares the latter's concern with providing both a systematic exegesis of abhidharma theory and a vigorous polemical defense of SarvAstivAda doctrinal positions. Since it presents theories of other thinkers not covered in the AbhidharmakosabhAsya, the Abhidharmadīpa serves as an important source for studying the history of Indian abhidharma. For example, in his discussion of the eponymous SarvAstivAda position that "everything exists" throughout all three time periods (TRIKALA) of past, present, and future, the DīpakAra also critiques three rival positions: the VIBHAJYAVADA and DArstAntikas, who maintain that only "part" exists (viz., the present); the Vaitulika and AyogasunyatAvAda, who say that nothing exists; and the PUDGALAVADA, who presume that existence is indeterminate (AVYAKṚTA).

AbhisamayAlaMkAra. (T. Mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan). In Sanskrit, "Ornament of Realization"; a major scholastic treatise of the MAHAYANA, attributed to MAITREYANATHA (c. 350CE). Its full title is AbhisamayAlaMkAranAmaprajNApAramitopadesasAstra (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan) or "Treatise Setting Forth the Perfection of Wisdom called 'Ornament for Realization.'" In the Tibetan tradition, the AbhisamayAlaMkAra is counted among the five treatises of Maitreya (BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA). The 273 verses of the AbhisamayAlaMkAra provide a schematic outline of the perfection of wisdom, or PRAJNAPARAMITA, approach to enlightenment, specifically as delineated in the PANCAVIMsATISAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines"). This detailed delineation of the path is regarded as the "hidden teaching" of the prajNApAramitA sutras. Although hardly known in East Asian Buddhism (until the modern Chinese translation by FAZUN), the work was widely studied in Tibet, where it continues to hold a central place in the monastic curricula of all the major sects. It is especially important for the DGE LUGS sect, which takes it as the definitive description of the stages of realization achieved through the Buddhist path. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra treats the principal topics of the prajNApAramitA sutras by presenting them in terms of the stages of realizations achieved via the five paths (PANCAMARGA). The eight chapters of the text divide these realizations into eight types. The first three are types of knowledge that are essential to any type of practice and are generic to both the mainstream and MahAyAna schools. (1) The wisdom of knowing all modes (SARVAKARAJNATA), for the bodhisattva-adepts who are the putative target audience of the commentary, explains all the characteristics of the myriad dharmas, so that they will have comprehensive knowledge of what the attainment of enlightenment will bring. (2) The wisdom of knowing the paths (MARGAJNATA), viz., the paths perfected by the sRAVAKAs, is a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing all modes. (3) The wisdom of knowing all phenomena (SARVAJNATA) is, in turn, a prerequisite to achieving the wisdom of knowing the paths. With (4) the topic of the manifestly perfect realization of all aspects (sarvAkArAbhisambodha) starts the text's coverage of the path itself, here focused on gaining insight into all aspects, viz., characteristics of dharmas, paths, and types of beings. By reaching (5) the summit of realization (murdhAbhisamaya; see MuRDHAN), one arrives at the entrance to ultimate realization. All the realizations achieved up to this point are secured and commingled through (6) gradual realization (anupurvAbhisamaya). The perfection of this gradual realization and the consolidation of all previous realizations catalyze the (7) instantaneous realization (ekaksanAbhisamaya). The fruition of this instantaneous realization brings (8) realization of the dharma body, or DHARMAKAYA (dharmakAyAbhisambodha). The first three chapters thus describe the three wisdoms incumbent on the buddhas; the middle four chapters cover the four paths that take these wisdoms as their object; and the last chapter describes the resultant dharma body of the buddhas and their special attainments. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra provides a synopsis of the massive prajNApAramitA scriptures and a systematic outline of the comprehensive path of MahAyAna. The AbhisamayAlaMkAra spurred a long tradition of Indian commentaries and other exegetical works, twenty-one of which are preserved in the Tibetan canon. Notable among this literature are Arya VIMUKTISEnA's Vṛtti and the ABHISAMAYALAMKARALOKA and Vivṛti (called Don gsal in Tibetan) by HARIBHADRA. Later Tibetan commentaries include BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB's Lung gi snye ma and TSONG KHA PA's LEGS BSHAD GSER PHRENG.

Avimukta: The non-liberated soul.

akopya. (P. akuppa; T. mi 'khrugs pa; C. budong; J. fudo; K. pudong 不動). In Sanskrit, "imperturbable" or "unshakable"; used often in mainstream Buddhist materials in reference to the "imperturbable" liberation of mind (CETOVIMUKTI) that derives from mastering any of the four meditative absorptions (P. JHANA; S. DHYANA). The term is also deployed in treatments of mastery of the "adept path" (AsAIKsAMARGA) of the ARHAT: once the imminent arhat realizes the knowledge of the cessation (KsAYAJNANA) of the afflictions (KLEsA), and becomes imperturbable in that experience, the "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPADAJNANA) arises-viz., the awareness that the klesas, once eradicated, will never arise again.

akusalamula. (P. akusalamula; T. mi dge ba'i rtsa ba; C. bushangen; J. fuzenkon; K. pulson'gŭn 不善根). In Sanskrit, "unwholesome faculties," or "roots of evil"; these refer to the cumulative unwholesome actions performed by an individual throughout one's past lives, which lead that being toward the baleful destinies (DURGATI) of animals, hungry ghosts, and the denizens of hell. The Buddhist tradition offers various lists of these unwholesome faculties, the most common of which is threefold: craving or greed (LOBHA), aversion or hatred (DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA). These same three are also known in the sutra literature as the "three poisons" (TRIVIsA). These three factors thus will fructify as unhappiness in the future and provide the foundation for unfavorable destinies or rebirths (APAYA). These three unwholesome roots are the converse of the three wholesome faculties, or "roots of virtue" (KUsALAMuLA), viz., nongreed (alobha), nonhatred (advesa), and nondelusion (amoha), which lead instead to happiness or liberation (VIMOKsA). See also SAMUCCHINNAKUsALAMuLA.

AlayavijNAna. (T. kun gzhi rnam par shes pa; C. alaiyeshi/zangshi; J. arayashiki/zoshiki; K. aroeyasik/changsik 阿賴耶識/藏識). In Sanskrit, "storehouse consciousness" or "foundational consciousness"; the eighth of the eight types of consciousness (VIJNANA) posited in the YOGACARA school. All forms of Buddhist thought must be able to uphold (1) the principle of the cause and effect of actions (KARMAN), the structure of SAMSARA, and the process of liberation (VIMOKsA) from it, while also upholding (2) the fundamental doctrines of impermanence (ANITYA) and the lack of a perduring self (ANATMAN). The most famous and comprehensive solution to the range of problems created by these apparently contradictory elements is the AlayavijNAna, often translated as the "storehouse consciousness." This doctrinal concept derives in India from the YOGACARA school, especially from ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU and their commentators. Whereas other schools of Buddhist thought posit six consciousnesses (vijNAna), in the YogAcAra system there are eight, adding the afflicted mind (KLIstAMANAS) and the AlayavijNAna. It appears that once the SarvAstivAda's school's eponymous doctrine of the existence of dharmas in the past, present, and future was rejected by most other schools of Buddhism, some doctrinal solution was required to provide continuity between past and future, including past and future lifetimes. The alAyavijNAna provides that solution as a foundational form of consciousness, itself ethically neutral, where all the seeds (BIJA) of all deeds done in the past reside, and from which they fructify in the form of experience. Thus, the AlayavijNAna is said to pervade the entire body during life, to withdraw from the body at the time of death (with the extremities becoming cold as it slowly exits), and to carry the complete karmic record to the next rebirth destiny. Among the many doctrinal problems that the presence of the AlayavijNAna is meant to solve, it appears that one of its earliest references is in the context not of rebirth but in that of the NIRODHASAMAPATTI, or "trance of cessation," where all conscious activity, that is, all CITTA and CAITTA, cease. Although the meditator may appear as if dead during that trance, consciousness is able to be reactivated because the AlayavijNAna remains present throughout, with the seeds of future experience lying dormant in it, available to bear fruit when the person arises from meditation. The AlayavijNAna thus provides continuity from moment to moment within a given lifetime and from lifetime to lifetime, all providing the link between an action performed in the past and its effect experienced in the present, despite protracted periods of latency between seed and fruition. In YogAcAra, where the existence of an external world is denied, when a seed bears fruit, it bifurcates into an observing subject and an observed object, with that object falsely imagined to exist separately from the consciousness that perceives it. The response by the subject to that object produces more seeds, either positive, negative, or neutral, which are deposited in the AlayavijNAna, remaining there until they in turn bear their fruit. Although said to be neutral and a kind of silent observer of experience, the AlayavijNAna is thus also the recipient of karmic seeds as they are produced, receiving impressions (VASANA) from them. In the context of Buddhist soteriological discussions, the AlayavijNAna explains why contaminants (ASRAVA) remain even when unwholesome states of mind are not actively present, and it provides the basis for the mistaken belief in self (Atman). Indeed, it is said that the klistamanas perceives the AlayavijNAna as a perduring self. The AlayavijNAna also explains how progress on the path can continue over several lifetimes and why some follow the path of the sRAVAKA and others the path of the BODHISATTVA; it is said that one's lineage (GOTRA) is in fact a seed that resides permanently in the AlayavijNAna. In India, the doctrine of the AlayavijNAna was controversial, with some members of the YogAcAra school rejecting its existence, arguing that the functions it is meant to serve can be accommodated within the standard six-consciousness system. The MADHYAMAKA, notably figures such as BHAVAVIVEKA and CANDRAKĪRTI, attacked the YogAcAra proponents of the AlayavijNAna, describing it as a form of self, which all Buddhists must reject. ¶ In East Asia, the AlayavijNAna was conceived as one possible solution to persistent questions in Buddhism about karmic continuity and about the origin of ignorance (MOHA). For the latter, some explanation was required as to how sentient beings, whom many strands of MAHAYANA claimed were inherently enlightened, began to presume themselves to be ignorant. Debates raged within different strands of the Chinese YogAcAra traditions as to whether the AlayavijNAna is intrinsically impure because of the presence of these seeds of past experience (the position of the Northern branch of the Chinese DI LUN ZONG and the Chinese FAXIANG tradition of XUANZANG and KUIJI), or whether the AlayavijNAna included both pure and impure elements because it involved also the functioning of thusness, or TATHATA (the Southern Di lun school's position). Since the sentient being has had a veritable interminable period of time in which to collect an infinity of seeds-which would essentially make it impossible to hope to counteract them one by one-the mainstream strands of YogAcAra viewed the mind as nevertheless tending inveterately toward impurity (dausthulya). This impurity could only be overcome through a "transformation of the basis" (AsRAYAPARAVṚTTI), which would completely eradicate the karmic seeds stored in the storehouse consciousness, liberating the bodhisattva from the effects of all past actions and freeing him to project compassion liberally throughout the world. In some later interpretations, this transformation would then convert the AlayavijNAna into a ninth "immaculate consciousness" (AMALAVIJNANA). See also DASHENG QIXIN LUN.

AmrapAlī. (P. AmbapAlī [alt. AmbapAlikA]; T. A mra skyong ma; C. Anpoluonü; J. Anbaranyo; K. Ambaranyo 菴婆羅女). A courtesan in the city of VAIsALĪ (P. VesAli) and famous patron of the Buddha, who donated her mango grove (the AmrapAlīvana) to the SAMGHA. PAli sources describe her as a woman of exceptional beauty, who is said to have been spontaneously born at the foot of a mango tree in the king's garden, whence her name. As a young maiden, many princes vied for her hand in marriage. To quell the unrest, she was appointed courtesan of the city. She is said to have charged her patrons the extraordinary amount of fifty kahApanas for a night with her. So much revenue flowed into the coffers of VaisAlī through her business that BIMBISARA, the king of RAJAGṚHA, decided to install a courtesan at his capital as well. It was during the Buddha's last visit to VaisAlī, shortly before his death, that AmrapAlī first encountered his teachings. Hearing that the famous sage was to preach in the nearby town of KotigAma, she went there with a retinue of chariots to listen to him preach. Enthralled by his sermon, she invited him for his meal the next morning. Delighted at his acceptance and proud by nature, she refused to give way to the powerful Licchavi princes whom she met on the road, and who likewise had intended to invite the Buddha the next day. Knowing the effect such beauty could have on minds of men, the Buddha admonished his disciples to be mindful in her presence lest they become infatuated. At the conclusion of the meal, AmrapAlī offered to the Buddha and his order her park, AmrapAlīvana, which was the venue of several sermons on the foundations of mindfulness (S. SMṚTYUPASTHANA; P. SATIPAttHANA). AmrapAlī's son Vimala Kaundinya (P. KondaNNa) entered the order and became a renowned elder. Listening to him preach one day, AmrapAlī renounced the world and became a nun. Practicing insight (VIPAsYANA) and contemplating the faded beauty of her own aging body, she became an ARHAT.

amṛta. (P. amata; T.'chi med/bdud rtsi; C. ganlu; J. kanro; K. kamno 甘露). In Sanskrit, lit. "deathless" or "immortal"; used in mainstream Buddhist materials to refer to the "end" (NIstHA) of practice and thus liberation (VIMOKsA). The term is also used to refer specifically to the "nectar" or "ambrosia" of the TRAYASTRIMsA heaven, the drink of the divinities (DEVA) that confers immortality. It is also in this sense that amṛta is used as an epithet of NIRVAnA, since this elixir confers specific physical benefit, as seen in the descriptions of the serene countenance and clarity of the enlightened person. Moreover, there is a physical dimension to the experience of nirvAna, for the adept is said to "touch the 'deathless' element with his very body." Because amṛta is sweet, the term is also used as a simile for the teachings of the Buddha, as in the phrase the "sweet rain of dharma" (dharmavarsaM amṛtaM). The term is also used in Buddhism to refer generically to medicaments, viz., the five types of nectar (PANCAMṚTA) refer to the five divine foods that are used for medicinal purposes: milk, ghee, butter, honey, and sugar. AmṛtarAja (Nectar King) is the name of one of the five TATHAGATAs in tantric Buddhism and is identified with AMITABHA. In ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, there are five types of amṛta and five types of mAMsa ("flesh") that are transformed in a KAPALA ("skull cup") into a special offering substance called nang mchod, the "inner offering," in Tibetan. Giving it to the deities in the MAndALA is a central feature in anuttarayogatantra practice (SADHANA) and ritual (VIDHI). The inner offering of important religious figures in Tibetan is often distilled into a pill (T. bdud rtsi ril bu) that is then given to followers to use. In tantric practices such as the visualization of VAJRASATTVA, the meditator imagines a stream of amṛta descending from the teacher or deity visualized on the top of the head; it descends into the body and purifies afflictions (KLEsA) and the residual impressions (VASANA) left by earlier negative acts.

anabhisaMskAraparinirvAyin. (T. mngon par 'du byed pa med par yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa; C. wuxing ban/wuxing banniepan; J. mugyohatsu/mugyohatsunehan; K. muhaeng pan/muhaeng panyolban 無行般/無行般涅槃). In Sanskrit, "one who achieves NIRVAnA without effort"; a particular sort of nonreturner (ANAGAMIN), one of the twenty members of the ARYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA, the anabhisaMskAraparinirvAyin are nonreturners who, having achieved any of the sixteen birth states of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU), enter "nirvAna with remainder" (SOPADHIsEsANIRVAnA) in that state without having to apply any effort. They are distinguished from those who achieve nirvAna at birth (see UPAPADYAPARINIRVAYIN) or those who need to apply themselves in order to achieve nirvAna (see SABHISAMSKARAPARINIRVAYIN).

anAgAmin. (T. phyir mi 'ong ba; C. buhuan/bulai/anahan; J. fugen/furai/anagon; K. purhwan/pullae/anaham 不還/來/阿那含). In Sanskrit and PAli, "nonreturner"; the third of the four types of Buddhist saint or "noble person" (ARYAPUDGALA) in the mainstream traditions, along with the SROTAAPANNA or "stream-enterer" (the first and lowest grade), the SAKṚDAGAMIN or "once-returner" (the second grade), and the ARHAT or "worthy-one" (the fourth and highest grade). The anAgAmin is one who has completely put aside the first five of ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: (1) belief in the existence of a perduring self (SATKAYADṚstI), (2) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA), (3) skeptical doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSA), (4) sensual craving (KAMARAGA), and (5) malice (VYAPADA). The anAgAmin has also weakened considerably the last five of the ten fetters (including such affective fetters as pride, restlessness, and ignorance), thus enervating the power of SAMSARA. Having completely eradicated the first five fetters, which are associated with the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU), and weakened the latter five, the anAgAmin is a "nonreturner" in the sense that he will never be reborn in the kAmadhAtu again; instead, he will either complete the path and become an arhat in the present lifetime or he will be reborn in the "pure abodes," or sUDDHAVASA (corresponding to the five highest heavens in the subtle-materiality realm, or RuPADHATU); and specifically, in the AKANIstHA heaven, the fifth and highest of the pure abodes, which often serves as a way station for anAgAmins before they achieve arhatship. As one of the twenty members of the ARYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA), the anAgAmin is the name for a candidate (pratipannaka) for anAgAmin (the third fruit of the noble path). In addition, the ANAGAMIPHALASTHA is the basis for several subdivisions of the twenty members. The anAgamin may be either a follower through faith (sRADDHANUSARIN) or a follower through doctrine (DHARMANUSARIN) with either dull (MṚDVINDRIYA) or keen faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). The anAgAmins have eliminated all of the nine levels of afflictions that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (kAmadhAtu) that the ordinary (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHAVANAMARGA) removes. Depending on their earlier career, they may be VĪTARAGAPuRVIN (those who have already eliminated sensuous-realm faults prior to reaching the path of vision) and an Anupurvin (those who reach the four fruits of the noble path in a series). Those with dull faculties are Anupurvin who have earlier been SAKṚDAGAMIPHALASTHA. Those with keen faculties reach the third fruit when they attain the VIMUKTIMARGA (path of liberation from the afflictions, or KLEsA) on the DARsANAMARGA (path of vision). See also ANABHISAMSKARAPARINIRVAYIN; SABHISAMSKARAPARINIRVAYIN; UPAPADYAPARINIRVAYIN.

anAgAmiphalastha. (P. anAgAmiphala; T. phyir mi 'ong 'bras gnas; C. zheng buhuan guo; J. shofugenka; K. chŭng purhwan kwa 證不還果). In Sanskrit, "one who has reached or is the recipient of the fruit of nonreturner"; the anAgAmiphalastha is the basis for the division into a number of the twenty members of the ARYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). Among the anAgAmiphalastha are those who have aspired through faith (sRADDHADHIMUKTA), those who attain through seeing (DṚstIPRAPTA), and those who are Anupurvin (those who reach the four fruits of the noble path in a series). See SAKṚDAGAMIPHALASTHA.

AnAgatavaMsa. In PAli, "Chronicle of Future Events"; a medieval PAli work in verse detailing the advent of Metteya (MAITREYA) Buddha in the far distant future of this auspicious eon (bhaddakappa; S. BHADRAKALPA). The current eon is deemed auspicious because five buddhas-Maitreya being the fifth-appear during its duration, the maximum number possible. Attributed to Cola Kassapa, author of Vimativinodanī, the AnAgatavaMsa claims to have been preached to sARIPUTRA by the Buddha. The text elaborates upon the prophecy of the coming of Maitreya found in the CAKKAVATTISĪHANADASUTTA of the DĪGHANIKAYA. In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Burma, the AnAgatavaMsa became popular as a kind of charter for a host of millenarian movements and uprisings, including one that led in 1752 to the founding of Burma's last royal dynasty, the Konbaung. Its founder, Alaung hpaya (r. 1752-1760), and his sons utilized this text to justify claims that their wars of conquest were prophesied to usher in a Buddhist Golden Age. A synopsis in English of a nineteenth-century Burmese recension of the AnAgatavaMsa appears in HENRY CLARK WARREN's Buddhism in Translations as "The Buddhist Apocalypse."

AnantaryamArga. (T. bar chad med lam; C. wujian dao; J. mukendo; K. mugan to 無間道). In Sanskrit, the "immediate path" or "uninterrupted path"; a term that refers to the two-stage process of abandoning the afflictions (KLEsA). In the VAIBHAsIKA path (MARGA) schema, as one proceeds from the third level of the path, the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), to the fifth level, the adept path (AsAIKsAMARGA), the klesa are abandoned in sequence through repeated occasions of yogic direct perception (YOGIPRATYAKsA), which consists of two moments: the first is called the AnantaryamArga (uninterrupted path) in which the specific klesa or set of klesas is actively abandoned, followed immediately by a second moment, the path of liberation (VIMUKTIMARGA), which is the state of having been liberated from the klesa. A similar description is found in YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA presentations of the path.

anAtman. (P. anattA; T. bdag med; C. wuwo; J. muga; K. mua 無我). In Sanskrit, "no self" or "nonself" or more broadly "insubstantiality"; the third of the "three marks" (TRILAKsAnA) of existence, along with impermanence (ANITYA) and suffering (DUḤKHA). The concept is one of the key insights of the Buddha, and it is foundational to the Buddhist analysis of the compounded quality (SAMSKṚTA) of existence: since all compounded things are the fruition (PHALA) of a specific set of causes (HETU) and conditions (PRATYAYA), they are therefore absent of any perduring substratum of being. In the sutra analysis of existence, the "person" (PUDGALA) is said to be a product of five aggregates (SKANDHA)-materiality (RuPA), physical sensations (VEDANA), perception (SAMJNA), impulses (SAMSKARA), and consciousness (VIJNANA)-which together comprise the totality of the individual's physical, mental, and emotional existence. What in common parlance is called the person is a continuum (SAMTANA) imputed to the construction of these aggregates, but when these aggregates are separated at the time of death, the person also simultaneously vanishes. This relationship between the person and the skandhas is clarified in the MILINDAPANHA's famous simile of the chariot: a chariot is composed of various constituent parts, but if that chariot is broken down into its parts, there is no sense of "chariot" remaining. So it is with the person and his constituent parts, the skandhas. The Buddha is rigorously against any analysis of phenomena that imputes the reality of a person: when a questioner asks him, "Who senses?," for example, the Buddha rejects the question as wrongly conceived and reframes it in terms of conditionality, i.e., "With what as condition does sensation occur?" ("Sensory contact" [SPARsA] is the answer.) Buddhism thus rejects any notion of an eternal, perduring soul that survives death, or which transmigrates from lifetime to lifetime; rather, just as we can impute a conventional continuity to the person over one lifetime, so can this same continuity be imputed over several lifetimes. The continuum of karmic action and reaction ensures that the last moment of consciousness in the present life serves as the condition for the first moment of consciousness in the next. The next life is therefore neither the same as nor different from the preceding lifetime; instead, it is causally related to it. For this reason, any specific existence, or series of existences, is governed by the causes and conditions that create it, rendering life fundamentally beyond our attempts to control it (another connotation of "nonself") and thus unworthy as an object of attachment. Seeing this lack of selfhood in compounded things generates a sense of "danger" (ADĪNAVA) that catalyzes the aspiration to seek liberation (VIMOKsA). Thus, understanding this mark of anAtman is the crucial antidote (PRATIPAKsA) to ignorance (AVIDYA) and the key to liberation from suffering (duḥkha) and the continuing cycle of rebirth (SAMSARA). Although the notion of anAtman is applied to the notion of a person in mainstream Buddhism, in the PRAJNAPARAMITA scriptures and the broader MAHAYANA tradition the connotation of the term is extended to take in the "nonself of phenomena" (DHARMANAIRATMYA) as well. This extension may be a response to certain strands of the mainstream tradition, such as SARVASTIVADA (lit. the "Teaching That All [Dharmas] Exist"), which considered dharmas (i.e., the five skandhas and so on) to be factors that existed in reality throughout all three time periods (TRIKALA) of past, present, and future. In order to clarify that dharmas have only conventional validity, the MahAyAna posited that they also were anAtman, although the nature of this lack of self was differently understood by the YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA schools.

Animitta. (P. animitta; T. mtshan ma med pa; C. wuxiang; J. muso; K. musang 無相). In Sanskrit, "signless"; one of three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), along with emptiness (suNYATA) and wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). A sign or characteristic (NIMITTA) refers to the generic appearance of an object, in distinction to its secondary characteristics or ANUVYANJANA. Advertence toward the generic sign and secondary characteristics of an object produces a recognition or perception (SAMJNA) of that object, which may in turn lead to clinging or rejection and ultimately suffering. Hence, signlessness is crucial in the process of sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA), a process in which one does not actively react to the generic signs of an object (i.e., treating it in terms of the effect it has on oneself), but instead seeks to halt the perceptual process at the level of simple recognition. By not seizing on these signs, perception is maintained at a pure level prior to an object's conceptualization and the resulting proliferation of concepts (PRAPANCA) throughout the full range of sensory experience. As the frequent refrain in the SuTRAs states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions (cf. SAMAROPA) created by the intrusion of ego (ATMAN) into the perceptual process. Mastery of this technique of sensory restraint provides access to the signless gate to deliverance. Signlessness is produced through insight into impermanence (ANITYA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to attachments to anything experienced through the senses; once the meditator has abandoned all such attachments to the senses, he is then able to advert toward NIRVAnA, which ipso facto has no sensory signs of its own by which it can be recognized. In the PRAJNAPARAMITA literature, signlessness, emptiness, and wishlessness are equally the absence of the marks or signs of intrinsic existence (SVABHAVA). The YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA says when signlessness, emptiness, and wishlessness are spoken of without differentiation, the knowledge of them is that which arises from hearing or learning (sRUTAMAYĪPRAJNA), thinking (CINTAMAYĪPRAJNA), and meditation (BHAVANAMAYĪPRAJNA), respectively.

antarAparinirvAyin. (T. bar ma dor yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa; C. zhong ban/zhong banniepan; J. chuhatsu/chuhatsunehan; K. chung pan/chung panyolban 中般/中般涅槃). In Sanskrit, "one who achieves NIRVAnA in the ANTARABHAVA (intermediate state)"; a specific type of nonreturner (ANAGAMIN), one of the twenty members of the AryasaMgha (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA, the antarAparinirvAyin are nonreturners who, having been reborn in any of the seventeen intermediate states that would have led to rebirth in the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU) (with the exception of the great BrahmA heaven), enter "nirvAna without remainder" (NIRUPADHIsEsANIRVAnA) on the basis of that support. There are three types: those who enter into nirvAna without remainder immediately after the intermediate state comes into being; those who enter after it has come into being and just before the sequence of events leading to the conception state begins; and those who enter when thoughts begin to turn toward the conception state.

anulomaNAna. In PAli, "conformity knowledge"; according to the VISUDDHIMAGGA, this is the ninth and last of nine knowledges (P. NAna, S. JNANA) cultivated as part of the purity of knowledge and vision of progress along the path (P. patipadANAnadassanavisuddhi). This latter category, in turn, constitutes the sixth of the seven purities (VIsUDDHI) to be developed along the path to liberation. "Conformity knowledge" refers to the last three so-called impulsion moments (javana) of consciousness that arise in the mind of the practitioner preceding his perception of the nibbAna element (NIRVAnADHATU). This knowledge is so named because it conforms itself to the preceding eight stages of knowledge, as well as to the immediately following supramundane path (P. AriyamAgga, S. ARYAMARGA) and the thirty-seven constituents of enlightenment (P. bodhipakkhiyadhamma, S. BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA). When the three moments are treated separately, they receive different names. The first impulsion moment is called "preparation" (P. parikamma), when adaptation knowledge takes as its object the compounded formations (SAMSKARA) as being something impermanent (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANATMAN). Immediately thereafter, the second impulsion moment arises, which takes the same formations as its object and is called "access" (upacAra). Immediately following that the third impulsion moment arises taking the same object, which is called "conformity" (anuloma). At this point, the practitioner is at the threshold of liberation (P. vimokkha, S. VIMOKsA), and, therefore, conformity knowledge is described as the final stage in what is called "insight leading to emergence" (P. vutthAnagAminivipassanA). This category includes the sixth, seventh, and eighth knowledges (NAna) in the ninefold schema: namely, "knowledge arising from the desire for deliverance" (P. MUCCITUKAMYATANAnA), "knowledge arising from the contemplation on reflection" (P. PAtISAnKHANUPASSANANAnA), and "knowledge arising from equanimity regarding all formations of existence" (P. SAnKHARUPEKKHANAnA).

anuvyaNjana. (T. dpe byad; C. hao; J. ko; K. ho 好). In Sanskrit and PAli, "minor mark" or "secondary characteristic"; the secondary characteristics of an object, in distinction to its generic appearance, or "sign" (NIMITTA). Advertence toward the generic sign and secondary characteristics of an object produces a recognition or perception (SAMJNA) of that object, which may then lead to clinging or rejection and ultimately suffering. ¶ The term anuvyaNjana [alt. vyaNjana] also refers specifically to the eighty minor marks of a "great man" (MAHAPURUsA) and specifically of a buddha; these are typically mentioned in conjunction with the thirty-two major marks of a great man (MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA). These are set forth at length in, for example, the PANCAVIMsATISAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA (see PRAJNAPARAMITA) and chapter eight of the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA and are known as well in mainstream Buddhist sources.

apranihita. (P. appanihita; T. smon pa med pa; C. wuyuan; J. mugan; K. muwon 無願). In Sanskrit, "wishless"; apranihita is one of the three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), along with emptiness (suNYATA) and signlessness (ANIMITTA). Once signlessness has exposed the dangers (ADĪNAVA) inherent in sensory perception, the meditator loses all desire for the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) things of this world and adverts instead toward the uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA), which is NIRVAnA. The wishless is produced through insight into suffering (DUḤKHA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to all the intentions (Asaya) and aspirations (PRAnIDHANA) one has toward any compounded dharma. Once the meditator has abandoned all such aspirations, he or she is then able to advert toward nirvAna, which has no relation to anything that can be desired (VAIRAGYA). This leads to the seeming conundrum of Buddhist soteriology, viz., that nirvAna can only be attained once the meditator no longer has any desire for anything, including nirvAna itself. The SARVASTIVADA and YOGACARA schools sought to resolve this conundrum about nirvAna being uncaused by positing that nirvAna was a specific type of effect, the VISAMYOGAPHALA, or "disconnection fruition," which was disconnected from the afflictions (KLEsA).

arhat. (P. arahant; T. dgra bcom pa; C. aluohan/yinggong; J. arakan/ogu; K. arahan/ŭnggong 阿羅漢/應供). In Sanskrit, "worthy one"; one who has destroyed the afflictions (KLEsA) and all causes for future REBIRTH and who thus will enter NIRVAnA at death; the standard Tibetan translation dgra bcom pa (drachompa) ("foe-destroyer") is based on the paronomastic gloss ari ("enemy") and han ("to destroy"). The arhat is the highest of the four grades of Buddhist saint or "noble person" (ARYAPUDGALA) recognized in the mainstream Buddhist schools; the others are, in ascending order, the SROTAAPANNA or "stream-enterer" (the first and lowest grade), the SAKṚDAGAMIN or "once-returner" (the second grade), and the ANAGAMIN or "nonreturner" (the third and penultimate grade). The arhat is one who has completely put aside all ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: namely, (1) belief in the existence of a perduring self (SATKAYADṚstI); (2) skeptical doubt (about the efficacy of the path) (VICIKITSA); (3) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA); (4) sensual craving (KAMARAGA); (5) malice (VYAPADA); (6) craving for existence as a divinity (DEVA) in the realm of subtle materiality (RuPARAGA); (7) craving for existence as a divinity in the immaterial realm (ARuPYARAGA); (8) pride (MANA); (9) restlessness (AUDDHATYA); and (10) ignorance (AVIDYA). Also described as one who has achieved the extinction of the contaminants (ASRAVAKsAYA), the arhat is one who has attained nirvAna in this life, and at death attains final liberation (PARINIRVAnA) and will never again be subject to rebirth. Although the arhat is regarded as the ideal spiritual type in the mainstream Buddhist traditions, where the Buddha is also described as an arhat, in the MAHAYANA the attainment of an arhat pales before the far-superior achievements of a buddha. Although arhats also achieve enlightenment (BODHI), the MahAyAna tradition presumes that they have overcome only the first of the two kinds of obstructions, the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA), but are still subject to the noetic obstructions (JNEYAVARAnA); only the buddhas have completely overcome both and thus realize complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI). Certain arhats were selected by the Buddha to remain in the world until the coming of MAITREYA. These arhats (called LUOHAN in Chinese, a transcription of arhat), who typically numbered sixteen (see sOdAsASTHAVIRA), were objects of specific devotion in East Asian Buddhism, and East Asian monasteries will often contain a separate shrine to these luohans. Although in the MahAyAna sutras, the bodhisattva is extolled over the arhats, arhats figure prominently in these texts, very often as members of the assembly for the Buddha's discourse and sometimes as key figures. For example, in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), sARIPUTRA is one of the Buddha's chief interlocutors and, with other arhats, receives a prophecy of his future buddhahood; in the VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA, SUBHuTI is the Buddha's chief interlocutor; and in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, sAriputra is made to play the fool in a conversation with a goddess.

arhatpratipannaka. (P. arahattamagga; T. dgra bcom zhugs pa; C. aluohan xiang; J. arakanko; K. arahan hyang 阿羅漢向). In Sanskrit, "candidate for worthy one"; one of the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA ("twenty varieties of the Arya saMgha") based on the list given in the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA. The arhatpratipannaka is usually an ANAGAMIPHALASTHA (one who has reached, or is the recipient of the fruit of nonreturner) who is making an effort to eliminate any fault that could cause rebirth in SAMSARA, including the very last, ninth fetter to the BHAVAGRA (summit of existence) that only the supramundane (LOKOTTARA) path of meditation (BHAVANAMARGA) can eliminate. See ARHAT.

Arya. (P. ariya; T. 'phags pa; C. sheng; J. sho; K. song 聖). In Sanskrit, "noble" or "superior." A term appropriated by the Buddhists from earlier Indian culture to refer to its saints and used technically to denote a person who has directly perceived reality and has become a "noble one." In the fourfold path structure of the mainstream schools, an Arya is a person who has achieved at least the first level of sanctity, that of stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNA), or above. In the fivefold path system, an Arya is one who has achieved at least the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), or above. The SARVASTIVADA (e.g., ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA) and THERAVADA (e.g., VISUDDHIMAGGA) schools of mainstream Buddhism both recognize seven types of noble ones (Arya, P. ariya). In e.g., the VISUDDHIMAGGA, these are listed in order of their intellectual superiority as (1) follower of faith (P. saddhAnusAri; S. sRADDHANUSARIN); (2) follower of the dharma (P. dhammAnusAri; S. DHARMANUSARIN); (3) one who is freed by faith (P. saddhAvimutta; S. sRADDHAVIMUKTA); (4) one who has formed right view (P. ditthippatta; S. DṚstIPRAPTA), by developing both faith and knowledge; (5) one who has bodily testimony (P. kAyasakkhi; S. KAYASAKsIN), viz., through the temporary suspension of mentality in the equipoise of cessation (NIRODHASAMAPATTI); (6) one who is freed by wisdom (P. paNNAvimutta; S. PRAJNAVIMUKTA), by freeing oneself through analysis; and (7) one who is freed both ways (P. ubhatobhAgavimutta; S. UBHAYATOBHAGAVIMUKTA), by freeing oneself through both meditative absorption (P. jhAna; S. DHYANA) and wisdom (P. paNNA; S. PRAJNA). In the AbhidharmakosabhAsya, the seven types of Arya beings are presented in a slightly different manner, together with the list of eight noble persons (ARYAPUDGALA) based on candidates for (pratipannika) and those who have reached the result of (phalastha) stream-enterer (srotaApanna), once-returner (SAKṚDAGAMIN), nonreturner (ANAGAMIN), and ARHAT; these are again further expanded into a list of twenty members of the Arya VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA and in MahAyAna explanations into forty-eight or more ARYABODHISATTVAs. The Chinese character sheng, used to render this term in East Asia, has a long indigenous history and several local meanings; see, for example, the Japanese vernacular equivalent HIJIRI. It is also the name of one of two Indian esoteric GUHYASAMAJATANTRA traditions, receiving its name from Arya NAgArjuna, the author of the PANCAKRAMA.

AryasaMgha. (P. ariyasangha; T. 'phags pa'i dge 'dun; C. shengseng; J. shoso; K. songsŭng 聖僧). "Noble community" or "community of noble ones"; the community of followers of the Buddha who are noble persons (ARYAPUDGALA). There are eight types or grades of noble persons according to their respective attainment of the paths and fruits of the noble path (ARYAMARGAPHALA). These are (1) the person who has entered the path of stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNAPHALAPRATIPANNAKA); (2) the person who abides in the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNAPHALASTHA); (3) the person who has entered the path of once-returner (SAKṚDAGAMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA); (4) the person who abides in the fruit of once-returner (SAKṚDAGAMIPHALASTHA); (5) the person who has entered the path of nonreturner (ANAGAMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA); (6) the person who abides in the fruit of nonreturner (ANAGAMIPHALASTHA); (7) the person who has entered the path of a worthy one (ARHATPRATIPANNAKA); and (8) the person who has attained the fruit of a worthy one (ARHAT) (see also VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). These eight persons are said to constitute the "SAMGHA jewel" among the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) to which Buddhists go for refuge (sARAnA).

asaiksamArga. (T. mi slob lam; C. wuxuedao; J. mugakudo; K. muhakto 無學道). In Sanskrit, "the path of the adept" (lit. "the path where there is nothing more to learn" or "the path where no further training is necessary"); the fifth of the five-path schema (PANCAMARGA) used in both SARVASTIVADA ABHIDHARMA and the YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA schools of MAHAYANA. It is the equivalent of the path of completion (NIstHAMARGA) and is synonymous with asaiksapatha. With the consummation of the "path of cultivation" (BHAVANAMARGA), the adept (whether following the sRAVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, or BODHISATTVA path) achieves the "adamantine-like concentration" (VAJROPAMASAMADHI), which leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA), resulting in the "knowledge of cessation" (KsAYAJNANA) and in some presentations an accompanying "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPADAJNANA), viz., the knowledge that the fetters are destroyed and can never again recur. Because the adept now has full knowledge of the eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA) and has achieved full liberation (VIMOKsA) as either an ARHAT or a buddha, he no longer needs any further instruction-thus he has completed the "path where there is nothing more to learn."

asamayavimukta

asamayavimukta. (T. dus dang mi sbyor bar rnam par grol ba; C. bushi jietuo; J. fujigedatsu; K. pulsi haet'al 時解). In Sanskrit, "one who is liberated regardless of occasion," in the sense that there is no occasion in which the meditative concentration of such an ARHAT will degenerate; one of the twenty members of the ARYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA).

asaMjNAsamApatti. [alt. asaṁjNisamApatti] (P. asaNNasamApatti; T. 'du shes med pa'i snyoms par 'jug pa; C. wuxiang ding; J. musojo; K. musang chong 無想定). In Sanskrit, "equipoise of nonperception" or "unconscious state of attainment"; viz., a "meditative state wherein no perceptual activity remains." It is a form of meditation with varying, even contradictory, interpretations. In some accounts, it is positively appraised: for example, the Buddha was known for entering into this type of meditation in order to "rest himself" and, on another occasion, to recover from illness. In this interpretation, asaMjNAsamApatti is a temporary suppression of mental activities that brings respite from tension, which in some accounts, means that the perception (SAMJNA) aggregate (SKANDHA) is no longer functioning, while in other accounts, it implies the cessation of all conscious thought. In such cases, asaṁjNasamApatti is similar to AnimittasamApatti in functions and contents, the latter being a meditative stage wherein one does not dwell in or cling to the "characteristics" (NIMITTA) of phenomena, and which is said to be conducive to the "liberation of the mind through signlessness (ANIMITTA)" (P. Animittacetovimutti)-one of the so-called three gates to deliverance (VIMOKsAMUKHA). Elsewhere, however, asaṁjNAsamApatti is characterized negatively as a nihilistic state of mental dormancy, which some have mistakenly believed to be final liberation. Non-Buddhist meditators were reported to mistake this vegetative state for the ultimate, permanent quiescence of the mind and become attached to this state as if it were liberation. In traditional Buddhist classificatory systems (such as those of the YOGACARA school and the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA), asaMjNAsamApatti is sometimes also conflated with the fourth DHYANA, and the karmic fruition of dwelling in this meditation is the rebirth in the asaMjNA heaven (ASAMJNIKA) located in the "realm of subtle materiality," where the heavens corresponding to the fourth dhyAna are located (see RuPADHATU). Together with the "trance of cessation" (NIRODHASAMAPATTI), these two forms of meditation are classified under the CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKARA ("forces dissociated from thought") category in SARVASTIVADA ABHIDHARMA texts, as well as in the one hundred dharmas of the YogAcAra school, and are also called in the East Asian tradition "the two kinds of meditation that are free of mental activity" (er wuxin ding).

asaMjNika. (P. asaNNa; T. 'du shes med pa; C. wuxiang tian; J. musoten; K. musang ch'on 無想天). In Sanskrit, "free from discrimination," or "nonperception"; according to some systems, one of the heavens of the fourth meditative absorption (DHYANA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU; see RuPAVACARADHYANA). In the PAli tradition, it is one of the seven heavens of the fourth dhyAna; in Sanskrit sources, in some cases, it is considered a ninth heaven of the fourth dhyAna, and in other cases, it is considered to be a region of the BṚHATPHALA heaven. It is a place of rebirth for those who, during their lifetimes as humans, have cultivated the trance of nonperception (ASAMJNASAMAPATTI), a state of meditative trance in which there is no mental activity; it is compared to dreamless sleep. During their long lifetime in this heaven, these divinities have a slight perception of having been born there and then have no other thoughts, sensations, or perceptions until the end of their period of rebirth in that heaven. Such beings are called asaNNasatta ("unconscious beings") in PAli. This particular state is often described as the attainment of non-Buddhist ascetics, who mistake it for the state of liberation (VIMOKsA).

asaMskṛtadharma. (P. asankhatadhamma; T. 'dus ma byas kyi chos; C. wuweifa; J. muiho; K. muwibop 無爲法). In Sanskrit, "uncompounded" or "unconditioned" "factors"; a term used to describe the few DHARMAs that are not conditioned (SAMSKṚTA) and are therefore perduring phenomena (NITYADHARMA) that are not subject to impermanence (ANITYA). The lists differ in the various schools. The PAli tradition's list of eighty-two dharmas (P. dhamma) recognizes only one uncompounded dharma: NIRVAnA (P. nibbAna). The SARVASTIVADA school recognizes three out of seventy-five: space (AKAsA), and two varieties of nirvAna: "analytical" "suppression" or "cessation" (PRATISAMKHYANIRODHA) and "nonanalytical suppression" (APRATISAMKHYANIRODHA). YOGACARA recognizes six of its one hundred dharmas as uncompounded: the preceding three, plus "motionlessness" (AniNjya, [alt. aniNjya]), the "cessation of perception and sensation" (SAMJNAVEDAYITANIRODHA), and "suchness" (TATHATA). NirvAna is the one factor that all Buddhist schools accept as being uncompounded. It is the one dharma that exists without being the result of a cause (ahetuja), though it may be accessed through the three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA). Because nirvAna neither produces nor is produced by anything else, it is utterly distinct from the conditioned realm that is subject to production and cessation; its achievement, therefore, means the end to the repeated cycle of rebirth (SAMSARA). In several schools of Buddhism, including the SarvAstivAda, nirvAna is subdivided into two complementary aspects: an "analytical cessation" (pratisaMkhyAnirodha) that corresponds to earlier notions of nirvAna and "nonanalytical suppression" (apratisaMkhyAnirodha), which ensures that the enlightened person will never again be subject to the vagaries of the conditioned world. "Analytical cessation" (pratisaMkhyAnirodha) occurs through the direct meditative insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvAry AryasatyAni) and the cognition of nonproduction (ANUTPADAJNANA), which brings about the disjunction (visaMyoga) from all unwholesome factors (AKUsALADHARMA). "Nonanalytical suppression" (apratisaMkhyAnirodha) prevents the dharmas of the conditioned realm from ever appearing again for the enlightened person. In the VAIBHAsIKA interpretation, this dharma suppresses the conditions that would lead to the production of dharmas, thus ensuring that they remain forever positioned in future mode and unable ever again to arise in the present. Because this dharma is not a result of insight, it is called "nonanalytical." Space (AkAsa) has two discrete denotations. First, space is an absence that delimits forms; like the empty space inside a door frame, AkAsa is a hole that is itself empty but that defines, or is defined by, the material that surrounds it. Second, as the vast emptiness of space, space comes also to be described as the absence of obstruction; in this sense, space also comes to be interpreted as something akin to the Western conception of ether, a virtually immaterial, but glowing fluid that serves as the support for the four material elements (MAHABHuTA). Space is accepted as an uncompounded dharma in six of the mainstream Buddhist schools, including the SARVASTIVADA and the MAHASAMGHIKA, as well as the later YOGACARA; three others reject this interpretation, including the THERAVADA. The YogAcAra additions to this list essentially subsume the upper reaches of the immaterial realm (ArupyAvacara) into the listing of uncompounded dharmas. AniNjya, or motionlessness, is used even in the early Buddhist tradition to refer to actions that are neither wholesome nor unwholesome (see ANINJYAKARMAN), which lead to rebirth in the realm of subtle materiality or the immaterial realm and, by extension, to those realms themselves. The "cessation of perception and sensation" (saMjNAvedayitanirodha) is the last of the eight liberations (VIMOKsA; P. vimokkha) and the ninth and highest of the immaterial attainments (SAMAPATTI). "Suchness" (TATHATA) is the ultimate reality (i.e., suNYATA) shared in common by a TATHAGATA and all other afflicted (SAMKLIstA) and pure (VIsUDDHI) dharmas; the "cessation of perception and sensation" (saMjNAvedayitanirodha) is not only "a meditative trance wherein no perceptual activity remains," but one where no feeling, whether pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral, is experienced.

Asavakkhaya. (S. Asravaksaya). In PAli, "extinction of the contaminants" or "destruction of the outflows"; a supramundane (lokuttara) supernormal power (abhiNNA) produced through the perfection of insight (VIPASSANA). It is equivalent to the attainment of "worthiness" (arahatta) or perfect sainthood. One who achieves this is a "worthy one" (arahant), attains in this life deliverance of mind (cetovimutti) and deliverance through wisdom (paNNAvimutti), and at death passes into nibbAna never to be reborn. See ASRAVAKsAYA.

astavimoksa. (P. atthavimokkha; T. rnam par thar pa brgyad; C. ba jietuo; J. hachigedatsu; K. p'al haet'al 八解脱). In Sanskrit, "eight liberations"; referring to a systematic meditation practice for cultivating detachment and ultimately liberation (VIMOKsA). There are eight stages in the attenuation of consciousness that accompany the cultivation of increasingly deeper states of meditative absorption (DHYANA). In the first four dhyAnas of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPAVACARADHYANA), the first three stages entail (1) the perception of materiality (RuPA) in that plane of subtle materiality (S. rupasaMjNin, P. rupasaNNī), (2) the perception of external forms while not perceiving one's own form (S. arupasaMjNin, P. arupasaNNī), and (3) the developing of confidence through contemplating the beautiful (S. subha, P. subha). The next five stages transcend the realm of subtle materiality to take in the four immaterial dhyAnas (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA) and beyond: (4) passing beyond the material plane with the idea of "limitless space," one attains the plane of limitless space (AKAsANANTYAYATANA); (5) passing beyond the plane of limitless space with the idea of "limitless consciousness," one attains the plane of limitless consciousness (VIJNANANANTYAYATANA); (6) passing beyond the plane of limitless consciousness with the idea that "there is nothing," one attains the plane of nothingness (AKINCANYAYATANA); (7) passing beyond the plane of nothingness, one attains the plane of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNANASAMJNAYATANA); and (8) passing beyond the plane of neither perception nor nonperception, one attains the cessation of all perception and sensation (SAMJNAVEDAYITANIRODHA). ¶ The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA and YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA give an explanation of the first three of the eight vimoksas within the larger context of bodhisattvas who compassionately manifest shapes, smells, and so on for the purpose of training others. Bodhisattvas who have reached any of the nine levels (the RuPADHATU, the four subtle-materiality DHYANAs, and four immaterial attainments) engage in this type of practice. In the first vimoksa, they destroy "form outside," i.e., those in the rupadhAtu who have not destroyed attachment to forms (to their own color, shape, smell, and so on) cultivate detachment to the forms they see outside. (Other bodhisattvas who have reached the first dhyAna and so on do this by relaxing their detachment for the duration of the meditation.) In the second vimoksa, they destroy the "form inside," i.e., they cultivate detachment to their own color and shape. (Again, others who have reached the immaterial attainments and have no attachment to their own form relax that detachment for the duration of the meditation.) In the third, they gain control over what they want to believe about forms by meditating on the relative nature of beauty, ugliness, and size. They destroy grasping at anything as having an absolute pleasant or unpleasant identity, and perceive them all as having the same taste as pleasant, or however else they want them to be. These texts finally give an explanation of the remaining five vimoksas, "to loosen the rope of craving for the taste of the immaterial levels."

astavimoksa

astamAyopamA. (T. sgyu ma'i dpe brgyad; C. ruhuan yu; J. nyogen no yu; K. yohwan yu 如幻喩). In Sanskrit, "eight similes of illusion"; teaching that all dharmas lack an inherent nature (NIḤSVABHAVA). In the PANCAVIMsATSAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA, these are listed as a dream (svapna); an illusion (MAYA); a mirage (marīci); an echo (pratisabda); an optical illusion (pratibhAsa); a reflection (pratibimba), such as of the moon reflected in water (udakacandra); a city of the GANDHARVAs (GANDHARVANAGARA); and a tathAgata's magical creation (tathAgatanirmita). Other famous metaphors or similes for the insubstantiality of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) include the five in the Phenapindupamasutta of the SAMYUTTANIKAYA, which compare form to a lump of foam (P. phenapinda), feeling to a water bubble (P. bubbulaka), perception to a mirage (P. marīcikA), conditioned formations to the trunk of a plantain tree (P. kadalikkhandha), and consciousness to a conjurer (mAyAkAra). See also LIUYU ("six similes").

atthavimokkha. See AstAVIMOKsA

bAhyArtha. (T. phyi don; C. waijing; J. gekyo; K. oegyong 外境). In Sanskrit, "external object"; referring specifically to sensory objects (AYATANA) that exist externally to the sensory consciousnesses (VIJNANA) that perceive them; the term is sometimes also seen in Sanskrit as bahirdhArtha. Such objects are knowable because there is some feature or quality (AKARA) that is specific to that particular sense datum. In the MADHYAMAKA school, the conventional existence of external objects is sometimes upheld, although they are said to lack intrinsic nature (SVABHAVA). External objects are built up out of atoms (PARAMAnU), the smallest particles, sometimes compared to a mote of dust. These indivisible atoms serve as building blocks that coalesce to create an external object large enough to have an impact on a sensory faculty (INDRIYA). In his critique of individual atoms in his MADHYAMAKALAMKARA, sANTARAKsITA describes three basic assertions about how this process happens: (1) different atoms are connected with one another; (2) the atoms are surrounded by external atoms of the same class, with interstices in between, each grounding the others' potential; they cohere and do not drift apart because of a reciprocal energy but do not touch each other; (3) there are no interstices at all between the atoms. In the YOGACARA school, external objects are presumed not to exist prior to and separate from the sensory consciousnesses that perceive them, and thus lack any intrinsic reality of their own. VASUBANDHU's VIMsATIKA presents the YogAcAra view that indivisible atoms of any type cannot form gross objects. The YogAcAra refutation is part of a larger project to demonstrate that Buddhist notions of causality are tenable only in the absence of external objects. According to this view, the conscious experience of apparent external objects is in fact the result of residual impressions (VASANA) left by earlier, similar experiences on an eighth consciousness, the storehouse-like subconscious (ALAYAVIJNANA).

ba jietuo 八解脱. See AstAVIMOKsA

bala. (T. stobs; C. li; J. riki; K. yok 力). In Sanskrit and PAli, "power" or "strength"; used in a variety of lists, including the five powers (the eighteenth to twenty-second of the BODHIPAKsIKADHARMAs, or "thirty-seven factors pertaining to awakening"), the ten powers of a TATHAGATA, the ten powers of a BODHISATTVA, and the ninth of the ten perfections (PARAMITA). The five powers are the same as the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA)-faith (sRADDHA), perseverance (VĪRYA), mindfulness (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMADHI), and wisdom (PRAJNA)-but now fully developed at the LAUKIKAGRADHARMA stage of the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA), just prior to the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA). A tathAgata's ten powers are given in both PAli and Sanskrit sources as the power of the knowledge (jNAnabala) of: (1) what can be and cannot be (sthAnAsthAna), (2) karmic results (karmavipAka), (3) the various dispositions of different beings (nAnAdhimukti), (4) how the world has many and different elements (nAnAdhAtu), (5) the higher (or different) faculties people possess (indriyaparApara), (6) the ways that lead to all destinations (sarvatragAminīpratipad), (7) the defilement and purification of all meditative absorptions (DHYANA), liberations (VIMOKsA), samAdhis, and trances (SAMAPATTI) (sarvadhyAnavimoksasamAdhisamApatti-saMklesavyavadAnavyavasthAna), (8) recollecting previous births (PuRVANIVASANUSMṚTI), (9) decease and birth (cyutyupapatti), and (10) the extinction of the contaminants (ASRAVAKsAYA). Another list gives the Buddha's ten powers as the power of aspiration (Asaya), resolution (ADHYAsAYA), habit (abhyAsa), practice (PRATIPATTI), wisdom (prajNA), vow (PRAnIDHANA), vehicle (YANA), way of life (caryA), thaumaturgy (vikurvana), the power derived from his bodhisattva career, and the power to turn the wheel of dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). When the MahAyAna six perfections (PARAMITA) are expanded and linked to the ten bodhisattva stages (DAsABHuMI), four perfections are added: the perfections of skillful means (UPAYA), vow, power, and knowledge (JNANA). Thus the perfection of power (BALAPARAMITA) is linked with the ninth bodhisattva stage (BHuMI). When the ten powers are listed as a bodhisattva's perfection of power, they are sometimes explained to be the powers of a tathAgata before they have reached full strength.

Baotang Wuzhu. (J. Hoto Muju: K. Podang Muju 保唐無住) (714-774). Chinese monk in the early CHAN school, who is considered the founder of the BAOTANG ZONG during the Tang dynasty. Baotang is the name of the monastery where Wuzhu resided (located in present-day Sichuan province). Wuzhu is said to have attained awakening through the influence of Chen Chuzhang (d.u.), a lay disciple of the monk Hui'an (582-799; a.k.a. Lao'an); Chen was thought to be an incarnation of the prototypical Buddhist layman VIMALAKĪRTI. According to the LIDAI FABAO JI, Wuzhu attended a mass ordination performed by the Korean monk CHoNGJONG MUSANG at Jingzhong monastery in the city of Chengdu. Upon hearing Musang's instructions to practice in the mountains, Wuzhu left for Baiyaishan, where he remained for the next seven years (759-766). He subsequently went to the monastery Konghuisi, until he finally moved to Baotangsi, where he passed away in the summer of 774. Wuzhu was famous for his antinomian teachings that rejected all devotional practices, and is remembered as the founder of the eponymous BAOTANG ZONG. Wuzhu's successor was a lay disciple by the name of Tu Hongjian, deputy commander-in-chief and vice president of the Imperial Chancellery.

bianwen. (變文). In Chinese, "transformation texts"; the earliest examples of Chinese vernacular writings, many drawing on prominent Buddhist themes. Produced during the Tang dynasty (c. seventh through tenth centuries), they were lost to history until they were rediscovered among the manuscript cache at DUNHUANG early in the twentieth century. The vernacular narratives of bianwen are probably descended from BIANXIANG, pictorial representations of Buddhist and religious themes. The Sinograph bian in both compounds refers to the "transformations" or "manifestations" of spiritual adepts, and seems most closely related to such Sanskrit terms as nirmAna ("magical creation" or "magical transformation," as in NIRMAnAKAYA) or ṚDDHI ("magical powers"). Bianwen were once thought to have been prompt books that were used during public performances, but this theory is no longer current. Even so, bianwen have a clear pedigree in oral literature and are the first genre of Chinese literature to vary verse recitation with spoken prose (so-called "prosimetric" narratives). As such, the bianwen genre was extremely influential in the evolution of Chinese performing arts, opera, and vernacular storytelling. Bianwen are primarily religious in orientation, and the Buddhist bianwen are culled from various sources, such as the JATAKAMALA, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. The genre does, however, include a few examples drawn from secular subjects. Bianwen may also have led to the development of later vernacular genres of literature with a religious orientation, such as the "treasure scrolls," or BAOJUAN.

Bi ma snying thig. (Bime Nyingtik) In Tibetan, "Heart Essence of VIMALAMITRA"; associated with KLONG CHEN RAB 'BYAMS whose collection of RDZOGS CHEN teaching of the "instruction class" (MAN NGAG SDE) are loosely referred to by this name. The Bi ma snying thig itself is a collection of five texts attributed to Vimalamitra, rediscovered as treasure texts (GTER MA) by Lce btsun Seng ge dbang phyug in CHIMS PHU near BSAM YAS, and passed down through Zhang ston Bkra shis rdo rje (1097-1167) to Klong chen pa who established the SNYING THIG ("heart essence") as the central element in the rdzogs chen tradition. He gave an exegesis on the theory and practice of rdzogs chen in his MDZOD BDUN ("seven great treasuries") and NGAL GSO SKOR GSUM ("Trilogy on Rest"), and in his Bla ma yang thig, revealed the contents of the Bi ma snying thig itself.

Bimba (Sanskrit) Bimba Sometimes Vimba, Vimva. An image or reflection; also frequently used for the disk of the sun or moon, and consequently for a ball or hemisphere.

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Binglingsi. (J. Heireiji; K. Pyongnyongsa 炳靈寺). In Chinese, "Bright and Numinous Monastery"; site of a Buddhist cave complex, located fifty miles outside Lanzhou, the capital of the present-day Chinese province of Gansu, and accessible only by boat. The complex contains 183 caves with 694 stone and eighty-two clay statues. Binglingsi, along with MAIJISHAN, developed under the patronage of the Qifu rulers of the Western Qin dynasty (385-43). The carving of Buddhist caves at Binglingsi may have started as early as the late fourth century; however, the earliest inscription was found in cave 169 and is dated 420. Two novel features can be found in cave 169. One is the stylistic link of some of its sculptures with the Buddhist art of KHOTAN on the southern SILK ROAD. For example, five seated buddhas in niche 23 inside the cave are attired in their monastic robes and perform the meditation gesture (DHYANAMUDRA), backed by a large aureole. Second, numerous inscriptions identify the sculptures and painted images in this cave, which include AMITABHA Buddha, accompanied by AVALOKITEsVARA (GUANYIN) and MAHASTHAMAPRAPTA (Dashizi). This triad in niche 6 closely resembles the style of Liangzhou, and thus KUCHA. Among the painted images are the buddhas of the ten directions (see DAsADIs), members of the Qin dynastic house, and the state preceptor (GUOSHI) Tanmobi (Dharmapriya), cotranslator with ZHU FONIAN of the AstASAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA. The representations in cave 169 depict the content of then-newly translated scriptures such as the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the shorter SUKHAVATĪVYuHASuTRA (see also AMITABHASuTRA), which had been translated by KUMARAJĪVA in Chang'an around 400-410. The sculptures and paintings at Binglingsi serve as precedents for the subsequent Northern Wei sculpture found at YUNGANG and LONGMEN.

bodhicitta. (T. byang chub kyi sems; C. putixin; J. bodaishin; K. porisim 菩提心). In Sanskrit, "thought of enlightenment" or "aspiration to enlightenment"; the intention to reach the complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI) of the buddhas, in order to liberate all sentient beings in the universe from suffering. As the generative cause that leads to the eventual achievement of buddhahood and all that it represents, bodhicitta is one of the most crucial terms in MAHAYANA Buddhism. The achievement of bodhicitta marks the beginning of the BODHISATTVA path: bodhicitta refers to the aspiration that inspires the bodhisattva, the being who seeks buddhahood. In some schools of MahAyAna Buddhism, bodhicitta is conceived as being latent in all sentient beings as the "innately pure mind" (prakṛtiparisuddhacitta), as, for example, in the MAHAVAIROCANABHISAMBODHISuTRA: "Knowing one's own mind according to reality is BODHI, and bodhicitta is the innately pure mind that is originally existent." In this sense, bodhicitta was conceived as a universal principle, related to such terms as DHARMAKAYA, TATHAGATA, or TATHATA. However, not all schools of the MahAyAna (e.g., some strands of YOGACARA) hold that all beings are destined for buddhahood and, thus, not all beings are endowed with bodhicitta. Regardless of whether or not bodhicitta is regarded as somehow innate, however, bodhicitta is also a quality of mind that must be developed, hence the important term BODHICITTOTPADA, "generation of the aspiration to enlightenment." Both the BODHISATTVABHuMI and the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA provide a detailed explanation of bodhicitta. In late Indian MahAyAna treatises by such important authors as sANTIDEVA, KAMALAsĪLA, and ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNANA, techniques are set forth for cultivating bodhicitta. The development of bodhicitta also figures heavily in MahAyAna liturgies, especially in those where one receives the bodhisattva precepts (BODHISATTVASAMVARA). In this literature, two types of bodhicitta are enumerated. First, the "conventional bodhicitta" (SAMVṚTIBODHICITTA) refers to a bodhisattva's mental aspiration to achieve enlightenment, as described above. Second, the "ultimate bodhicitta" (PARAMARTHABODHICITTA) refers to the mind that directly realizes either emptiness (suNYATA) or the enlightenment inherent in the mind. This "conventional bodhicitta" is further subdivided between PRAnIDHICITTOTPADA, literally, "aspirational creation of the attitude" (where "attitude," CITTA, refers to bodhicitta), where one makes public one's vow (PRAnIDHANA) to attain buddhahood; and PRASTHANACITTOTPADA, literally "creation of the attitude of setting out," where one actually sets out to practice the path to buddhahood. In discussing this latter pair, sAntideva in his BODHICARYAVATARA compares the first type to the decision to undertake a journey and the second type to actually setting out on the journey; in the case of the bodhisattva path, then, the first therefore refers to the process of developing the aspiration to buddhahood for the sake of others, while the second refers to undertaking the various practices of the bodhisattva path, such as the six perfections (PARAMITA). The AVATAMSAKASuTRA describes three types of bodhicitta, those like a herder, a ferryman, and a king. In the first case the bodhisattva first delivers all others into enlightenment before entering enlightenment himself, just as a herder takes his flock into the pen before entering the pen himself; in the second case, they all enter enlightenment together, just as a ferryman and his passengers arrive together at the further shore; and in the third, the bodhisattva first reaches enlightenment and then helps others to reach the goal, just as a king first ascends to the throne and then benefits his subjects. A standard definition of bodhicitta is found at the beginning of the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, where it is defined as an intention or wish that has two aims: buddhahood, and the welfare of those beings whom that buddhahood will benefit; the text also gives a list of twenty-two types of bodhicitta, with examples for each. Later writers like Arya VIMUKTISENA and HARIBHADRA locate the AbhisamayAlaMkAra's twenty-two types of bodhicitta at different stages of the bodhisattva path and at enlightenment. At the beginning of his MADHYAMAKAVATARA, CANDRAKĪRTI compares compassion (KARUnA) to a seed, water, and crops and says it is important at the start (where compassion begins the bodhisattva's path), in the middle (where it sustains the bodhisattva and prevents a fall into the limited NIRVAnA of the ARHAT), and at the end when buddhahood is attained (where it explains the unending, spontaneous actions for the sake of others that derive from enlightenment). KarunA is taken to be a cause of bodhicitta because bodhicitta initially arises and ultimately will persist, only if MAHAKARUnA ("great empathy for others' suffering") is strong. In part because of its connotation as a generative force, in ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, bodhicitta comes also to refer to semen, especially in the practice of sexual yoga, where the physical seed (BĪJA) of awakening (representing UPAYA) is placed in the lotus of wisdom (PRAJNA).

bodhisattvabhumi. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i sa; C. pusa di; J. bosatsuji; K. posal chi 菩薩地). In Sanskrit, lit. "ground" or "stage" (BHuMI) of a BODHISATTVA, referring to the systematic stages along the path (MARGA) of a bodhisattva's maturation into a buddha. A normative list of ten bhumis, which becomes standard in many MAHAYANA accounts of the bodhisattva path, appears in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, a sutra that was later incorporated into the AVATAMSAKASuTRA compilation. These ten stages (DAsABHuMI) of the Dasabhumikasutra correspond to the forty-first to fiftieth stages among the fifty-two bodhisattva stages, the comprehensive outline of the entire bodhisattva path taught in such scriptures as the AvataMsakasutra, the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING, and the RENWANG JING. The first bhumi begins on the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), and the other nine bhumis occur on the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). (For detailed explication of each stage, see DAsABHuMI s.v.) The PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs, and the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA and ABHISAMAYALAMKARA in their exegesis of these stages, explain that bodhisattvas reach each higher level along the path after completing the preparations (parikarman) for it; they set forth the same ten levels as the Dasabhumikasutra with the same names. Arya VIMUKTISENA, in his exegesis of the AbhisamayAlaMkAra, says bodhisattvas on the tenth bhumi are like TATHAGATAs who have passed beyond all stages, and lists eight other stages corresponding roughly to the stages of the eight noble persons (ARYAPUDGALA), with the first through ninth bodhisattva bhumis described as a transcendent ninth level. In contrast to the normative ten bhumis described in the Dasabhumikasutra, MAITREYANATHA/ASAnGA in the BODHISATTVABHuMI instead outlines a system of seven stages (bhumi), which are then correlated with the thirteen abodes (VIHARA). (See the following entry on the treatise for further explication.) The seven-bhumi schema of the Bodhisattvabhumi and the ten-bhumi schema of the Dasabhumikasutra are independent systematizations.

Bodhisattvapitaka. (T. Byang chub sems dpa'i sde snod; C. Pusazang jing; J. Bosatsuzokyo; K. Posalchang kyong 菩薩藏經). In Sanskrit, "The Bodhisattva Basket," one of the earliest MAHAYANA scriptures, written by at least the first century CE and perhaps even as early as the first century BCE. The text is no longer extant, but its antiquity is attested by its quotation in some of the earliest MahAyAna sutras translated into Chinese, including *LOKAKsEMA's translation of the KAsYAPAPARIVARTA made in 179 CE and in DHARMARAKsA's 289 CE rendering of the VimaladattAparipṛcchA. The content of the anthology is unknown, but based on much later compilations bearing the same title (and which therefore might have been derived from the original Bodhisattvapitaka), the text must have been substantial in size (one later Chinese translation is twenty rolls in length) and have offered coverage of at least the six perfections (PARAMITA). Sections of the Bodhisattvapitaka may also have been subsumed in later collections of MahAyAna materials, such as the RATNAKutASuTRA.

bodhisattvasaMvara. (T. byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa; C. pusa jie; J. bosatsukai; K. posal kye 菩薩戒). In Sanskrit, lit. "restraints for the BODHISATTVA"; the "restraints," "precepts," or code of conduct (SAMVARA) for someone who has made the bodhisattva vow (BODHISATTVAPRAnIDHANA; PRAnIDHANA) to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from suffering. The mainstream moral codes for monastics that are recognized across all forms of Buddhism are listed in the PRATIMOKsA, which refers to rules of discipline that help adepts restrain themselves from all types of unwholesome conduct. With the rise of various groups that came to call themselves the MAHAYANA, different sets of moral codes developed. These are formulated, for example, in the BODHISATTVABHuMI and Candragomin's BodhisattvasaMvaraviMsaka, and in later Chinese apocrypha, such as the FANWANG JING. The mainstream prAtimoksa codes are set forth in the Bodhisattvabhumi as saMvarasīla, or "restraining precepts." These are the first of three types of bodhisattva morality, called the "three sets of restraints" (TRISAMVARA), which are systematized fully in Tibet in works like TSONG KHA PA's Byang chub gzhung lam. It seems that in the early MahAyAna, people publicly took the famous bodhisattva vow, promising to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings. A more formal code of conduct developed later, derived from a number of sources, with categories of root infractions and secondary infractions. The bodhisattva precepts, however, could be taken equally by laypeople and monastics, men and women, and formal ceremonies for conferring the precepts are set forth in a number of MahAyAna treatises. In addition, there appear to have been ceremonies for the confession of infractions, modeled on the UPOsADHA rituals. Some of the precepts have to do with interpersonal relations, prescribing the kind of altruistic behavior that one might expect from a bodhisattva. Others are grander, such as the precept not to destroy cities, and appear to presuppose a code of conduct for kings or other important figures in society. There is also the suggestion that the bodhisattva precepts supersede the prAtimoksa precepts: one of the secondary infractions of the bodhisattva code is not to engage in killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, or senseless speech when in fact it would be beneficial to do so. The great weight given to the precept not to reject the MahAyAna as being the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) suggests that, throughout the history of the MahAyAna in India, there were concerns raised about the questionable origin of the MahAyAna sutras. With the rise of TANTRA, the "three restraints" (trisaMvara) of bodhisattva morality were refigured as the second of a new set of precepts, preceded by the prAtimoksa precepts and followed by the tantric vows. There was much discussion, especially in Tibetan SDOM GSUM (dom sum) literature, of the relationships among the three sets of restraints and of their compatibility with each other. ¶ Although there is much variation in the listings of bodhisattva precepts, according to one common list, the eighteen root infractions are: (1) to praise oneself and slander others out of attachment to profit or fame; (2) not to give one's wealth or the doctrine, out of miserliness, to those who suffer without protection; (3) to become enraged and condemn another, without listening to his or her apology; (4) to abandon the MahAyAna and teach a poor facsimile of its excellent doctrine; (5) to steal the wealth of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA); (6) to abandon the excellent doctrine; (7) to steal the saffron robes of a monk and beat, imprison, and or expel him from his life of renunciation, even if he has broken the moral code; (8) to commit the five deeds of immediate retribution (ANANTARYAKARMAN) i.e., patricide, matricide, killing an arhat, wounding a buddha, or causing dissent in the saMgha; (9) to hold wrong views; (10) to destroy cities and so forth; (11) to discuss emptiness (suNYATA) with sentient beings whose minds have not been trained; (12) to turn someone away from buddhahood and full enlightenment; (13) to cause someone to abandon completely the prAtimoksa precepts in order to practice the MahAyAna; (14) to believe that desire and so forth cannot be abandoned by the vehicle of the sRAVAKAs and to cause others to believe that view; (15) to claim falsely, "I have withstood the profound emptiness (sunyatA)"; (16) to impose fines on renunciates; to take donors and gifts away from the three jewels; (17) to cause meditators to give up the practice of sAMATHA; to take the resources of those on retreat and give them to reciters of texts; (18) to abandon the two types of BODHICITTA (the conventional and the ultimate). See also BODHISATTVAsĪLA.

bodhi. (T. byang chub; C. puti/jue; J. bodai/kaku; K. pori/kak 菩提/覺). In Sanskrit and PAli, "awakening," "enlightenment"; the consummate knowledge that catalyzes the experience of liberation (VIMOKsA) from the cycle rebirth. Bodhi is of three discrete kinds: that of perfect buddhas (SAMYAKSAMBODHI); that of PRATYEKABUDDHAs or "solitary enlightened ones" (pratyekabodhi); and that of sRAVAKAs or disciples (srAvakabodhi). The content of the enlightenment experience is in essence the understanding of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvAry AryasatyAni): namely, the truth of suffering (DUḤKHA), the truth of the cause of suffering (SAMUDAYA), the truth of the cessation of suffering (NIRODHA), and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (MARGA). Bodhi is also elaborated in terms of its thirty-seven constituent factors (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA) that are mastered in the course of perfecting one's understanding, or the seven limbs of awakening (BODHYAnGA) that lead to the attainment of the "threefold knowledge" (TRIVIDYA; P. tevijjA): "recollection of former lives" (S. PuRVANIVASANUSMṚTI; P. pubbenivAsAnussati), the "divine eye" (DIVYACAKsUS; P. dibbacakkhu), which perceives that the death and rebirth of beings occurs according to their actions (KARMAN), and the "knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants" (ASRAVAKsAYA; P. AsavakkayaNAna). Perfect buddhas and solitary buddhas (pratyekabuddha) become enlightened through their own independent efforts, for they discover the four noble truths on their own, without the aid of a teacher in their final lifetime (although pratyekabuddhas may rely on the teachings of a buddha in previous lifetimes). Of these two types of buddhas, perfect buddhas are then capable of teaching these truths to others, while solitary buddhas are not. srAvakas, by contrast, do not become enlightened on their own but are exposed to the teachings of perfect buddhas and through the guidance of those teachings gain the understanding they need to attain awakening. Bodhi also occupies a central place in MAHAYANA religious conceptions. The MahAyAna ideal of the BODHISATTVA means literally a "being" (SATTVA) intent on awakening (bodhi) who has aroused the aspiration to achieve buddhahood or the "thought of enlightenment" (BODHICITTA; BODHICITTOTPADA). The MahAyAna, especially in its East Asian manifestations, also explores in great detail the prospect that enlightenment is something that is innate to the mind (see BENJUE; HONGAKU) rather than inculcated, and therefore need not be developed gradually but can instead be realized suddenly (see DUNWU). The MahAyAna also differentiates between the enlightenment (bodhi) of srAvakas and pratyekabuddhas and the full enlightenment (samyaksaMbodhi) of a buddha. According to Indian and Tibetan commentaries on the PRAJNAPARAMITA sutras, buddhas achieve full enlightenment not beneath the BODHI TREE in BODHGAYA, but in the AKANIstHA heaven in the form of a SAMBHOGAKAYA, or enjoyment body remaining for eternity to work for the welfare of sentient beings. The bodhisattva who strives for enlightenment and achieves buddhahood beneath the Bodhi tree is a NIRMAnAKAYA, a conjured body meant to inspire the world. See also WU; JIANWU.

BodhnAth Stupa. (T. Bya rung kha shor). The popular Nepali name for a large STuPA situated on the northeast edge of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. Venerated by both Newar and Tibetan Buddhists, it has become one of Nepal's most important and active Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The base, arranged on three terraces in a multiangled shape called viMsatikona (lit. "twenty angles"), is more than 260 feet on each side with the upper dome standing some 130 feet high. At the structure's south entrance stands a shrine to the Newar goddess known as Ajima or HARĪTĪ. Together with SVAYAMBHu and NAMO BUDDHA, BodhnAth forms a triad of great stupas often depicted together in Tibetan literature. The stupa's origins are unclear and a variety of competing traditions account for its founding and subsequent development. Most Nepali sources agree that the mahAcaitya was founded through the activities of King MAnadeva I (reigned 464-505), who unwittingly murdered his father but later atoned for his patricide through a great act of contrition. Among Newars, the stupa is commonly known as the KhAsticaitya, literally "the dew-drop CAITYA." This name is said to refer to the period in which King MAnadeva founded the stupa, a time of great drought when cloth would be spread out at night from which the morning dew could be squeezed in order to supply water necessary for the construction. The site is also called KhAsacaitya, after one legend which states that MAnadeva was the reincarnation of a Tibetan teacher called KhAsA; another well-known tradition explains the name as stemming from the buddha KAsYAPA, whose relics are said to be enclosed therein. The major Tibetan account of the stupa's origin is found in a treasure text (GTER MA) said to have been hidden by the Indian sage PADMASAMBHAVA and his Tibetan consort YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL. According to this narrative, the monument was constructed by a widowed poultry keeper. The local nobility grew jealous that such a grand project was being undertaken by a woman of such low status. They petitioned the king, requesting that he bring the construction to a halt. The king, however, refused to intervene and instead granted permission for the work to be completed, from which its Tibetan name Bya rung kha shor (Jarung Kashor, literally "permission to do what is proper") is derived. The stupa was renovated under the guidance of Tibetan lamas on numerous occasions and it eventually came under the custodial care of a familial lineage known as the Chini Lamas. Once surrounded by a small village, since 1959 BodhnAth has become a thriving center for Tibetan refugee culture and the location for dozens of relocated Tibetan monasteries.

Bore wuzhi lun. (J. Hannya muchiron; K. Panya muji non 般若無知論). In Chinese, the "Nescience of PrajNA Treatise"; a subtreatise in a larger work entitled the ZHAO LUN, attributed to the Chinese monk SENGZHAO. In this treatise, the author claims that because wisdom (PRAJNA) is quiescent, empty, and lacking any perduring essence, any conscious awareness of it is impossible. Although prajNA is itself formless, it interacts with the realm of perceived objects through a process known as GANYING, or "sympathetic resonance." This treatise is said to have been based on KUMARAJĪVA's translation of the PANCAVIMsATISAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA.

Buddhaguhya. (fl. c. 760) (T. Sangs rgyas gsang ba). Sanskrit proper name of the author of a detailed commentary on the MAHAVAIROCANABHISAMBODHISuTRA ("Great Vairocana's Enlightenment Discourse"); his commentary (MahAvairocanAbhisaMbodhi-vikurvitAdhisthAna-vaipulyasutrendrarAja-nAma-dharmaparyAyabhAsya), and his TantrArthA-vatAra ("Introduction to the Meaning of the Tantras") are said to have been the primary resource for Tibetan translators of tantra during the earlier spread of the doctrine (SNGA DAR). He is claimed to have been the teacher of VIMALAMITRA. His views on KRIYATANTRA and CARYATANTRA are considered authoritative by later Tibetan writers.

buddhaksetra. (T. sangs rgyas zhing; C. focha; J. bussetsu; K. pulch'al 佛刹). In Sanskrit, "buddha field," the realm that constitutes the domain of a specific buddha. A buddhaksetra is said to have two aspects, which parallel the division of a world system into a BHAJANALOKA (lit. "container world," "world of inanimate objects") and a SATTVALOKA ("world of sentient beings"). As a result of his accumulation of merit (PUnYASAMBHARA), his collection of knowledge (JNANASAMBHARA), and his specific vow (PRAnIDHANA), when a buddha achieves enlightenment, a "container" or "inanimate" world is produced in the form of a field where the buddha leads beings to enlightenment. The inhabitant of that world is the buddha endowed with all the BUDDHADHARMAs. Buddha-fields occur in various levels of purification, broadly divided between pure (VIsUDDHABUDDHAKsETRA) and impure. Impure buddha-fields are synonymous with a world system (CAKRAVAdA), the infinite number of "world discs" in Buddhist cosmology that constitutes the universe; here, ordinary sentient beings (including animals, ghosts, and hell beings) dwell, subject to the afflictions (KLEsA) of greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA). Each cakravAda is the domain of a specific buddha, who achieves enlightenment in that world system and works there toward the liberation of all sentient beings. A pure buddha-field, by contrast, may be created by a buddha upon his enlightenment and is sometimes called a PURE LAND (JINGTU, more literally, "purified soil" in Chinese), a term with no direct equivalent in Sanskrit. In such purified buddha-fields, the unfortunate realms (APAYA, DURGATI) of animals, ghosts, and hell denizens are typically absent. Thus, the birds that sing beautiful songs there are said to be emanations of the buddha rather than sentient beings who have been reborn as birds. These pure lands include such notable buddhaksetras as ABHIRATI, the buddha-field of the buddha AKsOBHYA, and SUKHAVATĪ, the land of the buddha AMITABHA and the object of a major strand of East Asian Buddhism, the so-called pure land school (see JoDOSHu, JoDO SHINSHu). In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, after the buddha reveals a pure buddha land, sARIPUTRA asks him why sAKYAMUNI's buddha-field has so many faults. The buddha then touches the earth with his toe, at which point the world is transformed into a pure buddha-field; he explains that he makes the world appear impure in order to inspire his disciples to seek liberation.

bushi jietuo 時解. See ASAMAYAVIMUKTA

vimala. ::: purity; unblemished; without stain or defect

vimalā

vimalā. (T. dri ma med pa; C. ligou di; J. rikuji; K. igu chi 離垢地). In Sanskrit, "immaculate" or "stainless"; the name of the second of the ten bodhisattva stages, or BHuMI. On this bhumi, the bodhisattva engages in the perfection of morality (sĪLAPĀRAMITĀ) and is unstained by even subtle types of unwholesome actions performed by body, speech, or mind. It is said that from this bhumi onward, the bodhisattva is untainted by killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, senseless prattle, covetousness, harmful intent, or wrong views, even during dreams. He performs the ten virtues of protecting life, giving gifts, maintaining sexual ethics, speaking truthfully, speaking harmoniously, speaking kindly, speaking sensibly, nonattachment, helpful intent, and right views without the slightest taint of a conception of self (ĀTMAGRAHA). The bodhisattva remains on this stage until he is able to enter into all worldly forms of SAMĀDHI.

vimarsha. ::: consideration; examination; test; reasoning; discussion; knowledge; intelligence; reflection

vimen ::: n. --> A long, slender, flexible shoot or branch.

viminal ::: a. --> Of or pertaining to twigs; consisting of twigs; producing twigs.

vimineous ::: a. --> Of or pertaining to twigs; made of pliant twigs.
Producing long, slender twigs or shoots.


vim ::: n. --> Power; force; energy; spirit; activity; vigor.

vimokkhamukha. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

vimokkha. See VIMOKsA

vimoksamārga

vimoksamārga. (S). See VIMUKTIMĀRGA.

vimoksamukha. (P. vimokkhamukha; T. rnam par thar pa'i sgo; C. jietuo men; J. gedatsumon; K. haet'al mun 解門). In Sanskrit, "gates to deliverance," or "doors of liberation"; three points of transition between the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realms, which, when contemplated, lead to liberation (VIMOKsA) and NIRVĀnA: (1) emptiness (sUNYATĀ), (2) signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), and (3) wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). The three are widely interpreted. In mainstream Buddhist materials, emptiness (sunyatā) entails the recognition that all compounded (SAMSKṚTA) things of this world are devoid of any perduring self (ĀTMAN) and are thus unworthy objects of clinging. By acknowledging emptiness, the meditator is thus able to turn away from this world and instead advert toward nirvāna, which is uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA). Signlessness (ānimitta) is a crucial stage in the process of sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA): as the frequent refrain in the SuTRAs states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions created by the intrusion of ego (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process. Signlessness is produced through insight into impermanence (ANITYA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to attachments to anything experienced through the senses; once the meditator has abandoned all such attachments to the senses, he is then able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has no sensory signs of its own by which it can be recognized. Wishlessness is produced through insight into suffering (DUḤKHA) and serves as the counteragent (PRATIPAKsA) to all the intentions (āsaya) and aspirations (PRAnIDHĀNA) one has toward any compounded dharma. As the Buddha's famous simile of the raft also suggests, the adept must finally abandon even the attachment to the compounded religious system that is Buddhism in order to experience nirvāna, the summum bonum of the religion. Once the meditator has abandoned all such aspirations, he will then be able to advert toward nirvāna, which ipso facto has nothing to do with anything that can be desired (VAIRĀGYA). ¶ In the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the three are explained in terms of three types of concentration (SAMĀDHI) on the sixteen aspects of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. The four aspects of the first truth, of suffering (DUḤKHASATYA), are impermanence, misery, emptiness, and selflessness. The four aspects of the second truth, origination (SAMUDAYASATYA), are cause, origination, strong production, and condition. The four aspects of the third truth, cessation (NIRODHASATYA), are cessation, pacification, exaltedness, and emergence. The four aspects of the fourth truth, path (MĀRGASATYA), are path, suitability, achievement, and deliverance. According to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, the samādhi associated with signlessness observes the four aspects of cessation; the samādhi of emptiness observes emptiness and selflessness, two of the four aspects of suffering; and the samādhi of wishlessness observes the remaining ten aspects. ¶ In YOGĀCĀRA texts, such as the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are related to the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA) of the imaginary (PARIKALPITA), the dependent (PARATANTRA), and the consummate (PARINIsPANNA), respectively. In the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, it is said that the samādhi of emptiness understands the selflessness of persons and phenomenal factors (DHARMA), the samādhi of wishlessness views the five aggregates (SKANDHA) as faulty, and the samādhi of signlessness views nirvāna as the pacification of the aggregates. Elsewhere in that text, the three are connected to the four seals (CATURMUDRĀ) that certify a doctrine as Buddhist. The statements "all compounded factors are impermanent" and "all contaminated things are suffering" are the cause of the samādhi of wishlessness. "All phenomena are devoid of a perduring self" is the cause of the samādhi of emptiness. "Nirvāna is peace" is the cause of the sāmadhi of signlessness. According to another interpretation, emptiness refers to the lack of a truly existent entity in phenomena, signlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent cause, and wishlessness refers to the lack of a truly existent effect.

vimoksamukha

vimoksa. (P. vimokkha; T. rnam par thar pa; C. jietuo; J. gedatsu; K. haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberation" or "deliverance"; the state of freedom from rebirth, achieved by the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, or BODHISATTVA paths (MĀRGA). In mainstream Buddhist literature, this liberation is said to be of three types, corresponding to the three "doors to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA): (1) emptiness (sUNYATĀ), (2) signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), and (3) wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). Another set of eight grades of liberation (vimoksa) is associated with the attainment of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). In Pāli sources, these grades refer to eight levels in the extension of consciousness that accompany the cultivation of increasingly more advanced states of dhyāna (P. JHĀNA). The eight grades are (1) the perception of material form (RuPA) while remaining in the subtle-materiality realm; (2) the perception of external material forms while not perceiving one's own form; (3) the development of confidence through contemplating the beautiful; (4) passing beyond the material plane with the idea of "limitless space," one attains the plane of limitless space (ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), the first level of the immaterial realm; (5) passing beyond the plane of limitless space with the idea of "limitless consciousness," one attains the plane of limitless consciousness (VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA); (6) passing beyond the plane of limitless consciousness with the idea "there is nothing," one attains the plane of nothingness (ĀKINCANYĀYATANA); (7) passing beyond the plane of nothingness one attains the plane of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA); and (8) passing beyond the plane of neither perception nor nonperception one attains the cessation of consciousness (viz., NIRODHASAMĀPATTI). In the Mahāyāna ABHIDHARMA, it is said that the first two grades enable bodhisattvas to manifest different forms for the sake of others, the third controls their attitude toward those forms (by seeing that beauty and ugliness are relative), and the remaining five enable them to live at ease in order to help others.

vimoksa

vimoksaya ::: [for liberation]. [Gita 16.5]

vimudhatma ::: [one whose self is bewildered]. [Gita 3.6, 27]

vimuktimārga

vimuktimārga. (T. rnam par grol ba'i lam; C. jietuodao; J. gedatsudo; K. haet'alto 解道). In Sanskrit, "path of liberation"; a technical term that refers to the second of a two-stage process of abandoning the afflictions (KLEsA). As one proceeds from the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) to the adept path where there is nothing more to learn (AsAIKsAMĀRGA), the klesas are abandoned in sequence through repeated occasions of yogic direct perception (YOGIPRATYAKsA), consisting of two moments. The first is called the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (uninterrupted path), in which the specific klesa or set of klesas is actively abandoned; this is followed immediately by the vimuktimārga [alt. vimoksamārga], which is the state of having abandoned, and thus being liberated from, the klesa.

vimukti. (P. vimutti; T. rnam par grol ba; C. jietuo; J. gedatsu; K. haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberation." See VIMOKsA.

vimukti

called kukhavim.

Candragomin. (T. Btsun pa zla ba). Fifth-century CE Indian lay poet and grammarian, who made substantial contributions to Sanskrit grammar, founding what was known as the CAndra school. A junior contemporary of the great KAlidAsa, Candragomin was one of the most accomplished poets in the history of Indian Buddhism. His play LokAnanda, which tells the story of the BODHISATTVA king Manicuda, is the oldest extant Buddhist play and was widely performed in the centuries after its composition. He was a devotee of TARA and composed several works in her praise. Tibetan works describe him as a proponent of VIJNANAVADA who engaged in debate with CANDRAKĪRTI, but there is little philosophical content in his works that can be confidently ascribed to him. Among those works are the "Letter to a Disciple" (sisyalekha), the "Confessional Praise" (DesanAstava), and perhaps the "Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Precepts" (BodhisattvasaMvaraviMsaka).

caturmudrA. (T. phyag rgya bzhi; C. siyin; J. shiin; K. sain 四印). In Sanskrit, lit. "four seals" or "four assertions"; the Tibetan translation lta ba bkar btags kyi phyag rgya bzhi literally means "the four seals that mark a view as the word [of the Buddha]," i.e., that mark a philosophical system or certify a doctrine as being Buddhist. The four seals are: all compounded factors (SAMSKṚTADHARMA) are impermanent (ANITYATA), all contaminated things are suffering (DUḤKHA), all things are devoid of any perduring self (ANATMAN), and NIRVAnA is peace (sAnta). In the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA, the four seals are connected with the three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), which mark the transition from the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) realm of SAMSARA to the uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realm of NIRVAnA. "All compounded factors are impermanent" and "all contaminated things are suffering" are the cause of the SAMADHI of wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). "All phenomena are selfless" is the cause of the samAdhi of emptiness (suNYATA). "NirvAna is peace" is the cause of the samAdhi of signlessness (ANIMITTA).

cetovimukti. (P. cetovimutti; T. sems rnam par grol ba; C. xin jietuo; J. shingedatsu; K. sim haet'al 心解). In Sanskrit, "liberation of mind"; a meditative concept associated with the mastery of any of the four meditative absorptions (P. JHANA; S. DHYANA). Cetovimukti results in the temporary suppression of the contaminants (P. Asava; S. ASRAVA) through the force of concentration (SAMADHI). It is also associated with the acquisition of the "superknowledges" (P. abhiNNA; S. ABHIJNA). Cetovimukti alone is insufficient to bring about the attainment of enlightenment (BODHI) or the cessation of rebirth and must therefore be complemented by the "liberation through wisdom" (P. paNNAvimutti; S. prajNAvimukti; see PRAJNAVIMUKTA).

cetovimukti

Chittavimukti: Freedom from the bondage of the mind.

dad pas rnam par grol ba. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA

darsanamArga. (T. mthong lam; C. jiandao; J. kendo; K. kyondo 見道). In Sanskrit, "path of vision"; the third of the five paths (PANCAMARGA) to liberation and enlightenment, whether as an ARHAT or as a buddha. It follows the second path, the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA) and precedes the fourth path, the path of meditation or cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). This path marks the adept's first direct perception of reality, without the intercession of concepts, and brings an end to the first three of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKAYADṚstI), (2) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA) as a means of salvation, and (3) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSA). Because this vision renders one a noble person (ARYA), the path of vision marks the inception of the "noble path" (AryamArga). According to the SarvAstivAda soteriological system, the darsanamArga occurs over the course of fifteen moments of realization of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, with the sixteenth moment marking the beginning of the BHAVANAMARGA. There are four moments of realization for each of the four truths. The first moment is that of doctrinal acquiescence (DHARMAKsANTI) with regard to the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU). In that moment, the afflictions (KLEsA) of the sensuous realm associated with the truth of suffering are abandoned. This is followed by a moment of doctrinal knowledge (DHARMAJNANA) of the truth of suffering with regard to the sensuous realm, which is the state of understanding that the afflictions of that level have been abandoned. Next comes a moment of realization called subsequent acquiescence (anvayaksAnti), in which the afflictions associated with the truth of suffering in the two upper realms, the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU) and the immaterial realm (ARuPYADHATU) are abandoned; there is finally a moment of subsequent knowledge (anvayajNAna) of the truth of suffering with regard to the two upper realms. This sequence of four moments-doctrinal acquiescence and doctrinal knowledge (which are concerned with the sensuous realm) and subsequent acquiescence and subsequent knowledge (which are concerned with the two upper realms)-is repeated for the remaining truths of origin, cessation, and path. In each case, the moments of realization called acquiescence are the time when the afflictions are actually abandoned; they are called uninterrupted paths (ANANTARYAMARGA) because they cannot be interrupted or impeded in severing the hold of the afflictions. The eight moments of knowledge are the state of having realized that the afflictions of the particular level have been abandoned. They are called paths of liberation (VIMUKTIMARGA). An uninterrupted path, followed by a path of liberation, are likened to throwing out a thief and locking the door behind him. The sixteenth moment in the sequence-the subsequent knowledge of the truth of the path with regard to the upper realms-constitutes the first moment of the next path, the bhAvanAmArga. For a BODHISATTVA, the attainment of the path of vision coincides with the inception of the first BODHISATTVABHuMI (see also DAsABHuMI). The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA explains that the bodhisattva's path of vision is also a direct perception of reality and is focused on the four noble truths; unlike the mainstream account, however, all three realms are considered simultaneously, and the sixteenth moment is not the first instant of the path of cultivation (bhAvanAmArga). The YOGACARA system is based on their doctrine of the falsehood of the subject/object bifurcation. The first eight instants describe the elimination of fetters based on false conceptualization (VIKALPA) of objects, and the last eight the elimination of fetters based on the false conceptualization of a subject; thus the actual path of vision is a direct realization of the emptiness (suNYATA) of all dharmas (sarvadharmasunyatA). This view of the darsanamArga as the first direct perception (PRATYAKsA) of emptiness is also found in the MADHYAMAKA school, according to which the bodhisattva begins to abandon the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) upon attaining the darsanamArga. See also DHARMAKsANTI; JIEWU; DUNWU JIANXIU.

darsana. (P. dassana; T. mthong ba; C. jian; J. ken; K. kyon 見). In Sanskrit, lit. "seeing," viz., "vision," "insight," or "understanding." In a purely physical sense, darsana refers most basically to visual perception that occurs through the ocular sense organ. However, Buddhism also accepts a full range of sensory and extrasensory perceptions, such as those associated with meditative development (see YOGIPRATYAKsA), that also involve "vision," in the sense of directly perceiving a reality hidden from ordinary sight. Darsana may thus refer to the seeing that occurs through any of the five types of "eyes" (CAKsUS) mentioned in Buddhist literature, viz., (1) the physical eye (MAMSACAKsUS), the sense base (AYATANA) associated with visual consciousness; (2) the divine eye (DIVYACAKsUS), the vision associated with the spiritual power (ABHIJNA) of clairvoyance; (3) the wisdom eye (PRAJNACAKsUS), which is the insight that derives from cultivating mainstream Buddhist practices; (4) the dharma eye (DHARMACAKsUS), which is exclusive to the BODHISATTVAs; and (5) the buddha eye (BUDDHACAKsUS), which subsumes all the other four. When used in its denotation of "insight," darsana often appears in the compound "knowledge and vision" (JNANADARsANA), viz., the direct insight that accords with reality (YATHABHuTA) of the three marks of existence (TRILAKsAnA)-impermanence (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself/insubstantiality (ANATMAN)-and one of the qualities perfected on the path leading to the state of "worthy one" (ARHAT). Darsana is usually considered to involve awakening (BODHI) to the truth, liberation (VIMUKTI) from bondage, and purification (VIsUDDHI) of all afflictions (KLEsA). The perfection of knowledge and vision (jNAnadarsanapAramitA) is also said to be an alternate name for the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA), one of the six perfections (PARAMITA) of the bodhisattva path. In the fivefold structure of the Buddhist path, the DARsANAMARGA constitutes the third path. The related term "view" (DṚstI), which derives from the same Sanskrit root √dṛs ("to see"), is sometimes employed similarly to darsana, although it also commonly conveys the more pejorative meanings of dogma, heresy, or extreme or wrong views regarding the self and the world, often as propounded by non-Buddhist philosophical schools. Darsana is also sometimes used within the Indian tradition to indicate a philosophical or religious system, a usage still current today.

dasabhumi. (T. sa bcu; C. shidi; J. juji; K. sipchi 十地). In Sanskrit, lit., "ten grounds," "ten stages"; the ten highest reaches of the bodhisattva path (MARGA) leading to buddhahood. The most systematic and methodical presentation of the ten BHuMIs appears in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA ("Ten Bhumis Sutra"), where each of the ten stages is correlated with seminal doctrines of mainstream Buddhism-such as the four means of conversion (SAMGRAHAVASTU) on the first four bhumis, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (CATVARY ARYASATYANI) on the fifth bhumi, and the chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA) on the sixth bhumi, etc.-as well as with mastery of one of a list of ten perfections (PARAMITA) completed in the course of training as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten bhumis of the Dasabhumikasutra, which becomes standard in most MahAyAna traditions, is as follows: (1) PRAMUDITA (joyful) corresponds to the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA) and the bodhisattva's first direct realization of emptiness (suNYATA). The bodhisattva masters on this bhumi the perfection of giving (DANAPARAMITA), learning to give away those things most precious to him, including his wealth, his wife and family, and even his body (see DEHADANA); (2) VIMALA (immaculate, stainless) marks the inception of the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA), where the bodhisattva develops all the superlative traits of character incumbent on a buddha through mastering the perfection of morality (sĪLAPARAMITA); (3) PRABHAKARĪ (luminous, splendrous), where the bodhisattva masters all the various types of meditative experiences, such as DHYANA, SAMAPATTI, and the BRAHMAVIHARA; despite the emphasis on meditation in this bhumi, it comes to be identified instead with the perfection of patience (KsANTIPARAMITA), ostensibly because the bodhisattva is willing to endure any and all suffering in order to master his practices; (4) ARCIsMATĪ (radiance, effulgence), where the flaming radiance of the thirty-seven factors pertaining to enlightenment (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA) becomes so intense that it incinerates obstructions (AVARAnA) and afflictions (KLEsA), giving the bodhisattva inexhaustible energy in his quest for enlightenment and thus mastering the perfection of vigor or energy (VĪRYAPARAMITA); (5) SUDURJAYA (invincibility, hard-to-conquer), where the bodhisattva comprehends the various permutations of truth (SATYA), including the four noble truths, the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of provisional (NEYARTHA) and absolute (NĪTARTHA), and masters the perfection of meditative absorption (DHYANAPARAMITA); (6) ABHIMUKHĪ (immediacy, face-to-face), where, as the name implies, the bodhisattva stands at the intersection between SAMSARA and NIRVAnA, turning away from the compounded dharmas of saMsAra and turning to face the profound wisdom of the buddhas, thus placing him "face-to-face" with both the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realms; this bhumi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA); (7) DuRAnGAMA (far-reaching, transcendent), which marks the bodhisattva's freedom from the four perverted views (VIPARYASA) and his mastery of the perfection of expedients (UPAYAPARAMITA), which he uses to help infinite numbers of sentient beings; (8) ACALA (immovable, steadfast), which is marked by the bodhisattva's acquiescence or receptivity to the nonproduction of dharmas (ANUTPATTIKADHARMAKsANTI); because he is now able to project transformation bodies (NIRMAnAKAYA) anywhere in the universe to help sentient beings, this bhumi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of aspiration or resolve (PRAnIDHANAPARAMITA); (9) SADHUMATĪ (eminence, auspicious intellect), where the bodhisattva acquires the four analytical knowledges (PRATISAMVID), removing any remaining delusions regarding the use of the supernatural knowledges or powers (ABHIJNA), and giving the bodhisattva complete autonomy in manipulating all dharmas through the perfection of power (BALAPARAMITA); and (10) DHARMAMEGHA (cloud of dharma), the final bhumi, where the bodhisattva becomes autonomous in interacting with all material and mental factors, and gains all-pervasive knowledge that is like a cloud producing a rain of dharma that nurtures the entire world; this stage is also described as being pervaded by meditative absorption (DHYANA) and mastery of the use of codes (DHARAnĪ), just as the sky is filled by clouds; here the bodhisattva achieves the perfection of knowledge (JNANAPARAMITA). As the bodhisattva ascends through the ten bhumis, he acquires extraordinary powers, which CANDRAKĪRTI describes in the eleventh chapter of his MADHYAMAKAVATARA. On the first bhumi, the bodhisattva can, in a single instant (1) see one hundred buddhas, (2) be blessed by one hundred buddhas and understand their blessings, (3) live for one hundred eons, (4) see the past and future in those one hundred eons, (5) enter into and rise from one hundred SAMADHIs, (6) vibrate one hundred worlds, (7) illuminate one hundred worlds, (8) bring one hundred beings to spiritual maturity using emanations, (9) go to one hundred BUDDHAKsETRA, (10), open one hundred doors of the doctrine (DHARMAPARYAYA), (11) display one hundred versions of his body, and (12) surround each of those bodies with one hundred bodhisattvas. The number one hundred increases exponentially as the bodhisattva proceeds; on the second bhumi it becomes one thousand, on the third one hundred thousand, and so on; on the tenth, it is a number equal to the particles of an inexpressible number of buddhaksetra. As the bodhisattva moves from stage to stage, he is reborn as the king of greater and greater realms, ascending through the Buddhist cosmos. Thus, on the first bhumi he is born as king of JAMBUDVĪPA, on the second of the four continents, on the third as the king of TRAYATRIMsA, and so on, such that on the tenth he is born as the lord of AKANIstHA. ¶ According to the rather more elaborate account in chapter eleven of the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimAtratAsiddhi), each of the ten bhumis is correlated with the attainment of one of the ten types of suchness (TATHATA); these are accomplished by discarding one of the ten kinds of obstructions (Avarana) by mastering one of the ten perfections (pAramitA). The suchnesses achieved on each of the ten bhumis are, respectively: (1) universal suchness (sarvatragatathatA; C. bianxing zhenru), (2) supreme suchness (paramatathatA; C. zuisheng zhenru), (3) ubiquitous, or "supreme outflow" suchness (paramanisyandatathatA; C. shengliu zhenru), (4) unappropriated suchness (aparigrahatathatA; C. wusheshou zhenru), (5) undifferentiated suchness (abhinnajAtīyatathatA; C. wubie zhenru), (6) the suchness that is devoid of maculations and contaminants (asaMklistAvyavadAtatathatA; C. wuranjing zhenru), (7) the suchness of the undifferentiated dharma (abhinnatathatA; C. fawubie zhenru), (8) the suchness that neither increases nor decreases (anupacayApacayatathatA; C. buzengjian), (9) the suchness that serves as the support of the mastery of wisdom (jNAnavasitAsaMnisrayatathatA; C. zhizizai suoyi zhenru), and (10) the suchness that serves as the support for mastery over actions (kriyAdivasitAsaMnisrayatathatA; C. yezizai dengsuoyi). These ten suchnessses are obtained by discarding, respectively: (1) the obstruction of the common illusions of the unenlightened (pṛthagjanatvAvarana; C. yishengxing zhang), (2) the obstruction of the deluded (mithyApratipattyAvarana; C. xiexing zhang), (3) the obstruction of dullness (dhandhatvAvarana; C. andun zhang), (4) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle afflictions (suksmaklesasamudAcArAvarana; C. xihuo xianxing zhang), (5) the obstruction of the lesser HĪNAYANA ideal of parinirvAna (hīnayAnaparinirvAnAvarana; C. xiasheng niepan zhang), (6) the obstruction of the manifestation of coarse characteristics (sthulanimittasamudAcArAvarana; C. cuxiang xianxing zhang), (7) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle characteristics (suksmanimittasamudAcArAvarana; C. xixiang xianxing zhang), (8) the obstruction of the continuance of activity even in the immaterial realm that is free from characteristics (nirnimittAbhisaMskArAvarana; C. wuxiang jiaxing zhang), (9) the obstruction of not desiring to act on behalf of others' salvation (parahitacaryAkAmanAvarana; C. buyuxing zhang), and (10) the obstruction of not yet acquiring mastery over all things (fa weizizai zhang). These ten obstructions are overcome by practicing, respectively: (1) the perfection of giving (dAnapAramitA), (2) the perfection of morality (sīlapAramitA), (3) the perfection of forbearance (ksAntipAramitA), (4) the perfection of energetic effort (vīryapAramitA), (5) the perfection of meditation (dhyAnapAramitA), (6) the perfection of wisdom (prajNApAramitA), (7) the perfection of expedient means (upAyapAramitA), (8) the perfection of the vow (to attain enlightenment) (pranidhAnapAramitA), (9) the perfection of power (balapAramitA), and (10) the perfection of knowledge (jNAnapAramitA). ¶ The eighth, ninth, and tenth bhumis are sometimes called "pure bhumis," because, according to some commentators, upon reaching the eighth bhumi, the bodhisattva has abandoned all of the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) and is thus liberated from any further rebirth. It appears that there were originally only seven bhumis, as is found in the BODHISATTVABHuMI, where the seven bhumis overlap with an elaborate system of thirteen abidings or stations (vihAra), some of the names of which (such as pramuditA) appear also in the standard bhumi schema of the Dasabhumikasutra. Similarly, though a listing of ten bhumis appears in the MAHAVASTU, a text associated with the LOKOTTARAVADA subsect of the MAHASAMGHIKA school, only seven are actually discussed there, and the names given to the stages are completely different from those found in the later Dasabhumikasutra; the stages there are also a retrospective account of how past buddhas have achieved enlightenment, rather than a prescription for future practice. ¶ The dasabhumi schema is sometimes correlated with other systems of classifying the bodhisattva path. In the five levels of the YogAcAra school's outline of the bodhisattva path (PANCAMARGA; C. wuwei), the first bhumi (pramuditA) is presumed to be equivalent to the level of proficiency (*prativedhAvasthA; C. tongdawei), the third of the five levels; while the second bhumi onward corresponds to the level of cultivation (C. xiuxiwei), the fourth of the five levels. The first bhumi is also correlated with the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), while the second and higher bhumis correlate with the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). In terms of the doctrine of the five acquiescences (C. ren; S. ksAnti) listed in the RENWANG JING, the first through the third bhumis are equivalent to the second acquiescence, the acquiescence of belief (C. xinren; J. shinnin; K. sinin); the fourth through the sixth stages to the third, the acquiescence of obedience (C. shunren; J. junnin; K. sunin); the seventh through the ninth stages to the fourth, the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmaksAnti; C. wushengren; J. mushonin; K. musaengin); the tenth stage to the fifth and final acquiescence, to extinction (jimieren; J. jakumetsunin; K. chongmyorin). FAZANG's HUAYANJING TANXUAN JI ("Notes Plumbing the Profundities of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA") classifies the ten bhumis in terms of practice by correlating the first bhumi to the practice of faith (sRADDHA), the second bhumi to the practice of morality (sĪLA), the third bhumi to the practice of concentration (SAMADHI), and the fourth bhumi and higher to the practice of wisdom (PRAJNA). In the same text, Fazang also classifies the bhumis in terms of vehicle (YANA) by correlating the first through third bhumis with the vehicle of humans and gods (rentiansheng), the fourth through the seventh stage to the three vehicles (TRIYANA), and the eighth through tenth bhumis to the one vehicle (EKAYANA). ¶ Besides the list of the dasabhumi outlined in the Dasabhumikasutra, the MAHAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA and the DAZHIDU LUN (*MahAprajNApAramitAsAstra) list a set of ten bhumis, called the "bhumis in common" (gongdi), which are shared between all the three vehicles of sRAVAKAs, PRATYEKABUDDHAs, and bodhisattvas. These are the bhumis of: (1) dry wisdom (suklavidarsanAbhumi; C. ganhuidi), which corresponds to the level of three worthies (sanxianwei, viz., ten abidings, ten practices, ten transferences) in the srAvaka vehicle and the initial arousal of the thought of enlightenment (prathamacittotpAda) in the bodhisattva vehicle; (2) lineage (gotrabhumi; C. xingdi, zhongxingdi), which corresponds to the stage of the "aids to penetration" (NIRVEDHABHAGĪYA) in the srAvaka vehicle, and the final stage of the ten transferences in the fifty-two bodhisattva stages; (3) eight acquiescences (astamakabhumi; C. barendi), the causal incipiency of stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNA) in the case of the srAvaka vehicle and the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmaksAnti) in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the first or the seventh through ninth bhumis of the bodhisattva path); (4) vision (darsanabhumi; C. jiandi), corresponding to the fruition or fulfillment (PHALA) level of the stream-enterer in the srAvaka vehicle and the stage of nonretrogression (AVAIVARTIKA), in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the completion of the first or the eighth bhumi); (5) diminishment (tanubhumi; C. baodi), corresponding to the fulfillment level (phala) of stream-enterer or the causal incipiency of the once-returner (sakṛdAgAmin) in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage following nonretrogression before the attainment of buddhahood in the bodhisattva path; (6) freedom from desire (vītarAgabhumi; C. liyudi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the nonreturner in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage where a bodhisattva attains the five supernatural powers (ABHIJNA); (7) complete discrimination (kṛtAvibhumi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the ARHAT in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage of buddhahood (buddhabhumi) in the bodhisattva path (buddhabhumi) here refers not to the fruition of buddhahood but merely to the state in which a bodhisattva has the ability to exhibit the eighteen qualities distinctive to the buddhas (AVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA); (8) pratyekabuddha (pratyekabuddhabhumi); (9) bodhisattva (bodhisattvabhumi), the whole bodhisattva career prior to the fruition of buddhahood; (10) buddhahood (buddhabhumi), the stage of the fruition of buddhahood, when the buddha is completely equipped with all the buddhadharmas, such as omniscience (SARVAKARAJNATĀ). As is obvious in this schema, despite being called the bhumis "common" to all three vehicles, the shared stages continue only up to the seventh stage; the eighth through tenth stages are exclusive to the bodhisattva vehicle. This anomaly suggests that the last three bhumis of the bodhisattvayāna were added to an earlier srāvakayāna seven-bhumi scheme. ¶ The presentation of the bhumis in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ commentarial tradition following the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA uses the names found in the Dasabhumikasutra for the bhumis and understands them all as bodhisattva levels; it introduces the names of the ten bhumis found in the Dazhidu lun as levels that bodhisattvas have to pass beyond (S. atikrama) on the tenth bodhisattva level, which it calls the buddhabhumi. This tenth bodhisattva level is not the level of an actual buddha, but the level on which a bodhisattva has to transcend attachment (abhinivesa) to not only the levels reached by the four sets of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) but to the bodhisattvabhumis as well. See also BHuMI.

Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang. (J. Daijo hoon girinjo; K. Taesŭng pobwon ŭirim chang 大乗法苑義林章). In Chinese, "(Edited) Chapters on the Forest of Meaning of the Dharma-Garden of MAHĀYĀNA"; composed by the eminent Chinese monk KUIJI. This treatise consists of twenty-nine chapters in seven rolls, but a thirty-three chapter edition is known to have been transmitted to Japan in the second half of the twelfth century. Each chapter is concerned with an important doctrinal matter related to the YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA. Some chapters, for instance, discuss the various canons (PItAKA), two truths (SATYADVAYA), five faculties (INDRIYA), the sixty-two views (DṚstI), eight liberations (AstAVIMOKsA), and buddha-lands (BUDDHAKsETRA), to name but a few. Because of its comprehensive doctrinal coverage, the Dasheng fayuan yilin zhang has served as an invaluable source of information on early YOGĀCĀRA thought in China.

Dasheng wusheng fangbian men. (J. Daijo musho hobenmon; K. Taesŭng musaeng pangp'yon mun 大乗無生方便門). In Chinese, "Expedient Means of [Attaining] Nonproduction according to the MAHĀYĀNA"; a summary of the teachings of the Northern School (BEI ZONG) of CHAN. Several different recensions of this treatise were discovered at DUNHUANG; the text is also known as the Dasheng wufangbian Beizong ("Five Expedient Means of the Mahāyāna: the Northern School"). These different editions speak of five expedient means (UPĀYA): (1) a comprehensive explanation of the essence of buddhahood (corresponding to the DASHENG QIXIN LUN), (2) opening the gates of wisdom and sagacity (viz., the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA), (3) manifesting the inconceivable dharma (the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA), (4) elucidating the true nature of dharmas (Sutra of [the god] Siyi), and (5) the naturally unobstructed path to liberation (the AVATAMSAKASuTRA). Although this arrangement of scriptures bears a superficial resemblance to a taxonomy of texts (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI), a common feature of Chinese Buddhist polemics and exegesis, this listing was not intended to be hierarchical. The explanation of the five expedient means occurs largely in dialogic format. Unlike the Dasheng wufangbian Beizong, the Dasheng wusheng fangbian men also provides a description of the method of conferring the BODHISATTVA precepts (PUSA JIE). In its discussions of both the five expedient means and the bodhisattva precepts, great emphasis is placed on the need for purity of mind.

Dazhidu lun. (J. Daichidoron; K. Taejido non 大智度論). In Chinese, "Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom"; an important Chinese text that is regarded as the translation of a Sanskrit work whose title has been reconstructed as *MāhāprājNāpāramitāsāstra or *MahāprajNāpāramitopedesa. The work is attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NĀGĀRJUNA, but no Sanskrit manuscripts or Tibetan translations are known and no references to the text in Indian or Tibetan sources have been identified. The work was translated into Chinese by the KUCHA monk KUMĀRAJĪVA (344-413) between 402 and 406; it was not translated into Chinese again. Some scholars speculate that the work was composed by an unknown Central Asian monk of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school who had "converted" to MADHYAMAKA, perhaps even Kumārajīva himself. The complete text was claimed to have been one hundred thousand slokas or one thousand rolls (zhuan) in length, but the extant text is a mere one hundred rolls. It is divided into two major sections: the first is Kumārajīva's full translation of the first fifty-two chapters of the text; the second is his selective translations from the next eighty-nine chapters of the text. The work is a commentary on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and is veritable compendium of Buddhist doctrine, replete with quotations from a wide range of Indian texts. Throughout the translation, there appear frequent and often substantial interlinear glosses and interpolations, apparently provided by Kumārajīva himself and targeting his Chinese readership; it is the presence of such interpolations that has raised questions about the text's Indian provenance. In the first thirty-four rolls, the Dazhidu lun provides a detailed explanation of the basic concepts, phrases, places, and figures that appear in the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā (e.g., BHAGAVAT, EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM, RĀJAGṚHA, buddha, BODHISATTVA, sRĀVAKA, sĀRIPUTRA, suNYATĀ, NIRVĀnA, the six PĀRAMITĀ, and ten BALA). The scope of the commentary is extremely broad, covering everything from doctrine, legends, and rituals to history and geography. The overall concern of the Dazhidu lun seems to have been the elucidation of the concept of buddhahood, the bodhisattva career, the MAHĀYĀNA path (as opposed to that of the HĪNAYĀNA), PRAJNĀ, and meditation. The Dazhidu lun thus served as an authoritative source for the study of Mahāyāna in China and was favored by many influential writers such as SENGZHAO, TIANTAI ZHIYI, FAZANG, TANLUAN, and SHANDAO. Since the time of the Chinese scriptural catalogue KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU (730), the Dazhidu lun, has headed the roster of sĀSTRA materials collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING; see also KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG); this placement is made because it is a principal commentary to the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras that open the SuTRA section of the canon. Between 1944 and 1980, the Belgian scholar ÉTIENNE LAMOTTE published an annotated French translation of the entire first section and chapter 20 of the second section as Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse, in five volumes.

dge 'dun nyi shu. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

Dhammapāla. (d.u.). A celebrated Pāli commentator and author, Dhammapāla is known to have flourished sometime after the time of BUDDHAGHOSA (fl. fifth century CE), though his precise dates are uncertain. Numerous works are attributed to him, although the accuracy of these attributions is sometimes suspect because of the many Pāli authors who have the same name. The SĀSANAVAMSA states that Dhammapāla lived at Badaratittha in southern India. In several of his works, Dhammapāla records that he is a native of KaNcipuram and that he studied at the MAHĀVIHĀRA in the Sinhalese capital of ANURĀDHAPURA. THERAVĀDA congregations affiliated with the Mahāvihāra existed among the Tamils in South India, and it appears that he was familiar with their commentarial traditions. According to one legend, Dhammapāla was so renowned for his intelligence that the local king of KaNcipuram offered him his daughter in marriage. Being interested instead in a life of renunciation and scholarship, Dhammapāla prayed for his release before an image of the Buddha, whereupon the gods carried him away to a place where he could be ordained as a Buddhist monk. Seven of Dhammapāla's commentaries (AttHAKATHĀ) are devoted to the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA division of the SUTTAPItAKA; these include the PARAMATTHADĪPANĪ (a commentary on the UDĀNA, ITIVUTTAKA, VIMĀNAVATTHU, PETAVATTHU, THERAGĀTHĀ, and THERĪGĀTHĀ), as well as exegeses of the Vimānavatthu, Petavatthu, Itivuttaka, and CARIYĀPItAKA. He also wrote commentaries to the NETTIPPAKARAnA and the VISUDDHIMAGGA, the latter of which is titled the PARAMATTHAMANJuSĀ. Dhammapāla also wrote several subcommentaries (tīkā) on Buddhaghosa's exegeses of the Pāli canon, including the Līnatthavannanā on the suttapitaka, and subcommentaries on the JĀTAKA, the BUDDHAVAMSA, and the ABHIDHAMMAPItAKA.

dharmakāya. (T. chos sku; C. fashen; J. hosshin; K. popsin 法身). In Sanskrit, often translated as "truth body," one of the two (along with the RuPAKĀYA) or three (along with the SAMBHOGAKĀYA and NIRMĀnAKĀYA) bodies of a buddha. In early discussions of the true nature of the Buddha, especially regarding the person of the Buddha to whom one goes for refuge (sARAnA), the term dharmakāya seems to have been coined to refer to the corpus or collection (KĀYA) of the auspicious qualities (DHARMA) of the Buddha, including his wisdom, his compassion, his various powers, etc.; it also referred to the entire corpus (kāya) of the Buddha's teachings (dharma). In the MAHĀYĀNA, the term evolved into a kind of cosmic principle that was regarded as the true nature of the Buddha and the source from which his various other forms derived. In the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) commentarial tradition, a dispute arose over the interpretation of the eighth chapter of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, with VIMUKTISENA arguing that the SVĀBHĀVAKĀYA is the ultimate nature of a buddha and HARIBHADRA arguing that there are two aspects of the dharmakāya: a JNĀNADHARMAKĀYA (knowledge truth body), i.e., the nondual omniscient knowledge of a buddha, and a svābhāvakāya. Later commentators in India and Tibet explored the ramifications of this distinction at length. See also TRIKĀYA.

dharmānusārin. (P. dhammānusāri; T. chos kyi rjes su 'brang ba; C. suifaxing; J. zuihogyo; K. subophaeng 隨法行). In Sanskrit, "follower of the dharma," one who arrives at a realization of the dharma or truth through his or her own analysis of the teachings; contrasted with "follower of faith" (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN) whose religious experience is grounded in the faith or confidence in what others tell him about the dharma. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA (e.g., as described in the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA) and THERAVĀDA (e.g., VISUDDHIMAGGA) schools of mainstream Buddhism both recognize seven types of noble ones (ĀRYA, P. ariya), listed in order of their intellectual superiority: (1) follower of faith (S. sraddhānusārin; P. saddhānusāri); (2) follower of the dharma (S. dharmānusārin; P. dhammānusāri); (3) one who is freed by faith (S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA; P. saddhāvimutta); (4) one who has formed right view (S. DṚstIPRĀPTA; P. ditthippatta), by developing both faith and wisdom; (5) one who has bodily testimony (S. KĀYASĀKsIN; P. kāyasakkhi), viz., through the temporary suspension of mentality in the absorption of cessation (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI); (6) one who is freed by wisdom (S. PRAJNĀVIMUKTA; P. paNNāvimutta), by freeing oneself through analysis; and (7) one who is freed both ways (S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA; P. ubhatobhāgavimutta), by freeing oneself through both meditative absorption and wisdom. According to the Sarvāstivāda VAIBHĀsIKA school of ABHIDHARMA, an ARHAT whose liberation is grounded in faith may be subject to backsliding from that state, whereas those who are dharmānusārin are unshakable (AKOPYA), because they have experienced the knowledge of nonproduction (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., that the afflictions (klesa) can never occur again, the complement of the knowledge of extinction (KsAYAJNĀNA). ¶ The Theravāda school, which does not accept this dynamic interpretation of an arhat's spiritual experience, develops a rather different interpretation of these types of individuals. BUDDHAGHOSA explains in his VISUDDHIMAGGA that one who develops faith by contemplating the impermanent nature of things is a follower of faith at the moment of becoming a stream-enterer (sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA) and is one who is freed by faith at the subsequent moments of the fruition of the path; one who is tranquil and develops concentration by contemplating the impermanent nature of things is one who has bodily testimony at all moments; one who develops the immaterial meditative absorptions (arupajhāna; S. ARuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) is one freed both ways; one who develops wisdom is one who follows the dharma (dhammānusāri) at the moment of entry into the rank of stream-enterer and is one who has formed right view at the subsequent moments of path entry. When one achieves highest spiritual attainment, one is called freed by wisdom. In another classification of six individuals found in the Pāli CulAGOPĀLAKASUTTA, dhammānusāri is given as the fifth type, the other five being the worthy one (arahant; S. ARHAT), nonreturner (anāgāmi; S. ANĀGĀMIN), once-returner (sakadāgāmi; S. SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), stream-enterer (sotāpanna; S. srotaāpanna), and follower of faith (saddhānusāri). The IndriyasaMyutta in the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA also mentions these same six individuals and explains their differences in terms of their development of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA): faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. An arahant has matured the five faculties; a nonreturner has all five faculties, but they are slightly less developed than in the arahant; a once-returner is slightly less developed than a nonreturner; a stream-enterer slightly less than a once-returner; a dhammānusāri slightly less than a stream-enterer; and a saddhānusāri slightly less than a dhammānusāri. The saddhāvimutta and dhammānusāri are also distinguished depending on when they reach higher spiritual attainment: one who is following faith at the moment of accessing the path (maggakkhana) is called saddhāvimutta, one liberated through faith; the other, who is following wisdom, is called dhammānusāri, one who is liberated by wisdom at the moment of attainment (phalakkhana). ¶ The dharmānusārin is also found in the list of the members of the saMgha when it is subdivided into twenty (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). Among the dharmānusārin there are candidates for the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNAPRATIPANNAKA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIPRATIPANNAKA), and nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPRATIPANNAKA). The Mahāyāna carries over the division of dharmānusārin and sraddhānusārin into its discussion of the path to enlightenment. The PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ takes the seven types of noble ones (ārya) listed in order of intellectual superiority, and the eight noble beings (stream-enterer and so on) as examples for bodhisattvas at different stages of the path; the dharmānusārin more quickly reaches the AVAIVARTIKA (irreversible) stage, the sraddhānusārin more slowly, based on the development of wisdom (PRAJNĀ) that has forbearance for the absence of any ultimately existing goal to be reached, and skillful means (UPĀYA) that places pride of place on the welfare of others (PARĀRTHA).

Dharmaraksa. (C. Zhu Fahu; J. Jiku Hogo; K. Ch'uk Popho 竺法護) (c. 233-310). One of the most prolific translators in early Chinese Buddhism, who played an important role in transmitting the Indian scriptural tradition to China. Presumed to be of Yuezhi heritage, Dharmaraksa was born in the Chinese outpost of DUNHUANG and grew up speaking multiple languages. He became a monk at the age of eight and in his thirties traveled extensively throughout the oasis kingdoms of Central Asia, collecting manuscripts of MAHĀYĀNA scriptures in a multitude of Indic and Middle Indic languages, which he eventually brought back with him to China. Because of his multilingual ability, Dharmaraksa was able to supervise a large team in rendering these texts into Chinese; the team included scholars of Indian and Central Asian origin, as well as such Chinese laymen as the father-and-son team Nie Chengyuan and Nie Daozhen. Some 150 translations in over three hundred rolls are attributed to Dharmaraksa, including the first translation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the LALITAVISTARA, the BHADRAKALPIKASuTRA, and some of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature. Although many of Dharmaraksa's pioneering renderings were later superseded by the fourth-century retranslations of KUMĀRAJĪVA, Dharmaraksa is generally considered the most important translator of the early Chinese Buddhist saMgha.

dhyāna. (P. jhāna; T. bsam gtan; C. chan/chanding; J. zen/zenjo; K. son/sonjong 禪/禪定). In Sanskrit, "meditative absorption," specific meditative practices during which the mind temporarily withdraws from external sensory awareness and remains completely absorbed in an ideational object of meditation. The term can refer both to the practice that leads to full absorption and to the state of full absorption itself. Dhyāna involves the power to control the mind and does not, in itself, entail any enduring insight into the nature of reality; however, a certain level of absorption is generally said to be necessary in order to prepare the mind for direct realization of truth, the destruction of the afflictions (KLEsA), and the attainment of liberation (VIMUKTI). Dhyāna is classified into two broad types: (1) meditative absorption associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and (2) meditative absorption of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). Each of these two types is subdivided into four stages or degrees of absorption, giving a total of eight stages of dhyāna. The four absorptions of the realm of subtle materiality are characterized by an increasing attenuation of consciousness as one progresses from one stage to the next. The deepening of concentration leads the meditator temporarily to allay the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) and to put in place the five constituents of absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA). The five hindrances are: (1) sensuous desire (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders the constituent of one-pointedness of mind (EKĀGRATĀ); (2) malice (VYĀPĀDA), hindering physical rapture (PRĪTI); (3) sloth and torpor (STYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering applied thought (VITARKA); (4) restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering mental ease (SUKHA); and (5) skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ), hindering sustained thought (VICĀRA). These hindrances thus specifically obstruct one of the specific factors of absorption and, once they are allayed, the first level of the subtle-materiality dhyānas will be achieved. In the first dhyāna, all five constituents of dhyāna are present; as concentration deepens, these gradually fall away, so that in the second dhyāna, both types of thought vanish and only prīti, sukha, and ekāgratā remain; in the third dhyāna, only sukha and ekāgratā remain; and in the fourth dhyāna, concentration is now so rarified that only ekāgratā is left. Detailed correlations appear in meditation manuals describing specifically which of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA) and seven constituents of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA) serves as the antidote to which hindrance. Mastery of the fourth absorption of the realm of subtle materiality is required for the cultivation of the supranormal powers (ABHIJNĀ) and for the cultivation of the four ārupyāvacaradhyānas, or meditative absorptions of the immaterial realm. The immaterial absorptions themselves represent refinements of the fourth rupāvacaradhyāna, in which the "object" of meditation is gradually attenuated. The four immaterial absorptions instead are named after their respective objects: (1) the sphere of infinite space (ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness (VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA), (3) the sphere of nothingness (ĀKINCANYĀYATANA), and (4) the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJYYATANA). Mastery of the subtle-materiality realm absorptions can also result in rebirth as a divinity (DEVA) in the subtle-materiality realm, and mastery of the immaterial absorptions can lead to rebirth as a divinity in the immaterial realm (see ANINJYAKARMAN). Dhyāna occurs in numerous lists of the constituents of the path, appearing, for example, as the fifth of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). The term CHAN (J. zen), the name adopted by an important school of indigenous East Asian Buddhism, is the Chinese phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit term dhyāna. See also JHĀNA; SAMĀDHI; SAMĀPATTI.

Dol po pa Shes rab rgyal mtshan. (Dolpopa Sherap Gyaltsen) (1292-1361). An innovative and controversial Tibetan Buddhist scholar, who is regarded as an early master of the JO NANG lineage. He is best known for promulgating the view of extrinsic emptiness (GZHAN STONG), for his writings on the KĀLACAKRATANTRA, and for constructing a massive multiroom STuPA temple (SKU 'BUM) above JO NANG PHUN TSHOGS GLING monastery. He was born in the region of Dol po in present-day northwestern Nepal, from which his toponym (literally "the man from Dol po") is derived. Although his family was affiliated with the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism, he formed an early connection with the SA SKYA teacher Skyi ston 'Jam dbyangs grags pa rgyal mtshan (Gyidon Jamyang Drakpa Gyaltsen, d.u.). As a seventeen-year-old novice monk, Dol po pa fled his home, against the wishes of his parents and without their knowledge, in order to study with this master. He arrived first in the nearby region of Mustang and in 1312 continued on to the Tibetan monastery of SA SKYA itself. He was a gifted student, mastering a broad range of MAHĀYĀNA subjects in a short period of time. His erudition was so great that while still in his early twenties he earned the title "omniscient" (kun mkhyen), an epithet by which he was known for the rest of his life. He was ordained as a BHIKsU in 1314, going on to study with leadings masters from various sects, including the third KARMA PA. He spent several years in strict meditation retreat, during which time he began to formulate his understanding of extrinsic emptiness. In 1326 he formally ascended the abbatial throne at Jo nang, dividing his time between meditative retreats and teaching the monastic community. In 1333, Dol po pa completed construction of the sku 'bum chen po stupa, one of the largest in Tibet. Dol po pa developed a rich new vocabulary for discussing his controversial notion of extrinsic emptiness. Public reaction was mixed, and many Sa skya scholars in particular appear to have felt betrayed by this new doctrine, which seemed to contradict their own. Among his major works written at this time was the Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho ("The Ocean of Definitive Meaning: A Mountain Dharma"). Another of Dol po pa's major projects was a revised translation and reinterpretation of the Kālacakratantra and VIMALAPRABHĀ, both important sources for his major doctrinal theories. In 1338, Dol po pa retired from his position at Jo nang, after which he remained in isolated retreat, in part to discreetly avoid an invitation to the court of the Mongol ruler Toghon Temür (r. 1333-1370). By the end of his life, Dol po pa ranked as one of the leading masters of his time. During a 1358 trip to LHA SA toward the end of his life, the halls in which he taught literally collapsed from the enormous size of the crowds in attendance. On his return to Jo nang, he visited the monastery of ZHWA LU, home of another leading scholar and Kālacakra expert of the day, BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB. According to several accounts, Bu ston declined the opportunity to debate, but Dol po pa uttered the opening exclamation for debate as he departed, which cracked the walls of Bu ston's residence. While Dol po pa's views were considered unorthodox, even heterodox, particularly in the DGE LUGS sect, his works made a lasting impression on the landscape of Buddhism in Tibet.

doors of liberation. See VIMOKsAMUKHA.

doppio movimento: twice as fast

dri ma med pa. See VIMALĀ

Dri med bshes gnyen. See VIMALAMITRA

Dri med grags pas bstan pa'i mdo. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA

Dri med grags pa. See VIMALAKĪRTI

Dri med 'od. See VIMALAPRABHĀ

dṛstiprāpta. (P. ditthippatta; T. mthong bas thob pa; C. jianzhi/jiande; J. kenji/kentoku; K. kyonji/kyondŭk 見至/見得). In Sanskrit, "one who has attained understanding" or "one who attains through seeing"; one of the seven noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA; P. ariyapuggala) listed in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA; parallel to the DHARMĀNUSĀRIN (P. dhammānusāri), or "follower of the dharma." The dṛstiprāpta is one in the list of the members of the SAMGHA when it is subdivided into twenty (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). Among the dṛstiprāpta, there are recipients of the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA), and nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPHALASTHA). The dharmānusārin and dṛstiprāpta are characterized as having keen faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA), unlike the sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN and sRADDHĀVIMUKTA who have dull faculties (MṚDVINDRIYA).

Dunwu rudao yaomen lun. (J. Tongo nyudo yomonron; K. Tono ipto yomun non 頓悟入道要門論). In Chinese, "Treatise on the Essential Gate of Entering the Way through Sudden Awakening," composed by the Tang dynasty CHAN master DAZHU HUIHAI (d.u.); also known as the Dunwu yaomen. The monk Miaoxie (d.u.) discovered this text in a box and published it in 1369 together with Dazhu's recorded sayings that he selectively culled from the JINGDE CHUANDENG LU. Miaoxie's edition is comprised of two rolls. The first roll contains Dazhu's text the Dunwu rudao yaomen lun, and the second contains his sayings, which Miaoxie entitled the Zhufang menren canwen yulu. A preface to this edition was prepared by the monk Chongyu (1304-1378). The Dunwu rudao yaomen lun focuses on the notion of "sudden awakening" (DUNWU) and attempts to explicate various doctrinal concepts, such as sĪLA, DHYĀNA, PRAJNĀ, TATHATĀ, BUDDHA-NATURE (FOXING), and "no-thought" (WUNIAN), from the perspective of sudden awakening. The text explains sudden awakening as the "sudden" (dun) eradication of deluded thoughts and "awakening" (WU) to nonattainment or the fundamental absence of anything that needs to be achieved. Citing such scriptures as the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the text also contends that the mind itself is the foundation of cultivation and practice. The primary method of cultivation discussed in the text is seated meditation (ZUOCHAN), which it describes as the nonarising of deluded thoughts and seeing one's own nature (JIANXING). The Dunwu rudao yaomen lun also contends that sudden awakening begins with the perfection of giving (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ).

dus dang mi sbyor bar rnam par grol ba. See ASAMAYAVIMUKTA

dus kyis rnam par grol ba. See SAMAYAVIMUKTA

dvavimau purusau loke ksaras caksara eva ca ::: there are two purusas in the world, the ksara and the aksara. [Gita 15. 16]

dvavimau purusau ::: [these two purusas]. [see the following]

egedatsu 慧解. See PRAJNĀVIMUKTA

eight liberations. (S. vimoksa; T. rnam thar ; C. jietuo/beishe 解/背捨)

eight liberations. See AstAVIMOKsA.

Ein Vered Circle ::: Nonreligious members of kibbutzim and moshavim who organized in 1975 to support Gush Emunim; first meeting took place in Moshav Ein Vered.

ekavīcika. (T. bar chad gcig pa; C. yijian; J. ikken; K. ilgan 一間). In Sanskrit, "one who has a single obstacle," a particular sort of SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA who is one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, these sorts of once-returners are those who have eliminated the seventh and eighth sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU). These are impediments to the first DHYĀNA, which the mundane (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes. They receive the name ekavīcika because they will take only one more rebirth in the sensuous realm before they become ARHATs. They are also ānupurvin (those who reach the four fruits of the noble path in a series), and ANĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA, because they will reach the third fruit of nonreturner before they reach the final fruit of arhat.

ershi sengqie 二十僧伽. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

fangzhang. (J. hojo; K. pangjang 方丈). In Chinese, lit. "a square zhang," the "abbot's quarters" at a CHAN monastery. This term comes from the Chinese translation of the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, where it is said that the layman VIMALAKĪRTI was able to accomplish the miraculous feat of seating thirty-two thousand beings in his small room measuring only one square (fang) zhang (a Chinese measurement of length equivalent to a little more than three meters or ten feet) in size. The notion of a fangzhang was appropriated by the Chan tradition as the technical term for the abbot's quarters at a Chan monastery. The abbot, a Chan master, would often have private interviews there with students and greet private visitors to the monastery. In some contexts, the "abbot's quarters" comes by metonymy to refer to the abbot himself. Korean monasteries distinguish between a chosil (lit. occupant of the patriarch's room), the Son master at a regular monastery, and a pangjang, the Son master at a CH'ONGNIM, one of the large ecumenical monastic centers where the full panoply of Buddhist training is maintained, such as HAEINSA or SONGGWANGSA. At the ch'ongnim, the pangjang is then considered the Son master who heads the practice centers in the monastery, while the chuji (C. ZHUCHI; abbot) is the head of monastic administration.

fujigedatsu 時解. See ASAMAYAVIMUKTA

gaing. (P. gana). In Burmese, lit. "group" or "association"; the Myanmar (Burmese) term for a monastic fraternity or denomination within the Burmese sangha (S. SAMGHA). Used in this sense, gaing is sometimes replaced with its Pāli equivalent NIKĀYA. As of 1980, there are nine officially recognized monastic gaing registered with the Burmese government's Ministry of Religious Affairs. The two largest are (1) THUDHAMMA (P. Sudhammā) and (2) SHWEGYIN. Next is a smaller but stricter DWAYA fraternity, which is subdivided into: (3) Dhammanudhamma Maha Dwaya (P. Dhammānudhamma Mahā Dvāra), (4) Dhamma Vinayanuloma Mula Dwaya (P. Dhamma Vinayānuloma Mula Dvāra), and (5) Anauk Kyaung Dwaya. The remaining gaing are: (6) Satubhummika Maha Thatipatan Hngetwin (P. Catubhummika Mahā Satipatthāna), (7) Weluwun, (P. Veluvana), (8) Ganawimotti Kuto (P. Ganavimutti), and (9) Dhammayutti Mahayin. Of these nine monastic gaing, the oldest is the Thudhamma, which traces its origins to an ecclesiastical council named the Thudhamma Thabin (P. Sudhammā Sabhā) that was established in 1782 by the Burmese king, BODAWPAYA (r. 1782-1819). The Thudhamma Council was organized to reform the Burmese sangha and unite its various factions under centralized control, a task at which it seems to have been relatively successful. The influence of the royally backed Thudhamma Council greatly diminished by the mid-nineteenth century as a consequence of the British conquest of Lower Burma during the first and second Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-6 and 1852). It is following this territorial loss, during the reign of King MINDON (r. 1853-1878), that the Shwegyin, Dwaya, and Hngetwin gaing begin to coalesce into separate fraternities. All three were founded by ultra-orthodox scholar-monks who broke with the Thudhamma Council over issues of monastic discipline. The Dwaya Gaing, which had its center in British-controlled Lower Burma, later divided into the three separate fraternities recognized today. The Weluwun, another southern gaing, had similar beginnings except that it was established following the British conquest of Upper Burma and termination of the Burmese monarchy in 1885. The Shwegyin, Dwaya, Hngetwin, and Weluwun gaing thus all can be seen as ultimately descending from the Thudhamma. The Ganawimotti Kuto Gaing (lit., "Gana-free") regards itself as autonomous of gaing affiliation, as its name suggests. The Dhammayutti Mahayin Gaing, a late nineteenth-century Mon reform tradition, traces its lineage to the Thai THAMMAYUT order. ¶ Outside of the monastic context, the term gaing is most frequently used to refer to Burmese occult associations that follow a popular tradition known as the weikza-lam, lit. "path of esoteric knowledge." Such an association is called a WEIKZA gaing and typically will be devoted to the cultivation of supranormal powers and virtual immortality through the application of various "sciences" (B. weikza, P. vijjā), such as alchemy and the casting of runes, that weikza-lam practitioners will have learned from their spiritual masters.

Gedatsudoron 解脱道論. See VIMUTTIMAGGA

gedatsudo 解脱道. See MOKsAMĀRGA, VIMOKsAMĀRGA

gedatsumon 解脱門. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

gedatsu 解脱. See MOKsA, VIMOKsA

gnyis ka'i cha las rnam par grol ba. See UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA

gravimeter ::: n. --> An instrument for ascertaining the specific gravity of bodies.

gravimetric ::: a. --> Of or pertaining to measurement by weight; measured by weight.

hachigedatsu 八解脱. See AstAVIMOKsA

haet'al mun 解門. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

Haet'alto non 解道論. See VIMUTTIMAGGA

haet'alto 解道. See MOKsAMĀRGA, VIMOKsAMĀRGA

haet'al 解脱. See MOKsA, VIMOKsA

Hakuin Ekaku. (白隱慧鶴) (1685-1768). Japanese ZEN master renowned for revitalizing the RINZAISHu. Hakuin was a native of Hara in Shizuoka Prefecture. In 1699, Hakuin was ordained and received the name Ekaku (Wise Crane) from the monk Tanrei Soden (d. 1701) at the nearby temple of Shoinji. Shortly thereafter, Hakuin was sent by Tanrei to the temple of Daishoji in Numazu to serve the abbot Sokudo Fueki (d. 1712). Hakuin is then said to have lost faith in his Buddhist training and devoted much of his time instead to art. In 1704, Hakuin visited the monk Bao Sochiku (1629-1711) at the temple Zuiunji in Mino province. While studying under Bao, Hakuin is said to have read the CHANGUAN CEJIN by YUNQI ZHUHONG, which inspired him to further meditative training. In 1708, Hakuin is said to have had his first awakening experience upon hearing the ringing of a distant bell. That same year, Hakuin met Doju Sokaku (1679-1730), who urged him to visit the Zen master Dokyo Etan (1642-1721), or Shoju Ronin, at the hermitage of Shojuan in Iiyama. During one of his begging rounds, Hakuin is said to have had another important awakening after an old woman struck him with a broom. Shortly after his departure from Shojuan, Hakuin suffered from an illness, which he cured with the help of a legendary hermit named Hakuyu. Hakuin's famous story of his encounter with Hakuyu was recounted in his YASENKANNA, Orategama, and Itsumadegusa. In 1716, Hakuin returned to Shoinji and devoted much of his time to restoring the monastery, teaching students, and lecturing. Hakuin delivered famous lectures on such texts as the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, BIYAN LU, BAOJING SANMEI, DAHUI PUJUE CHANSHI SHU, and YUANREN LUN, and the recorded sayings (YULU) of LINJI YIXUAN, WUZU FAYAN, and XUTANG ZHIYU. He also composed a number of important texts during this period, such as the Kanzan shi sendai kimon, Kaian kokugo, and SOKKoROKU KAIEN FUSETSU. Prior to his death, Hakuin established the monastery of Ryutakuji in Mishima (present-day Shizuoka prefecture). Hakuin was a strong advocate of "questioning meditation" (J. kanna Zen; C. KANHUA CHAN), which focused on the role of doubt in contemplating the koan (GONG'AN). Hakuin proposed that the sense of doubt was the catalyst for an initial SATORI (awakening; C. WU), which had then to be enhanced through further koan study in order to mature the experience. The contemporary Rinzai training system involving systematic study of many different koans is attributed to Hakuin, as is the famous koan, "What is the sound of one hand clapping?" (see SEKISHU KoAN). Hakuin was a prolific writer who left many other works as well, including the Dokugo shingyo, Oniazami, Yabukoji, Hebiichigo, Keiso dokuzui, Yaemugura, and Zazen wasan. Hakuin also produced many prominent disciples, including ToREI ENJI, Suio Genro (1716-1789), and GASAN JITo. The contemporary Japanese Rinzai school of Zen traces its lineage and teachings back to Hakuin and his disciples.

Haribhadra. (T. Seng ge bzang po) (c. 800). Indian Buddhist exegete during the Pāla dynasty, whom later Tibetan doxographers associate with the YOGĀCĀRA-*SVĀTANTRIKA syncretistic strand of Indian philosophy. He may have been a student of sĀNTARAKsITA and was a contemporary of KAMALAsĪLA; he himself lists Vairocanabhadra as his teacher. Haribhadra is known for his two commentaries on the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ in Eight Thousand Lines"): the longer ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRĀLOKĀ-PrajNāpāramitāvyākhyā, and its summary, the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRAVIVṚTI. He is also known for his recasting of the twenty-five-thousand-line version of the prajNāpāramitā (PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA) in a work entitled the Le'u brgyad ma in Tibetan. Each of these works is based on the interpretative scheme set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA ("Ornament for Clear Realizations"), a guide to the PaNcaviMsati that Haribhadra explicitly attributes to MAITREYA. His AbhisamayālaMkārālokā builds upon PRAMĀnA, MADHYAMAKA, and ABHIDHARMA literature and was extremely influential in Tibet; its summary (known as "'grel pa don gsal" in Tibetan) is the root text (rtsa ba) for commentaries in the GSANG PHU NE'U THOG monastery tradition originating with RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB. It is the most widely studied prajNāpāramitā commentary in Tibetan Buddhism to the present day. Haribhadra is known for his explanation of a JNĀNADHARMAKĀYA (knowledge truth-body) in addition to a SVĀBHĀVAKĀYA, viz., the eternally pure DHARMADHĀTU that is free from duality. He is characterized as an alīkākāravādin ("false-aspectarian") to differentiate him from Kamalasīla, a satyākāravādin ("true-aspectarian") who holds that the objects appearing in the diverse forms of knowledge in a buddha's all-knowing mind are truly what they seem to be. He cites DHARMAKĪRTI frequently but appears to accept that scripture (ĀGAMA) is also a valid authority (PRAMĀnA). There are two principal commentaries on his work, by Dharmamitra and Dharmakīrtisrī. BuddhasrījNāna (or simply BuddhajNāna) was his disciple. The Subodhinī, a commentary on the RATNAGUnASAMCAYAGĀTHĀ, is also attributed to him.

Hivim (Hebrew) Ḥiwwiyīm [from ḥāwāh to live, breathe] Plural of hivi (ḥiwwī), which mystically signifies a serpent; likewise one of the tribes mentioned in the Old Testament as originating from Canaan (Genesis 10:17), the serpent tribe of Palestine who were ministers to the temples, somewhat like the Levites or Ophites of Israel and Asia Minor respectively (cf IU 2:481).

Hokke gisho. (法華義疏). In Japanese, "Commentary on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA," attributed to the Japanese prince SHoTOKU TAISHI (574-622). Along with his commentaries on the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the Hokke gisho is known as one of the "three SuTRA commentaries" (sangyo gisho) of Shotoku Taishi. According to Shotoku Taishi's biography, the Hokke gisho was composed in 615, but the exact dates of its compilation remain uncertain. The Hokke gisho relies on the Chinese monk Fayun's (467-529) earlier commentary, the Fahua yiji, to KUMĀRAJĪVA's Chinese translation of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. Because of its attribution to Shotoku Taishi, the Hokke gisho is considered an important source for studying the thought of this legendary figure in the evolution of Japanese Buddhism, but the extent of its influence on the early Japanese tradition remains a matter of debate.

Huayan wujiao. (J. Kegon no gokyo; K. Hwaom ogyo 華嚴五教). In Chinese, "Huayan's five classifications of the teachings." The HUAYAN ZONG recognizes two different versions of this doctrinal-classification schema, which ranks different strands of Buddhist teachings. The best-known version was outlined by DUSHUN and FAZANG: (1) The HĪNAYĀNA teachings (xiaojiao; cf. XIAOSHENG JIAO), also known as the srāvakayāna teaching (shengwenjiao), was pejoratively referred to as "teachings befitting the [spiritually] obtuse" (yufa). The ĀGAMAs and the ABHIDHARMAs were relegated to this class, which supposedly dealt primarily with theories of elements (DHĀTU) and more basic concepts such as dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). (2) The "elementary teaching [of Mahāyāna]" ([Dasheng] SHIJIAO). Within this category, two additional subgroups were differentiated. The first was the "initial teaching pertaining to emptiness" (kong shijiao), which encompassed the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and exegetical traditions such as MADHYAMAKA. This class of teachings was characterized by an emphasis (or, in Huayan's polemical assessment, an overemphasis) on the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The second subgroup, the "initial teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao), broaches the dynamic and phenomenal aspects of reality and did not confine itself to the theme of emptiness. YOGĀCĀRA and its traditional affiliate sutras and commentaries were classified under this subgroup. Together, these two subgroups were deemed the provisional teachings (quanjiao) within the MAHĀYĀNA tradition. (3) The "advanced [Mahāyāna] teachings" ([Dasheng] ZHONGJIAO) focused on the way true suchness (ZHENRU; S. TATHATĀ) was innately immaculate but could be activated in response to myriad conditions. The DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith"), sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, and LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA are examples of texts belonging to this doctrinal category. The treatment in these texts of the one mind (YIXIN) and TATHĀGATAGARBHA thought was considered a more definitive rendition of the MAHĀYĀNA teachings than were the elementary teachings (shijiao). (4) The "sudden teachings" (DUNJIAO), which includes texts like the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, was ranked as a unique category of subitist teachings befitting people of keen spiritual faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA), and therefore bypasses traditional, systematic approaches to enlightenment. The CHAN ZONG's touted soteriological methods involving sudden enlightenment (DUNWU) and its rejection of reliance on written texts led some Huayan teachers to relegate that school to this advanced, but still inferior, category of the teachings. Chan was thus superseded by, (5) the "perfect teachings" or "consummate teachings" (YUANJIAO). This supposedly most comprehensive and definitive strand of Buddhist teaching was reserved for the Huayan school and especially its definitive scripture, the AVATAMSAKASuTRA. ¶ The second version of five classifications was made by GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841) in his YUANREN LUN: (1) The "teachings pertaining to the human and heavenly realms" (RENTIAN JIAO) encompassed "mundane" (LAUKIKA) practices, such as the observation of the five precepts (PANCAsĪLA) and the ten wholesome ways of action (KUsALA-KARMAPATHA); this classification was named because of its believed efficacy to lead practitioners to higher realms of rebirth. (2) The "HĪNAYĀNA teachings" (XIAOSHENG JIAO), which were similar to the previous "xiaojiao." (3) The "dharma-characteristics teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng faxiang jiao), which was analogous to the aforementioned "elementary teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao) in the preceding classification scheme. (4) The "characteristics-negating teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng poxiang jiao) was analogous to the preceding "elementary teaching pertaining to emptiness." (5) The "nature-revealing teaching of the one vehicle" (yisheng xiangxing jiao) was equivalent to the last three categories Fazang's system combined together. See also HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG.

hui jietuo 慧解. See PRAJNĀVIMUKTA

hyehaet'al 慧解. See PRAJNĀVIMUKTA

igu chi 離垢地. See VIMALĀ

In ancient America hivim was also used in association with the serpent: the chiefs called Votan, the Quetzalcohuatl or serpent deity of the Mexicans, say: “I am Hivim”; “Being a Hivim, I am of the great race of the Dragon (snake). I am a snake myself, for I am a Hivim” (IU 1:554).

indriyasaMvara. (T. dbang po sdom pa; C. genlüyi; J. konritsugi; K. kŭnyurŭi 根律儀). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "sensory restraint," or "guarding the sense organs"; an important factor in the development of mindfulness (SMṚTI, P. SATI) and eventually concentration (SAMĀDHI), in which the meditator trains to see things as they actually are, rather than only in terms of oneself-i.e., as things we like, dislike, or are indifferent toward. In addition to its role in formal meditative training, indriyasaMvara should also be maintained throughout the ordinary activities of everyday life, in order to control the inveterate tendency toward craving. Maintaining sensory restraint helps the meditator to control one's reaction to the generic signs (NIMITTA) or secondary characteristics (ANUVYANJANA) of an object; instead, one halts the perceptual process at the level of simple recognition, simply noting what is seen, heard, etc. By not seizing on these signs and characteristics, perception is maintained at a level prior to an object's conceptualization and the resulting proliferation of concepts (PRAPANCA) throughout the full range of one's sensory experience. As the frequent refrain in the sutras states, "In the seen, there is only the seen," and not the superimpositions created by the intrusion of ego (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process. Mastery of this technique of sensory restraint provides access to the signless (ĀNIMITTA) gate to deliverance (VIMOKsAMUKHA).

In regard to the remarkable achievements that the Atlanteans made in all the arts and sciences, we read that the early fifth root-race received their knowledge from the fourth root-race. “It is from them that they learnt aeronautics, Viwan Vidya [vimana-vidya] (the ‘knowledge of flying in air-vehicles’), and, therefore, their great arts of meteorography and meteorology. It is from them, again, that the Aryans inherited their most valuable science of the hidden virtues of precious and other stones, of chemistry, or rather alchemy, of mineralogy, geology, physics and astronomy” (SD 2:426).

In the Ramayana, aerial vehicles are also mentioned as being used by the rakshasas of Lanka (Ceylon); and Ravana’s vimana was called Pushpaka.

isip sŭngga 二十僧伽. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

janma-mrtyu-jara-duakhair vimuktomrtam asnute ::: free from birth and death and age and grief enjoys immortality. [Gita 14.20]

Jietuodao lun 解道論. See VIMUTTIMAGGA

jietuodao 解道. See MOKsAMĀRGA, VIMUKTIMĀRGA

jietuo men 解門. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

jietuo 解脱. See MOKsA, VIMOKsA

jigedatsu 時解. See SAMAYAVIMUKTA

Jingying Huiyuan. (J. Joyo Eon; K. Chongyong Hyewon 浄影慧遠) (523-592). Chinese monk and putative DI LUN exegete during the Sui dynasty. Huiyuan was a native of DUNHUANG. At an early age, he entered the monastery of Guxiangusi in Zezhou (present-day Shanxi province) where he was ordained by the monk Sengsi (d.u.). Huiyuan later studied various scriptures under the VINAYA master Lizhan (d.u.) in Ye, the capital of the Eastern Wei dynasty. In his nineteenth year, Huiyuan received the full monastic precepts from Fashang (495-580), ecclesiastical head of the SAMGHA at the time, and became his disciple. Huiyuan also began his training in the DHARMAGUPTAKA "Four-Part Vinaya" (SIFEN LÜ) under the vinaya master Dayin (d.u.). After he completed his studies, Huiyuan moved back to Zezhou and began his residence at the monastery Qinghuasi. In 577, Emperor Wu (r. 560-578) of Northern Zhou began a systematic persecution of Buddhism, and in response, Huiyuan is said to have engaged the emperor in debate; a transcript of the debate, in which Huiyuan defends Buddhism against criticisms of its foreign origins and its neglect of filial piety, is still extant. As the persecution continued, Huiyuan retreated to Mt. Xi in Jijun (present-day Henan province). Shortly after the rise of the Sui dynasty, Huiyuan was summoned by Emperor Wen (r. 581-604) to serve as overseer of the saMgha (shamendu) in Luozhou (present-day Henan). He subsequently spent his time undoing the damage of the earlier persecution. Huiyuan was later asked by Emperor Wen to reside at the monastery of Daxingshansi in the capital. The emperor also built Huiyuan a new monastery named Jingyingsi, which is often used as his toponym to distinguish him from LUSHAN HUIYUAN. Jingying Huiyuan was a prolific writer who composed numerous commentaries on such texts as the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, SHIDI JING LUN (VASUBANDHU's commentary on the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA), DASHENG QIXIN LUN, and others. Among his works, the DASHENG YI ZHANG ("Compendium of the Purport of Mahāyāna"), a comprehensive encyclopedia of Mahāyāna doctrine, is perhaps the most influential and is extensively cited by traditional exegetes throughout East Asia. Jingying Huiyuan also plays a crucial role in the development of early PURE LAND doctrine in East Asia. His commentary on the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING, the earliest extant treatise on this major pure land scripture, is critical in raising the profile of the Guan jing in East Asian Buddhism. His commentary to this text profoundly influenced Korean commentaries on the pure land scriptures during the Silla dynasty, which in turn were crucial in the the evolution of Japanese pure land thought during the Nara and Heian periods. Jingying Huiyuan's concept of the "dependent origination of the TATHĀGATAGARBHA" (rulaizang yuanqi)-in which tathāgatagarbha is viewed as the "essence" (TI) of both NIRVĀnA and SAMSĀRA, which are its "functioning" (YONG)-is later adapted and popularized by the third HUAYAN patriarch, FAZANG, and is an important precursor of later Huayan reconceptualizations of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA; see FAJIE YUANQI).

Jizang. (J. Kichizo; K. Kilchang 吉藏) (549-623). In Chinese, "Storehouse of Auspiciousness"; Chinese Buddhist monk of originally Parthian descent and exegete within the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian thought. At a young age, he is said to have met the Indian translator PARAMĀRTHA, who gave him his dharma name. Jizang is also known to have frequented the lectures of the monk Falang (507-581) with his father, who was also ordained monk. Jizang eventually was ordained by Falang, under whom he studied the so-called Three Treatises (SAN LUN), the foundational texts of the Chinese counterpart of the Madhyamaka school: namely, the Zhong lun (MuLAMADHYAMAKĀRIKĀ), BAI LUN (*sATAsĀSTRA), and SHI'ERMEN LUN (*Dvādasamukhasāstra). At the age of twenty-one, Jizang received the full monastic precepts. After Falang's death in 581, Jizang moved to the monastery of Jiaxiangsi in Huiji (present-day Zhejiang province). There, he devoted himself to lecturing and writing and is said to have attracted more than a thousand students. In 598, Jizang wrote a letter to TIANTAI ZHIYI, inviting him to lecture on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA. In 606, Emperor Yang (r. 604-617) constructed four major centers of Buddhism around the country and assigned Jizang to one in Yangzhou (present-day Jiangsu province). During this period, Jizang composed his influential overview of the doctrines of the Three Treatises school, entitled the SAN LUN XUANYI. Jizang's efforts to promote the study of the three treatises earned him the name "reviver of the San lun tradition." Jizang was a prolific writer who composed numerous commentaries on the three treatises, the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, etc., as well as an overview of Mahāyāna doctrine, entitled the Dasheng xuan lun.

jNānadharmakāya. (T. ye shes chos sku). In Sanskrit, "knowledge truth body," one of the two divisions (along with the SVABHĀVAKĀYA) of the DHARMAKĀYA of a buddha. With the development of MAHĀYĀNA thought, the dharmakāya became a kind of transcendent principle in which all buddhas partake, and it is in this sense that the term is translated as "truth body." In the later Mahāyāna scholastic tradition, the dharmakāya was said to have two aspects. The first is the svabhāvakāya (alt. svābhāvikakāya), or "nature body," which is the ultimate nature of a buddha's mind; the second is the jNānakāya or "knowledge body," a buddha's omniscient gnosis. The final chapter of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA sets forth an elliptic presentation of the svabhāvakāya that led to a number of different later interpretations. According to Ārya VIMUKTISENA's interpretation, the svabhāvakāya is not a separate buddha body, but rather the ultimate nature underpinning the other three bodies (the dharmakāya, SAMBHOGAKĀYA, and NIRMĀnAKĀYA). HARIBHADRA, influenced by YOGĀCĀRA scholastic positions, privileges the dharmakāya and says it has two parts: a knowledge body (jNānadharmakāya) and a svabhāvakāya, its ultimate nature. This controversy was widely debated in Tibet in the commentarial tradition. See also TRIKĀYA.

JNānagupta. (C. Shenajueduo; J. Janakutta; K. Sanagulta 闍那崛多) (523-600). Indian monk from GANDHĀRA, who arrived in China around 559 and became a prolific translator of Indian materials into Chinese; some thirty-five of his translations are still extant and preserved in the Chinese canon (DAZANGJING). He is perhaps best known for his retranslation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), which included portions of the scripture that did not appear in KUMĀRAJĪVA's pioneering translation made two centuries before, especially the important "Chapter on Devadatta." He also translated the AdhyāsayasaNcodana, the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the Abhiniskramanasutra (a possible translation of the MAHĀVASTU), and several DHĀRAnĪ sutras.

ju jietuo 解. See UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA

kavim anusasitaram dhataram ::: the seer, the Master and ruler, he who sets (all things and beings) in their place. [see the following]

kavim puranam anusasitaram sarvasya dhataram ::: the seer, the Ancient of Days, the Master and ruler who sets in their place all beings and things. [Gita 8.9]

Kālacakratantra. (T. Dus kyi 'khor lo rgyud). A late ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA that was highly influential in Tibet. Although the title of the tantra is often translated as "Wheel of Time," this translation is not attested in the text itself. Kālacakra is the name of the central buddha of the tantra, and the tantra deals extensively with time (kāla) as well as various macrocosmic and microcosmic cycles or wheels (CAKRA). According to legend, King SUCANDRA came to India from his kingdom of sAMBHALA and asked that the Buddha set forth a teaching that would allow him to practice the dharma without renouncing the world. In response, the Buddha, while remaining at Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA) in RĀJAGṚHA in the guise of a monk, set forth the Kālacakratantra at Dhānyakataka in southern India (near present-day Amarāvatī) in the guise of the buddha Kālacakra. The king returned to sambhala, where he transcribed the tantra in twelve thousand verses. This text is referred to as the root tantra (mulatantra) and is no longer extant. He also wrote a commentary in sixty thousand verses, also lost. He built a three-dimensional Kālacakra MAndALA at the center of the country, which was transformed into an ideal realm for Buddhist practice, with 960 million villages. The eighth king of sambhala, MaNjusrīkīrti, condensed the original version of the tantra into the abridged version (the Laghukālacakra). A later king of sambhala, Pundarīka, composed the VIMALAPRABHĀ commentary, considered crucial for understanding the tantra. These two texts were eventually transported from sambhala to India. Internal evidence in the text makes it possible to date the composition of the tantra rather precisely to between the dates 1025 and 1040 CE. This was the period of Muslim invasions of northern India under Mahmud of Ghazni, during which great destruction of Buddhist institutions occurred. The tantra, drawing on Hindu mythology, describes a coming apocalyptic war in which Buddhist armies will sweep out of sambhala, defeat the barbarians (mleccha), described as being followers of Madhumati (i.e., Muhammad), and restore the dharma in India. After its composition in northern India, the tantra was promulgated by such figures as Pindo and his disciple ATIsA, as well as NĀROPA. From India, it spread to Nepal and Tibet. The millennial quality of the tantra has manifested itself at particular moments in Tibetan history. Prior to World War II, the PAn CHEN LAMA bestowed the Kālacakra initiation in China in an effort to repel the Japanese invaders. The fourteenth DALAI LAMA has given the initiation many times around the world to promote world peace. ¶ The tantra is an anuttarayogatantra dedicated to the buddha Kālacakra and his consort Visvamātā. However, it differs from other tantras of this class in several ways, including its emphasis on the attainment of a body of "empty form" (sunyatābimba) and on its six-branched yoga (sadangayoga). The tantra itself, that is, the Laghukālacakra or "Abridged Kālacakra," has five chapters, which in the Tibetan commentarial tradition is divided into three sections: outer, inner, and other or alternative. The outer, corresponding to the first chapter, deals with the cosmos and treats such topics as cosmology, astrology, chronology, and eschatology (the story of the apocalyptic war against the barbarians is told there). For example, this section describes the days of the year; each of the days is represented in the full Kālacakra mandala as 360 golden (day/male) and dark (night/female) deities in union, with a single central Kālacakra and consort (YAB YUM) in the center. The universe is described as a four-tiered mandala, whose various parts are homologous to the cosmic body of a buddha. This section was highly influential in Tibetan astrology and calendrics. The new calendar of the Tibetans, used to this day, starts in the year 1027 and is based on the Kālacakra system. The inner Kālacakra, corresponding to the second chapter, deals with human embryology, tantric physiology, medicine, yoga, and alchemy. The human body is described as a microcosm of the universe. The other or alternative Kālacakra, corresponding to the third, fourth, and fifth chapters, sets forth the practice of Kālacakra, including initiation (ABHIsEKA), SĀDHANA, and knowledge (JNĀNA). Here, in the stage of generation (UTPATTIKRAMA), the initiate imagines oneself experiencing conception, gestation, and birth as the child of Kālacakra and Vismamātā. In the stage of completion (NIsPANNAKRAMA), one practices the six-branched yoga, which consists of retraction (pratyāhāra), concentration (DHYĀNA), breath control (PRĀnĀYĀMA), retention (dhāranā), recollection (ANUSMṚTI), and SAMĀDHI. In the last of these six branches, 21,600 moments of immutable bliss are created, which course through the system of channels and CAKRAS to eliminate the material aspects of the body, resulting in a body of "empty form" and the achievement of buddhahood as Kālacakra. The Sekoddesatīkā of Nadapāda (or Nāropa) sets forth this distinctive six-branched yoga, unique to the Kālacakra system. ¶ BU STON, the principal redactor of the canon in Tibetan translation, was a strong proponent of the tantra and wrote extensively about it. DOL PO PA SHES RAB RGYAL MTSHAN, a fourteenth-century JO NANG PA writer, championed the Kālacakra over all other Buddhist writings, assigning its composition to a golden age (kṛtayuga). Red mda' ba gzhon nu blo gros, an important scholar associated with SA SKYA sect, regarded the tantra as spurious. TSONG KHA PA, who was influenced by all of these writers, accepted the Kālacakratantra as an authentic ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA but put it in a category by itself.

Karmasiddhiprakarana. (T. Las grub pa'i rab tu byed pa; C. Dasheng chengye lun; J. Daijo jogoron; K. Taesŭng songop non 大乘成業論). In Sanskrit, "Investigation Establishing [the Correct Understanding] of Karman"; an important treatise written c. 360 CE by the Indian scholiast VASUBANDHU, which seeks to explain karmic continuity by resorting to the quintessential YOGĀCĀRA doctrine of the storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA). The Sanskrit recension has not survived, so the text is known only through its translations into Chinese (by VimoksaprajNa and XUANZANG) and Tibetan. Vasubandhu critiques different theories propounded concerning the interconnections between KARMAN (action) and VIPĀKA (fruition) discussed in rival Buddhist schools, including the VAIBHĀsIKA, SAMMITĪYA, and SAUTRĀNTIKA. Through this exhaustive analysis, Vasubandhu concludes that, while everything may be momentary (KsAnIKA), karman and vipāka are connected through the requital of causal associations that are embedded in the storehouse consciousness. This storehouse consciousness is the repository of the seeds (BĪJA) of past actions and serves as a retributory or appropriating consciousness (ĀDĀNAVIJNĀNA), which manifests karmic fruitions based on the wholesome and unwholesome influences arising in the other consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA) to which it is related. The storehouse consciousness is thus the repository for the seeds of all past experiences, as well as the consciousness that "appropriates" a physical body at the moment of rebirth. Vasubandhu's analysis reconciles momentariness (KsAnIKAVĀDA), one of the most radical framings of nonself doctrine (ANĀTMAN), with the imperishability of karman.

karmāvarana. (P. kammāvarana; T. las kyi sgrib pa; C. yezhang; J. gosho/gossho; K. opchang 業障). In Sanskrit, "karmic obstruction," or "hindered by KARMAN." The term is used in the VISUDDHIMAGGA with reference to meditators who are incapable of making any progress in concentration (SAMĀDHI) exercises, specifically involving the KASInA visualization devices. The text notes that a practitioner who has engaged in any of the five types of unwholesome "acts that are of immediate effect" (P. ānantariyakamma; S. ĀNANTARYAKARMAN), such as patricide or causing schism in the community of monks (SAMGHBHEDA), is "obstructed by his acts" and will therefore never be able to develop a viable meditation practice. ¶ The relation of karmāvarana to meditation practice continues in Korean Buddhism, where the term opchang is colloquially used to refer to any kind of persistent physical, mental, or emotional obstacle to meditation practice, whether that be, for example, constant pain in one's legs that makes it difficult to sit in meditation for long periods, an inability to concentrate, or emotional distress caused by being apart from one's family. Anything that continually inhibits one's ability to practice effectively may be termed an opchang (karmāvarana). In the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, obstacles to meditation practice are referred to as vimoksāvarana, obstruction to the production of the eight VIMOKsAs, that is, physical and mental inflexibility (akarmanyatā). The ARHAT who is free in both ways (ubhayatobhāgavimukta) is free from this as well as from the KLEsĀVARAnA.

Karyavimukti: Liberation from activity; final emancipation.

Kausthila. (P. Kotthita; T. Gsus po che; C. Juchiluo; J. Kuchira; K. Kuch'ira 拘絺羅). One of the principal arhat disciples of the Buddha deemed foremost among his monk disciples in analytical knowledge (S. PRATISAMVID; P. patisambhidā), viz., of (1) true meaning, (2) the dharma, (3) language, and (4) ready wit. During the time of a previous buddha, Kausthila was said to have been a wealthy householder, who happened to overhear the Buddha praise one of his disciples as being foremost in analytical knowledge. It was then that he resolved to achieve the same preeminence during the dispensation of a future buddha. According to the Pāli account, Kausthila/Kotthita was the son of a wealthy brāhmana family from sRĀVASTĪ, who was learned in the Vedas and who converted while listening to the Buddha preach to his father. He entered the SAMGHA and, taking up a topic of meditation (KAMMAttHĀNA), soon attained arhatship. Kausthila is a frequent interlocutor in the NIKĀYAs and ĀGAMAs and often engages in doctrinal exchanges with sĀRIPUTRA, such as regarding what exists after NIRVĀnA or the relative quality of various types of liberation (VIMUKTI; P. vimutti). Other topics on which Kausthila discourses in the SuTRAs include discussions on action (KARMAN); the arising of phenomena, ignorance, and knowledge; the nature of the senses and sense objects; the fate of ARHATs after their deaths; things not revealed by the Buddha; and so on. On one occasion, during a discussion among the elders, a dispute erupted between Kausthila and a monk named Citta. Citta continually interrupted the discussion by insisting on his views, to the point that Kausthila had to remind him to let others speak. Citta's supporters objected that their favorite's views were eminently sound; but Kasthila replied that not only were Citta's views mistaken but he would soon reject the Buddha's teachings and leave the order. Kausthila's reputation was burnished when events unfolded exactly as he had foretold. sāriputra held Kausthila in such high regard that he praises him in three verses preserved in the Pāli THERAGĀTHĀ. His fame was such that he is often known within the tradition as Kausthila the Great (Mahākausthila; P. Mahākotthita).

kāyasāksin. (P. kāyasakkhi; T. lus kyi mngon sum du byed pa; C. shenzheng; J. shinsho; K. sinjŭng 身證). In Sanskrit, "bodily witness" or "one who has bodily testimony"; the fifth of the seven noble disciples (ARYA) listed in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA; a particular sort of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to commentaries on the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, there are two types of kāyasāksin. The kāyasāksin who is a dṛstadharmasama (one for whom there is peace in this life) is a nonreturner who does not journey to the realms of subtle materiality or immateriality and is not reborn in the sensuous realm either, but enters into NIRODHASAMĀPATTI (equipoise of cessation) during a final life in the sensuous realm, and, without that cessation weakening, enters nirvāna. Other kāyasāksins are nonreturners who are born as subtle materiality realm deities, enter into nirodhasamāpatti on that basis, and enter NIRVĀnA in that life, or nonreturners who are born as subtle materiality realm deities, enter into nirodhasamāpatti on that basis, die, and enter nirvāna as a divinity in the immaterial realm.

Ketuvim or Ketubim ::: (Heb. writings). The third and last division of the classical Jewish Bible (TaNaK), including large poetic and epigrammatic works such as Psalms and Proverbs and Job as well as a miscellany of other writings (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Kohelet, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles).

Ketuvim, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah are considered one book, as are the two books of Chronicles). The Bible is therefore known in Hebrew as the Tanach, the abbreviation formed by the first letters of the names of these three sections.All the books of the Bible are authored by G-d, though transmitted through prophecy via the souls of the various prophets, who are known as the &

Khuddakanikāya. (S. Ksudrakapitaka; T. Phran tshegs sde; C. Xiaobu; J. Shobu; K. Sobu 小部). In Pāli, "Miscellaneous Collection"; the fifth and last division of the PĀLI SUTTAPItAKA. Such miscellanies, or "mixed baskets" (S. ksudrakapitaka), were known to have existed in several of the mainstream Buddhist schools, including the DHARMAGUPTAKA, MAHĀSĀMGHIKA, and MAHĪsĀSAKA, but none of these recensions are extant (and there is no specific analogue in the Chinese ĀGAMA translations). The Pāli miscellany is composed of fifteen independent books, some of them representing the earliest strata of the Pāli canon, others relatively late compositions. The works are generally in verse, including the KHUDDAKAPĀtHA, DHAMMAPADA, UDĀNA, ITIVUTTAKA, SUTTANIPĀTA, VIMĀNAVATTHU, PETAVATTHU, THERAGĀTHĀ, THERĪGĀTHĀ, JĀTAKA, APADĀNA, BUDDHAVAMSA, and CARIYĀPItAKA. The Khuddhakanikāya contains in addition a commentary on portions of the Suttanipāta, called the MAHĀNIDDESA and CulANIDDESA, and one treatise, the PAtISAMBHIDĀMAGGA, that conforms to the abhidhamma in style and content. The Burmese recension of the Pāli canon adds to the collection four other works: the MILINDAPANHA, Suttasangaha, PEtAKOPADESA, and NETTIPPAKARAnA, making nineteen books in all.

klong chen snying thig. (longchen nyingtik). In Tibetan, the "Heart Essence of the Great Expanse," one of the most important cycles of "treasure texts" (GTER MA) of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. They are RDZOGS CHEN teachings revealed by 'JIGS MED GLING PA in 1757. The teachings were a dgongs gter, or "mind treasure," discovered by him in his own mind. They are considered to embody the two major snying thig lineages, the BI MA SNYING THIG brought to Tibet by VIMALAMITRA and the MKHA' 'GRO SNYING THIG brought to Tibet by PADMASAMBHAVA. The revelation eventually encompassed three volumes, including dozens of individual treatises, SĀDHANAS, and prayers.

kugedatsu 解. See UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA

ku haet'al 解. See UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA

kulaMkula. (T. rigs nas rigs su skye ba; C. jiajia; J. keke; K. kaga 家家). In Sanskrit, "one who goes from family to family"; a specific type of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA); one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the kulaMakula has eliminated one or two of the nine sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU); these are the impediments to the first DHYĀNA that the mundane (LAUKIKA) path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes prior to reaching the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA). They will take two or even three rebirths among the humans or divinities of the sensuous realm before they reach the goal of ARHAT. They are called "family to family" because the two rebirths are of a similar class, for example, in the sensuous realm.

Kumārajīva. (C. Jiumoluoshi; J. Kumaraju; K. Kumarajip 鳩摩羅什) (344-409/413). The most influential translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese. He is regarded by tradition as the founder of the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG or "Three Treatises" branch of the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy. According to his hagiography, Kumārajīva was born in the Central Asian petty kingdom of KUCHA, where he was related to the royal family on his mother's side. In his youth, he studied SARVĀSTIVĀDA doctrine in Kashmir but was later converted to MAHĀYĀNA at the Central Asian oasis town of Kashgar by the monk BUDDHAYAsAS. When the Chinese general Lü Guang conquered Kucha in 383, he took Kumārajīva back with him to Liangzong near the Chinese outpost of DUNHUANG as a prize, only to lose the eminent scholar-monk to Yaoxing (r. 394-416) when the Latter Qin ruler reconquered the region in 401. During his eighteen years as a hostage, Kumārajīva apparently learned to speak and read Chinese and seems to have been one of the first foreign monks able to use the language fluently. A year later in 402, Yaoxing invited Kumārajīva to the capital of Chang'an, where he established a translation bureau under Kumārajīva's direction that produced some of the most enduring translations of Buddhist texts made in Chinese. The sheer number and variety of the translations made by Kumārajīva and his team were virtually unmatched until XUANZANG (600/602-664 CE). Translations of some seventy-four texts, in 384 rolls, are typically attributed to Kumārajīva, including various sutras, such as the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, and VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and important sāstras such as the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, sATAsĀSTRA, Dvādasamukhasāstra, and the DAZHIDU LUN. Because Kumārajīva was one of the first foreign monks to have learned Chinese well, he produced translations that were readily comprehensible as Chinese, and his translations remain the most widely read in East Asia of any translator's; indeed, where there are multiple translations of a scripture, it is almost inevitably Kumārajīva's that remains part of the living tradition. The accuracy of his translations is said to be attested by the fact that his tongue remained unburned during his cremation. Along with his correspondences with the monk LUSHAN HUIYUAN found in the DASHENG DAYI ZHANG, these translations laid the foundation for Mahāyāna thought, and especially Madhyamaka philosophy, in China. His many famous disciples include DAOSHENG, SENGZHAO, Daorong, and Sengrui, who are known collectively as the "four sages."

kusalamula. (P. kusalamula; T. dge ba'i rtsa ba; C. shangen; J. zengon; K. son'gŭn 善根). In Sanskrit, the term "wholesome faculties," or "roots of virtue," refers to the cumulative meritorious deeds performed by an individual throughout his or her past lives. Different schools offer various lists of these wholesome faculties. The most common list is threefold: nongreed (ALOBHA), nonhatred (ADVEsA), and nondelusion (AMOHA)-all factors that encourage such wholesome actions (KARMAN) as giving (DĀNA), keeping precepts, and learning the dharma. These three factors thus will fructify as happiness in the future and will provide the foundation for liberation (VIMUKTI). These three wholesome roots are the converse of the three unwholesome faculties, or "roots of nonvirtue" (AKUsALAMuLA), viz., greed (LOBHA), hatred (DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA), which lead instead to unhappiness or even perdition. In place of this simple threefold list, the VAIBHĀsIKA school of ABHIDHARMA offers three separate typologies of kusalamulas. The first class is the "wholesome roots associated with merit" (punyabhāgīya-kusalamula), which lead to rebirth in the salutary realms of humans or heavenly divinities (DEVA). These include such qualities as faith, energy, and decency and modesty, the foundations of moral progress. Second are the "wholesome roots associated with liberation" (MOKsABHĀGĪYA-KUsALAMuLA), which eventually lead to PARINIRVĀnA. These are factors associated with the truth of the path (MĀRGASATYA) or various factors conducive to liberation. Third are the "wholesome roots associated with spiritual penetration" (NIRVEDHABHĀGĪYA-kusalamula), which are the four aspects of the direct path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA): heat (usMAN), summit (MuRDHAN), receptivity (KsĀNTI), and highest worldly dharmas (LAUKIKĀGRADHARMA). These nirvedhabhāgīyas open access to the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), where the first stage of sanctity, stream-entry (SROTAĀPANNA), is won. The nirvedhabhāgīya differ so markedly from the two previous categories of wholesome roots that they are often listed independently as the four wholesome faculties (catvāri kusalamulāni). The wholesome roots may be dedicated toward a specific aim, such as rebirth in a heavenly realm; toward the benefit of a specific person, such as a parent or relative; or toward the achievement of buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings.

Kyongju. (慶州). Ancient capital of the Korean Silla dynasty and location of hundreds of important Buddhist archeological sites-for example, South Mountain (NAMSAN) in central modern Kyongju. Among the many monasteries in Kyongju, HWANGNYONGSA (Yellow Dragon monastery) was one of the most renowned. It was built during the reign of King Chinhung (r. 540-576), and its campus had seven rectangular courtyards, each with three buildings and one pagoda, covering an area of around eighteen acres; in 645, a 262 ft. high nine-story pagoda was added. Hwangnyongsa was destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1238 and was never rebuilt. PULGUKSA (Buddha Land monastery) was built in 535 during the reign of the Silla King Pophŭng (r. 514-540). The main courtyard is dedicated to the buddha sĀKYAMUNI and includes on either end the highly decorative Pagoda of Many Treasures (Tabot'ap), resembling the form of a reliquary (sARĪRA) shrine and symbolizing the buddha PRABHuTARATNA, and the Pagoda of sākyamuni (Sokkat'ap). During a 1966 renovation of the Sokka t'ap, the world's oldest printed document was discovered sealed inside the stupa: the MUGUJoNGGWANG TAEDARANI KYoNG (S. Rasmivimalavisuddhaprabhādhāranī; "Great DHĀRAnĪ Scripture of Immaculate Radiance"). The terminus ad quem for the printing of the Dhāranī is 751 CE, when the text was sealed inside the Sokkat'ap, but it may have been printed even earlier. Four kilometers up T'oham Mountain to the east of Pulguksa is its affiliated SoKKURAM grotto temple, which was built in the late eighth century. In contrast to the cave temples of ancient India and China, the rotunda of Sokkuram was assembled with granite. The central image is a stone buddha (probably of sākyamuni) seated cross-legged on a lotus throne, surrounded by BODHISATTVAs, ARHATs, and Indian divinities carved in relief on the surrounding circular wall. A miniature marble pagoda, which is believed to have stood in front of the eleven-faced Avalokitesvara, disappeared in the early years of the Japanese occupation of the Korean peninsula in the early twentieth century.

Lamotte, Étienne. (1903-1983). A Belgian Buddhologist and Roman Catholic monsignor, considered to be the principal successor of LOUIS DE LA VALLÉE POUSSIN in the Franco-Belgian school of European Buddhist Studies. After receiving his doctorate in 1930 (with a dissertation on the Bhagavadgītā), Lamotte taught for forty-five years (1932-1977) as a professor at the Université catholique de Louvain. In 1953, he was awarded the Francqui Prize, a prestigious Belgian prize awarded to scholars and scientists under the age of fifty. Making use of his knowledge of Sanskrit, Pāli, Tibetan, and Chinese, he made definitive French translations, all with extensive annotation, of a wide range of important Indian sutra and treatises, including the suRAMGAMASAMĀDHISuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, VASUBANDHU's KARMASIDDHIPRAKARAnA, and ASAnGA's MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. He was also the first to translate the lengthy prolegomenon to the *MahāprajNāpāramitāsāstra, a massive commentary on the "Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra" extant only in a Chinese recension known as the DAZHIDU LUN, which is attributed by the East Asian tradition to NĀGĀRJUNA. Lamotte's annotated translation of this text was published in five volumes between 1944 and 1980 but remained unfinished at the time of his death. Among his monographs, perhaps the most important is his comprehensive history of early Indian Buddhism published in 1958, Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien: des origines à l'ère saka (translated into English in 1988 as History of Indian Buddhism: From its Origins to the saka Era), which remains the most extensive such history yet produced in a Western language.

Larger Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. See PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA.

laukikamārga. (T. 'jig rten pa'i lam; C. shijiandao; J. sekendo; K. segando 世間道). In Sanskrit, lit. "mundane path," those practices that precede the moment of insight (DARsANAMĀRGA) and thus result in a salutary rebirth in SAMSĀRA rather than liberation (VIMUKTI); also called laukika-BHĀVANĀMĀRGA (the mundane path of cultivation). In the five-stage soteriology of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, the mundane path corresponds to the first two stages, the path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA) and the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA), because they do not involve the direct perception of reality that transforms an ordinary person (PṚTHAGJANA) into a noble one (ĀRYA). The mundane path is developed when a practitioner has begun to cultivate the three trainings (TRIsIKsĀ) of morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) but has yet to eradicate any of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) or to achieve insight (DARsANA). The eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA) is also formulated in terms of the spiritual ascension from mundane (LAUKIKA) to supramundane (LOKOTTARA). For example, mundane right view (SAMYAGDṚstI), the first stage of the eightfold path, refers to the belief in the efficacy of KARMAN and its effects and the reality of a next life after death, thus leading to better rebirths; wrong view (MITHYĀDṚstI), by contrast, denies such beliefs and leads to unsalutary rebirths. After continuing on to cultivate the moral trainings of right speech, action, and livelihood based on this right view, the practitioner next devotes himself to right concentration (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI). Concentration then leads in turn to supramundane right view, which results in direct insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and the removal of the initial fetters. ¶ In the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, a Mahāyāna work associated with the name of MAITREYA, the eightfold path is reformulated as a "worldly" path that a bodhisattva treads after the path of vision (darsanamārga), on the model of the Buddha's work for the world after his awakening beneath the BODHI TREE in BODHGAYĀ. The bodhisattva's supramundane vision, described by the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA), is an equipoise (SAMĀHITA) in which knowledge is beyond all proliferation (PRAPANCA) and conceptualization (VIKALPA); the states subsequent (pṛsthalabdha) to that equipoise are characterized as the practice of skillful means (UPĀYA) to lead others to liberation, on the model of the Buddha's compassionate activities for the sake of others. The practice serves to accumulate the bodhisattva's merit collection (PUnYASAMBHĀRA); there is no further vision to be gained, only a return to the vision in the supramundane stages characterized as the fundamental (maula) stages of the ten bodhisattva stages (BODHISATTVABHuMI) or a supramundane cultivation (lokottarabhāvanā). All other acts are laukika ("worldly") skillful means.

Legs bshad gser 'phreng. (Lekshe Sertreng). In Tibetan, "Golden Garland of Eloquence," TSONG KHA PA BLO BZANG GRAGS PA's explanation of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) based on the commentaries of BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB and Nya dbon Kun dga' dpal. The text is composed in the GSANG PHU NE'U THOG commentarial tradition founded by RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB, using the words of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA and Haribhadra's short commentary (ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRAVIVṚTI) as a framework. Legs bshad gser phreng privileges the views of Indian YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA writers, particularly Ārya VIMUKTISENA, and accords great respect to the work of RNGOG. It already reveals Tsong kha pa's antipathy for the distinctive GZHAN STONG ("emptiness of other") view of DOL PO PA SHES RAB RGYAL MTSHAN, but it eschews the strong sectarian tendencies that begin to appear after the death of Tsong kha pa in the early fifteenth century. As an early work of Tsong kha pa, some of the views it espouses were rejected by later DGE LUGS scholars.

Lévi, Sylvain. (1863-1935). Influential nineteenth-century European scholar of the YOGĀCĀRA school of Buddhism. Born in Paris to Alsatian parents, Lévi had a conservative Jewish education and held his first teaching position at a conservative seminary in Paris. Educated in Sanskrit at the University of Paris, Lévi became a lecturer at the École des Hautes Études in Paris in 1886. There, he taught Sanskrit until he became professor of Sanskrit language and literature at the Collège de France in 1894, a position that he would hold until 1935. Lévi went to India and Japan to carry out his research and also traveled extensively in Korea, Nepal, Vietnam, and Russia. He eventually became the director of the École des Hautes Études. In addition to Sanskrit, Lévi also read classical Chinese, Tibetan, and Kuchean and was one of the first Western scholars to study Indian Buddhism through translations that were extant only in those secondary canonical languages. Perhaps his most significant translations were of seminal texts of the YOGĀCĀRA school, including renderings of VASUBANDHU's twin synopses, the VIMsATIKĀ and TRIMsIKĀ (1925), and ASAnGA's MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, thus introducing the major writings of this important Mahāyāna scholastic school to the Western scholarly world. Lévi also published on classical Indian theater, the history of Nepal, and Sanskrit manuscripts from Bali. Together with TAKAKUSU JUNJIRo, Lévi was the cofounder of the joint Japanese-French Hobogirin, an encyclopedic dictionary of Buddhism, the compilation of which continues to this day.

ligou di 離垢地. See VIMALĀ

lokottara. (P. lokuttara; T. 'jig rten las 'das pa; C. chushijian; J. shusseken; K. ch'ulsegan 出世間). In Sanskrit, lit. "beyond the world"; "supramundane," "transcendent"; viz., something that is related to attaining liberation (VIMOKsA) from SAMSĀRA or that leads to such liberation. The term also can indicate a certain level of spiritual maturity, such as when the practitioner is no longer subject to the contaminants (ĀSRAVA). In the context of the status of practitioners, mundane (LAUKIKA) refers to ordinary beings; more specifically, in the fifty-two stage bodhisattva path, laukika usually indicates practitioners who are at the stage of the ten faiths (C. shixin), ten understandings (C. shijie), or ten practices (C. shixing), while "supramundane" (lokottara) refers to more enlightened practitioners, such as BODHISATTVAs who are on the ten stages (DAsABHuMI). FAZANG's HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG ("Essay on the Five Teachings according to Huayan") parses these stages even more precisely: of the ten stages (dasabhumi) of the path leading to buddhahood, stages one through three belong to the mundane (laukika); the fourth to the seventh stages are supramundane from the standpoint of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) of sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA; and the eighth to the tenth stages transcend even the supramundane and belong to the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA). The LOKOTTARAVĀDA (Teaching of Transcendence), a subschool of the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA school of mainstream Buddhism, took its name from its advocacy of the supramundane qualities of the Buddha and the univocality of the BUDDHAVACANA. The school's emblematic text, the MAHĀVASTU, claims that all the seemingly mundane acts of the Buddha are in fact supramundane; hence, although the Buddha may appear to eat and sleep, walk and talk like ordinary people, he in fact remains constantly in a state of meditation because he is free from all needs.

Mahākāsyapa. (P. Mahākassapa; T. 'Od srung chen po; C. Mohejiashe; J. Makakasho; K. Mahagasop 摩訶迦葉). Sanskrit name of one of the Buddha's leading disciples, regarded as foremost in the observance of ascetic practices (P. DHUTAnGA; S. dhutaguna). According to the Pāli accounts (where he is called Mahākassapa) his personal name was Pipphali and he was born to a brāhmana family in MAGADHA. Even as a child he was inclined toward renunciation and as a youth refused to marry. Finally, to placate his parents, he agreed to marry a woman matching in beauty a statue he had fashioned. His parents found a match in Bhaddā Kapilānī (S. BHADRA-KAPILĀNĪ), a beautiful maiden from Sāgala. But she likewise was inclined toward renunciation. Both sets of parents foiled their attempts to break off the engagement, so in the end they were wed but resolved not to consummate their marriage. Pipphali owned a vast estate with fertile soil, but one day he witnessed worms eaten by birds turned up by his plowman. Filled with pity for the creatures and fearful that he was ultimately to blame, he resolved then and there to renounce the world. At the same time, Bhaddā witnessed insects eaten by crows as they scurried among sesame seeds put out to dry. Feeling pity and fear at the sight, she also resolved to renounce the world. Realizing they were of like mind, Pipphali and Bhaddā put on the yellow robes of mendicants and abandoned their property. Although they left together, they parted ways lest they prove a hindrance to one another. Realizing what had transpired, the Buddha sat along Pipphali's path and showed himself resplendent with yogic power. Upon seeing the Buddha, Pipphali, whose name thenceforth became Kassapa, immediately recognized him as his teacher and was ordained. Traveling to Rājagaha (S. RĀJAGṚHA) with the Buddha, Mahākassapa requested to exchange his fine robe for the rag robe of the Buddha. The Buddha consented, and his conferral of his own rag robe on Mahākassapa was taken as a sign that, after the Buddha's demise, Mahākassapa would preside over the convention of the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST). Upon receiving the Buddha's robe, he took up the observance of thirteen ascetic practices (dhutanga) and in eight days became an arahant (S. ARHAT). Mahākassapa possessed great supranormal powers (P. iddhi; S. ṚDDHI) and was second only to the Buddha in his mastery of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA). His body was said to be adorned with seven of the thirty-two marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA). So revered by the gods was he, that at the Buddha's funeral, the divinities would not allow the funeral pyre to be lit until Mahākassapa arrived and had one last chance to worship the Buddha's body. Mahākassapa seems to have been the most powerful monk after the death of the Buddha and is considered by some schools to have been the Buddha's successor as the first in a line of teachers (dharmācārya). He is said to have called and presided over the first Buddhist council, which he convened after the Buddha's death to counter the heresy of the wicked monk SUBHADRA (P. Subhadda). Before the council began, he demanded that ĀNANDA become an arhat in order to participate, which Ānanda finally did early in the morning just before the event. At the council, he questioned Ānanda and UPĀLI about what should be included in the SuTRA and VINAYA collections (PItAKA), respectively. He also chastised Ānanda for several deeds of commission and omission, including his entreaty of the Buddha to allow women to enter the order (see MAHĀPRAJĀPATĪ), his allowing the tears of women to fall on the Buddha's corpse, his stepping on the robe of the Buddha while mending it, his failure to recall which minor monastic rules the Buddha said could be ignored after his death, and his failure to ask the Buddha to live for an eon or until the end of the eon (see CĀPĀLACAITYA). Pāli sources make no mention of Mahākassapa after the events of the first council, although the Sanskrit AsOKĀVADĀNA notes that he passed away beneath three hills where his body will remain uncorrupted until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA. At that time, his body will reanimate itself and hand over to Maitreya the rag robe of sĀKYAMUNI, thus passing on the dispensation of the buddhas. It is said that the robe will be very small, barely fitting over the finger of the much larger Maitreya. ¶ Like many of the great arhats, Mahākāsyapa appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely listed as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit Vimalakīrti. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understands the parable of the burning house and rejoices in the teaching of a single vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood. Mahākāsyapa is a central figure in the CHAN schools of East Asia. In the famous Chan story in which the Buddha conveys his enlightenment by simply holding up a flower before the congregation and smiling subtly (see NIANHUA WEIXIAO), it is only Mahākāsyapa who understands the Buddha's intent, making him the first recipient of the Buddha's "mind-to-mind" transmission (YIXIN CHUANXIN). He is thus considered the first patriarch (ZUSHI) of the Chan school.

Mahākātyāyana. (P. Mahākaccāna; T. Ka tya'i bu chen po; C. Mohejiazhanyan; J. Makakasen'en; K. Mahagajonyon 摩訶迦旃延). Also known as Kātyāyana (P. Kaccāna, Kaccāyana); Sanskrit name of one of the Buddha's chief disciples and an eminent ARHAT deemed foremost among the Buddha's disciples in his ability to elaborate on the Buddha's brief discourses. According to the Pāli accounts, where he is known as Mahākaccāna, he was the son of a brāhmana priest who served King Candappajjota of AVANTI. He was learned in the Vedas and assumed his father's position upon his death. He was called Kaccāna because of the golden hue of his body and because it was the name of his clan. Once, he and seven companions were sent by the king to invite the Buddha to Avanti, the capital city of Ujjenī (S. Ujjayinī). The Buddha preached a sermon to them, whereupon they all attained arhatship and entered the order. Mahākaccāna took up residence in a royal park in Ujjenī, where he was treated with great honor by the king. He was such an able preacher and explicator of doctrine that many persons joined the order, until, it is said, the entire kingdom of Avanti sparkled with yellow robes. He became most renowned for his discourses in the MADHUPIndIKASUTTA, Kaccāyanasutta, and Parāyanasutta. In a previous life, Mahākaccāna was a thaumaturge (vijjādhara; S. VIDHYĀDHARA) during the time of the buddha Padumuttara. It was then that he first made the vow to win the eminence he eventually did under Gotama (S. Gautama) Buddha. Although living far away in Avanti, Mahākaccāna often went to hear the Buddha preach, and the assembled elders always left a place for him. He is said to have requested the Buddha to allow for special dispensation to ordain new monks in outlying regions without the requisite number of monastic witnesses. Mahākaccāna was noted for his ability to provide detailed exegeses of the Buddha's sometimes laconic instructions and brief verses, and several suttas in the Pāli canon are ascribed to him. According to tradition, he is the author of the NETTIPPAKARAnA and the PEtAKOPADESA, which seek to provide the foundational principles that unify the sometimes variant teachings found in the suttas; these texts are some of the earliest antecedents of commentarial exegesis in the Pāli tradition and are the only commentaries included in the suttapitaka proper. He is also said to be the author of the Pāli grammar, the Kaccāyanavyākarana. According to the Sanskrit tradition, Mahākātyāyana was the initiator of the STHAVIRANIKĀYA branch of the mainstream Buddhist schools and traditional compiler of the ABHIDHARMA. The JNĀNAPRASTHĀNA of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMAPItAKA is attributed to him, but it was certainly composed several hundred years later by an author of the same name. He is often depicted holding an alm's bowl (PĀTRA) or with his fingers interlaced at his chest. Like many of the great arhats, Mahākātyāyana appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit the lay BODHISATTVA VIMALAKĪRTI. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understand the parable of the burning house and who rejoices in the teaching of the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood.

Mahāmaudgalyāyana. (P. Mahāmoggallāna; T. Mo'u 'gal gyi bu chen po; C. Mohemujianlian/Mulian; J. Makamokkenren/Mokuren; K. Mahamokkollyon/Mongnyon 摩訶目犍連/目連). An eminent ARHAT and one of the two chief disciples of the Buddha, often depicted together with his friend sĀRIPUTRA flanking the Buddha. Mahāmaudgalyāyana was considered supreme among the Buddha's disciples in supranormal powers (ṚDDHI). According to Pāli accounts, where he is called Moggallāna, he was older than the Buddha and born on the same day as sāriputra (P. Sāriputta). Both he and sāriputra were sons of wealthy families and were friends from childhood. Once, when witnessing a play, the two friends were overcome with a sense of the impermanence and the vanity of all things and decided to renounce the world as mendicants. They first became disciples of the agnostic SaNjaya Belatthiputta (SANJAYA VAIRĀtĪPUTRA), although later they took their leave and wandered the length and breadth of India in search of a teacher. Finding no one who satisfied them, they parted company, promising one another that if one should succeed he would inform the other. Later sāriputra met the Buddha's disciple, Assaji (S. AsVAJIT), who recited for him a précis of the Buddha's teachings, the so-called YE DHARMĀ verse, which immediately prompted sāriputra to attain the path of a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA). He repeated the stanza to Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who likewise immediately became a stream-enterer. The two friends thereupon resolved to take ordination as disciples of the Buddha and, together with five hundred disciples of their former teacher SaNjaya, proceeded to the Veluvana (S. VEnUVANAVIHĀRA) grove where the Buddha was residing. The Buddha ordained the entire group with the formula ehi bhikkhu pabbajjā ("Come forth, monks"; see EHIBHIKsUKĀ), whereupon all five hundred became arhats, except for sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana. Mahāmaudgalyāyana attained arhatship seven days after his ordination, while sāriputra reached the goal one week later. The Buddha declared sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana his chief disciples the day they were ordained, noting that they had both strenuously exerted themselves in countless previous lives for this distinction; they appear often as the bodhisattva's companions in the JĀTAKAs. sāriputra was chief among the Buddha's disciples in wisdom, while Mahāmaudgalyāyana was chief in mastery of supranormal powers. He could create doppelgängers of himself and transform himself into any shape he desired. He could perform intercelestial travel as easily as a person bends his arm, and the tradition is replete with the tales of his travels, such as flying to the Himālayas to find a medicinal plant to cure the ailing sāriputra. Mahāmaudgalyāyana said of himself that he could crush Mount SUMERU like a bean and roll up the world like a mat and twirl it like a potter's wheel. He is described as shaking the heavens of sAKRA and BRAHMĀ to dissuade them from their pride, and he often preached to the divinities in their abodes. Mahāmaudgalyāyana could see ghosts (PRETA) and other spirits without having to enter into meditative trance as did other meditation masters, and because of his exceptional powers the Buddha instructed him alone to subdue the dangerous NĀGA, Nandopananda, whose huge hood had darkened the world. Mahāmaudgalyāyana's powers were so immense that during a terrible famine, he offered to turn the earth's crust over to uncover the ambrosia beneath it; the Buddha wisely discouraged him, saying that such an act would confound creatures. Even so, Mahāmaudgalyāyana's supranormal powers, unsurpassed in the world, were insufficient to overcome the law of cause and effect and the power of his own former deeds, as the famous tale of his death demonstrates. A group of naked JAINA ascetics resented the fact that the people of the kingdom of MAGADHA had shifted their allegiance and patronage from them to the Buddha and his followers, and they blamed Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who had reported that, during his celestial and infernal travels, he had observed deceased followers of the Buddha in the heavens and the followers of other teachers in the hells. They hired a group of bandits to assassinate the monk. When he discerned that they were approaching, the eighty-four-year-old monk made his body very tiny and escaped through the keyhole. He eluded them in different ways for six days, hoping to spare them from committing a deed of immediate retribution (ĀNANTARYAKARMAN) by killing an arhat. On the seventh day, Mahāmaudgalyāyana temporarily lost his supranormal powers, the residual karmic effect of having beaten his blind parents to death in a distant previous lifetime, a crime for which he had previously been reborn in hell. The bandits ultimately beat him mercilessly, until his bones had been smashed to the size of grains of rice. Left for dead, Mahāmaudgalyāyana regained his powers and soared into the air and into the presence of the Buddha, where he paid his final respects and passed into NIRVĀnA at the Buddha's feet. ¶ Like many of the great arhats, Mahāmaudgalyāyana appears frequently in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, sometimes merely listed as a member of the audience, sometimes playing a more significant role. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, he is one of the sRĀVAKA disciples who is reluctant to visit VIMALAKĪRTI. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, he is one of four arhats who understands the parable of the burning house and who rejoices in the teaching of the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA); later in the sutra, the Buddha prophesies his eventual attainment of buddhahood. Mahāmaudgalyāyana is additionally famous in East Asian Buddhism for his role in the apocryphal YULANBEN JING. The text describes his efforts to save his mother from the tortures of her rebirth as a ghost (preta). Mahāmaudgalyāyana (C. Mulian) is able to use his supranormal powers to visit his mother in the realm of ghosts, but the food that he offers her immediately bursts into flames. The Buddha explains that it is impossible for the living to make offerings directly to the dead; instead, one should make offerings to the SAMGHA in a bowl, and the power of their meditative practices will be able to save one's ancestors and loved ones from rebirths in the unfortunate realms (DURGATI).

Maha panya paramil kyong 摩訶般若波羅蜜經. See PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA

Mahāvedallasutta. (C. Dajuchiluo jing; J. Daikuchirakyo; K. Taeguch'ira kyong 大拘絺羅經). In Pāli, "Greater Discourse on Points of Doctrine"; the forty-third sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); expounded by Sāriputra (S. sĀRIPUTRA) to the monk Mahākotthita (S. KAUstHILA) at Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) in the JETAVANA grove. Mahākotthita approached sāriputra and questioned him concerning a number of points of doctrine preached by the Buddha. These included, what is wisdom (PRAJNĀ); what is consciousness (VIJNĀNA) and its relation to wisdom; what is sensation (VEDANĀ); what is perception (SAMJNĀ) and what is the relation between sensation, perception, and consciousness; what is knowable by the mind alone; what is existence and how many kinds of existence are there; what is the first meditative absorption (DHYĀNA); what are the five sense faculties (INDRIYA); and what are the various kinds of deliverance attained through meditation (VIMUKTI). sāriputra answered all of questions put to him to Mahākotthiya's satisfaction.

Maka hannya haramitsukyo 摩訶般若波羅蜜經. See PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA

MaNjusrī. (T. 'Jam dpal; C. Wenshushili; J. Monjushiri; K. Munsusari 文殊師利). In Sanskrit, "Gentle Glory," also known as MANJUGHOsA, "Gentle Voice"; one of the two most important BODHISATTVAs in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism (along with AVALOKITEsVARA). MaNjusrī seems to derive from a celestial musician (GANDHARVA) named PaNcasikha (Five Peaks), who dwelled on a five-peaked mountain (see WUTAISHAN), whence his toponym. MaNjusrī is the bodhisattva of wisdom and sometimes is said to be the embodiment of all the wisdom of all the buddhas. MaNjusrī, Avalokitesvara, and VAJRAPĀnI are together known as the "protectors of the three families" (TRIKULANĀTHA), representing wisdom, compassion, and power, respectively. Among his many epithets, the most common is KUMĀRABHuTA, "Ever Youthful." Among MaNjusrī's many forms, the most famous shows him seated in the lotus posture (PADMĀSANA), dressed in the raiments of a prince, his right hand holding a flaming sword above his head, his left hand holding the stem of a lotus that blossoms over his left shoulder, a volume of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ atop the lotus. MaNjusrī plays a major role in many of the most renowned Mahāyāna sutras. MaNjusrī first comes to prominence in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, which probably dates no later than the first century CE, where only MaNjusrī has the courage to visit and debate with the wise layman VIMALAKĪRTI and eventually becomes the interlocutor for Vimalakīrti's exposition of the dharma. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, only MaNjusrī understands that the Buddha is about to preach the "Lotus Sutra." In the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, it is MaNjusrī who sends SUDHANA out on his pilgrimage. In the Ajātasatrukaukṛtyavinodana, it is revealed that MaNjusrī inspired sĀKYAMUNI to set out on the bodhisattva path many eons ago, and that he had played this same role for all the buddhas of the past; indeed, the text tells us that MaNjusrī, in his guise as an ever-youthful prince, is the father of all the buddhas. He is equally important in tantric texts, including those in which his name figures in the title, such as the MANJUsRĪMuLAKALPA and the MANJUsRĪNĀMASAMGĪTI. The bull-headed deity YAMĀNTAKA is said to be the wrathful form of MaNjusrī. Buddhabhadra's early fifth-century translation of the AvataMsakasutra is the first text that seemed to connect MaNjusrī with Wutaishan (Five-Terrace Mountain) in China's Shaanxi province. Wutaishan became an important place of pilgrimage in East Asia beginning at least by the Northern Wei dynasty (424-532), and eventually drew monks in search of a vision of MaNjusrī from across the Asian continent, including Korea, Japan, India, and Tibet. The Svayambhupurāna of Nepal recounts that MaNjusrī came from China to worship the STuPA located in the middle of a great lake. So that humans would be able worship the stupa, he took his sword and cut a great gorge at the southern edge of the lake, draining the water and creating the Kathmandu Valley. As the bodhisattva of wisdom, MaNjusrī is propiated by those who wish to increase their knowledge and learning. It is considered efficacious to recite his mantra "oM arapacana dhīḥ" (see ARAPACANA); Arapacana is an alternate name for MaNjusrī.

Mohe bore boluomi jing 摩訶般若波羅蜜經. See PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA

moksa. (P. mokkha; T. thar pa; C. jietuo; J. gedatsu; K. haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberation," "freedom" or "release"; the state of liberation from suffering and rebirth, achieved via the path of the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, or BODHISATTVA and virtually interchangeable with the synonymous VIMOKsA. The term is often used as a synonym for NIRVĀnA. Buddhahood is the ultimate form of moksa, but it is possible to achieve liberation (as an ARHAT) without achieving buddhahood. Whether all beings will eventually achieve some form of moksa and whether all beings will eventually achieve buddhahood are points of controversy among Buddhist schools. The term is often paired with SVARGA ("heaven") as the two destinations that may result from practicing the Buddha's teachings. That is, by leading a virtuous life, one is reborn as a divinity (DEVA) in one of several heavenly realms. By understanding the nature of reality, one attains moksa, final liberation from all forms of rebirth. In this pairing, svarga is the lesser goal for those incapable of seeking the ultimate goal of moksa in the present lifetime.

Mugujonggwang taedarani kyong. (S. Rasmivimalavisuddhaprabhādhāranī; T. 'Od zer dri ma med pa rnam par dag pa'i 'od gzungs; C. Wugoujingguang datuoluoni jing; J. Mukujoko daidaranikyo 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經). In Korean, "Great DHĀRAnĪ Scripture of Immaculate Radiance"; the world's oldest extant printed text, printed c. 751 CE in Silla dynasty Korea. The woodblock printing of the text was rediscovered in 1966 during reconstruction of the Sokka t'ap (sĀKYAMUNI STuPA) at the royal monastery of PULGUKSA in the ancient Silla capital of KYoNGJU. The terminus ad quem for its printing is 751 CE, when the text was sealed inside the Sokka t'ap, but since the colophon to the Dhāranī states that it was translated into Chinese in 704 by *Mitrasānta, the printing may well have occurred decades earlier. The dhāranī was printed using xylographic (woodblock) technology, in which the Sinographs are carved on specially cured wood in mirror image, then an impression taken off the blocks with ink.

Nārāyana. (T. Sred med kyi bu; C. Naluoyan tian; J. Naraenten; K. Narayon ch'on 那羅延天). In ancient India, Nārāyana was the son of the primordial person (purusa) and was later regarded as an avatar of the Hindu god Visnu. He was adopted into Buddhism as one of the guardian deities (DHARMAPĀLA). His image is often seen standing at the entrance to a monastery, protecting its hallowed precincts from baleful influences. Because the divinity BRAHMĀ (alt. Mahābrahmā) was born from a lotus that blossomed from the navel of Nārāyana, Nārāyana is also sometimes identified as being the mother of Brahmā, the presiding divinity in the third and highest of the three levels of the first DHYĀNA heaven in the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU). (Like Nārāyana, Brahmā is also adopted into Buddhism as a dharmapāla.) Since Brahmā is regarded as the "father of creatures," Nārāyana is in turn called the "Origin of Human Life" (C. Renshengben). Nārāyana is said to dwell in the Diamond Grotto on WUTAISHAN in China, which leads directly to the pure land and was thought to be the site where MANJUsRĪ and VIMALAKĪRTI discussed the MAHĀYĀNA teachings in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA.

nervimotion ::: n. --> The movement caused in the sensory organs by external agents and transmitted to the muscles by the nerves.

nervimotor ::: n. --> Any agent capable of causing nervimotion.

nijusogya 二十僧伽. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

nimitta. (T. mtshan ma; C. xiang/ruixiang; J. so/zuiso; K. sang/sosang 相/瑞相). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "mark" or "sign," in the sense of a distinguishing characteristic, or a meditative "image." Among its several denotations, three especially deserve attention. (1) In Buddhist epistemology, nimitta refers to the generic appearance of an object, in distinction to its secondary characteristics, or ANUVYANJANA. Advertence toward the generic sign and secondary characteristics of an object produces a recognition or perception (SAMJNĀ) of that object, which may in turn lead to clinging or rejection and ultimately suffering. Thus nimitta often carries the negative sense of false or deceptive marks that are imagined to inhere in an object, resulting in the misperception of that object as real, intrinsically existent, or endowed with self. Thus, the apprehension of signs (nimittagrāha) is considered a form of ignorance (AVIDYĀ), and the perception of phenomena as signless (ĀNIMITTA) is a form of wisdom that constitutes one of three "gates to deliverance" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), along with emptiness (suNYATĀ) and wishlessness (APRAnIHITA). (2) In the context of THERAVĀDA meditation practice (BHĀVANĀ), as set forth in such works as the VISUDDHIMAGGA, nimitta refers to an image that appears to the mind after developing a certain degree of mental concentration (SAMĀDHI). At the beginning of a meditation exercise that relies, e.g., on an external visual support (KASInA), such as a blue circle, the initial mental image one recalls is termed the "preparatory image" (PARIKAMMANIMITTA). With the deepening of concentration, the image becomes more refined but is still unsteady; at that stage, it is called the "acquired image" or "eidetic image" (UGGAHANIMITTA). When one reaches access or neighborhood concentration (UPACĀRASAMĀDHI), a clear, luminous image appears to the mind, which is called the "counterpart image" or "representational image" (PAtIBHĀGANIMITTA). It is through further concentration on this stable "representational image" that the mind finally attains "full concentration" (APPANĀSAMĀDHI), i.e, meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA). (3) The term also appears in CATURNIMITTA, the "four signs," "sights," or "portents," which were the catalysts that led the future buddha SIDDHĀRTHA GAUTAMA to renounce the world (see PRAVRAJITA) and pursue liberation from the cycle of birth and death (SAMSĀRA): specifically, the sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a religious mendicant (sRAMAnA).

nirvānadhātu. (P. nibbānadhātu; T. mya ngan las 'das pa'i dbyings; C. niepanjie; J. nehankai; K. yolban'gye 涅槃界). In Sanskrit, "the nirvāna element," a term that is essentially synonymous with NIRVĀnA and refers to the plane or state experienced through the liberation (VIMOKsA) that derives from the extinction of suffering (DUḤKHA). In the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, two types of nirvānadhātu are discussed. First is the nirvānadhātu with remainder (sopadhisesanirvānadhātu, see SOPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), where the remainder is the residue of the aggregates (SKANDHA); this form is the nirvāna that is experienced while the body remains alive. Second is the nirvānadhātu without remainder (nirupadhisesanirvānadhātu; see NIRUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA, ANUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), the nirvāna achieved upon the death of an ARHAT or a buddha, in which there is no "remainder" of materiality and mentality (NĀMARuPA); this type is synonymous with PARINIRVĀnA.

nirvāna. (P. nibbāna; T. mya ngan las 'das pa; C. niepan; J. nehan; K. yolban 涅槃). In Sanskrit, "extinction"; the earliest and most common term describing the soteriological goal of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA). Its etymology and meaning have been widely discussed by both traditional exegetes and modern scholars. Nirvāna is commonly interpreted as meaning "blowing out" (from the Sanskrit root √vā, "to blow," plus the prefix nir-, "out"), as "when a flame is blown out by the wind," to use the famous metaphor from the AttHAKAVAGGA, and is thus sometimes glossed as the extinction of the flame of desire (RĀGA) or, more broadly, to the extinction of the "three poisons" (TRIVIsA) or primary afflictions (KLEsA) of greed/sensuality (RĀGA or LOBHA), hatred/aversion (DVEsA), and delusion/ignorance (MOHA). In a more technical sense, nirvāna is interpreted as the cessation of the afflictions (klesa), of the actions (KARMAN) produced by these afflictions, and eventually of the mind and body (NĀMARuPA; SKANDHA) produced by karman, such that rebirth (SAMSĀRA) ceases for the person who has completed the path. In the first sermon after his enlightenment, "Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma" (P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA; S. DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), the Buddha outlines the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni), the third of which was the "truth of cessation" (NIRODHASATYA). This state of the cessation of suffering (DUḤKHA) and its causes (SAMUDAYA) is glossed as nirvāna. In one famous description of nirvāna, the Buddha explained, "There is that plane (ĀYATANA) where there is neither earth, water, fire, nor air [viz., the four MAHĀBHuTA], neither the sphere of infinite space [ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA] ... nor the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception [NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA], neither this world nor another nor both together, neither the sun nor the moon. Here, O monks, I say that there is no coming or going, no staying, no passing away or arising. It is not something fixed, it moves not on, it is not based on anything. This is indeed the end of suffering." Even though this is a thoroughly negative description of nirvāna, it is important to note that the passage opens with the certitude that "there is that plane...." Whether this state of cessation represents a form of "annihilation" is a question that preoccupied early scholarship on Buddhism. The Buddha described human existence as qualified by various forms of suffering, sought a state that would transcend such suffering, and determined that, in order to put an end to suffering, one must destroy its causes: unwholesome (AKUsALA) actions (karman) and the negative afflictions (klesa) that motivate them. If these causes could be destroyed, they would no longer have any effect, resulting in the cessation of suffering and thus nirvāna. Nirvāna, therefore, was not regarded as a place or state of existence, since by definition that would mean it was part of saMsāra and thus subject to impermanence and suffering. Nirvāna is instead an absence, and it is often described in rigidly apophatic terms, as in the passage above, as if by describing what nirvāna was not, at least some sense of what it is could be conveyed. When the tradition attempts more positive descriptions, nirvāna is sometimes described as deathless (AMṚTA), imperishable (acyuta), uncreated (abhuta), peace (upasama), bliss (SUKHA), etc. The concept of nirvāna may be somewhat more accessible if it is approached soteriologically, as the culmination of the Buddhist path of practice (mārga). At the upper reaches of the path, the adept must pass through three "gates to liberation" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), which mark the transition from the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) realm of saMsāra to the uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realm of nirvāna. In approaching nirvāna, the adept first passes through the gate of emptiness (suNYATĀ), which reveals that nirvāna is empty of anything associated with a sense of self. Next comes the gate of signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), which reveals that nirvāna has nothing by which it may be perceived. Finally comes the gate of wishlessness (APRAnIHITA), meaning that nirvāna can be achieved only when one no longer has any desire for, or attachment to, nirvāna. Exactly what persisted in the state of nirvāna was the subject of considerable discussion over the history of the tradition. The Buddha is said to have realized nirvāna when he achieved enlightenment at the age of thirty-five, thus eradicating the causes of future rebirth. After this experience, however, he continued to live for another forty-five years, and, upon his death, he entered nirvāna, never to be reborn again. Because of this gap between his initial experience of nirvāna and his final PARINIRVĀnA, the scholastic tradition therefore distinguished between two types of nirvāna. The first type is the "nirvāna with remainder" (SOPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), sometimes interpreted as the "nirvāna associated with the klesas." This is the state of nirvāna achieved prior to death, where the "remainder" refers to the mind and body of this final existence. This is the nirvāna achieved by the Buddha under the BODHI TREE. However, the inertia of the karman that had led to this present life was still operating and would continue to do so until his death. Thus, his mind and body during the remainder of his final lifetime were what was left over after he realized nirvāna. The second type is referred to as the "nirvāna without remainder" (ANUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA or NIRUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), sometimes interpreted as the "nirvāna of the skandhas." This is the nirvāna achieved at death, in which the causes of all future existence have been extinguished, bringing the chain of causation of both the physical form and consciousness to an end and leaving nothing remaining to be reborn. This is also called "final nirvāna" (parinirvāna), and it is what the Buddha achieved at the time of his demise at KUsINAGARĪ. These states were accessible to all adepts who followed the Buddhist path to its conclusion. In the case of the Buddha, some traditions also refer to the third type of nirvāna, the "final nirvāna of the relics" (sarīraparinirvāna), viz., the dissolution of the relics (sARĪRA) of the Buddha at a point in the distant future. According to Buddhist eschatology, there will come a time in the far distant future when the teachings of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha will disappear from the world, and his relics will no longer be honored. At that point, the relics that have been enshrined in reliquaries (STuPA) around the world will be released from their shrines and be magically transported to BODHGAYĀ, where they will reassemble into the resplendent body of the Buddha, who will be seated in the lotus posture under the Bodhi tree, emitting rays of light that illuminate ten thousand world systems. The relics will be worshipped by the divinities (DEVA) one last time and then will burst into flames and disappear into the sky. Until that time, the relics of the Buddha are to be regarded as his living presence, infused with all of his marvelous qualities. With the rise of MAHĀYĀNA, the "nirvāna without remainder" came to be disparaged in some texts as excessively quietistic, and the Buddha's passage into parinirvāna was described as simply a display; the Buddha is instead said to be eternal, inhabiting a place that is neither in saMsāra nor nirvāna and that is referred to as the "unlocated nirvāna" (APRATIstHITANIRVĀnA). The MADHYAMAKA philosopher NĀGĀRJUNA declared that there was not the slightest difference between saMsāra and nirvāna, a statement taken to mean that both are equally empty of any intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA). Madhyamaka texts also refer to a nirvāna that is "intrinsically extinguished" (PRAKṚTIPARINIRVṚTA); this quiescence that is inherent in all phenomena is a synonym of emptiness (suNYATĀ).

nirveda. (P. nibbidā; T. skyo ba; C. yan; J. en; K. yom 厭). In Sanskrit, "disgust," "disillusionment," "loathing"; a term used in Buddhist meditation theory to indicate the preliminary and conditional turning away from the things of this world and turning toward NIRVĀnA, which serves as the crucial mental factor (DHARMA) in catalyzing the transition from an ordinary person (PṚTHAGJANA) to a noble one (ĀRYA). There has been considerable discussion in the literature on the precise meaning of nirveda, with connotations suggested that range from disgust to disappointment to indifference. As the meditator comes to recognize that all worldly objects that may be perceived through the senses are impermanent (ANITYA), he realizes that association with, let alone attachment to, them will inexorably lead to suffering (DUḤKHA). The recognition of the ubiquity of suffering leads the adept inevitably toward a sense of nirveda, the volition to distance oneself from these worldly objects and to seek the alternative that is nirvāna. As a by-product of the experience of YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA ("seeing things as they really are"), nirveda thus produces the mental factor VAIRĀGYA ("dispassion"), which ultimately leads to VIMOKsA ("liberation").

nisthāmārga. (T. mthar phyin pa'i lam; C. jiujingdao/wei; J. kukyodo/i; K. kugyongdo/wi 究竟道/位). In Sanskrit, "path of completion," the fifth of the "five-path" (PANCAMĀRGA) schema described in both SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and the YOGĀCĀRA school of MAHĀYĀNA. With the consummation of the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA), the adept achieves the "adamantine-like concentration" (VAJROPAMASAMĀDHI), which leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA), resulting in the "knowledge of cessation" (KsAYAJNĀNA) and in some presentations an accompanying "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., the knowledges that the fetters are destroyed and can never again recur. Because the adept now has full knowledge of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA) and has achieved liberation (VIMOKsA), he no longer needs any further instruction; for this reason, this path is also described as the "path where there is nothing more to learn" (AsAIKsAMĀRGA). With the attainment of this path, the practitioner is freed from the possibility of any further rebirth due to the causal force of KARMAN.

nisthā. (P. nitthā; T. mthar phyin pa; C. jiujing; J. kukyo; K. kugyong 究竟). In Sanskrit, "the end," "completion." In mainstream Buddhist materials, the Buddha often described the consummation of religious training and the achievement of the state of either stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) or ARHAT as "the end"; the term is synonymous with the "deathless" (AMṚTA) and thus "liberation" (VIMOKsA). The term appears in a variety of contexts in both mainstream and MAHĀYĀNA traditions to mean "coming to the end" of practice, viz., to achieve spiritual perfection, as in the soteriological term "path of completion" (NIstHĀMĀRGA).

Niutou Farong. (J. Gozu Hoyu; K. Udu Pobyung 牛頭法融) (594-657). In Chinese, "Oxhead, Dharma Interfusion"; proper name of the founder of an early CHAN school often known in English as the "Oxhead school" (NIUTOU ZONG), after his toponym Niutou (Oxhead). Farong was a native of Yanling in present-day Jiangsu province. Little is known of his early years. He is said to have studied the teachings of MADHYAMAKA and to have spent twenty years in the mountains after his ordination by a certain dharma master Ling (d.u.). In 643, Farong entered the monastery of Youqisi on Mt. Niutou (in present-day Jiangsu province), whence he acquired his toponym. In 647, he gave a public lecture on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and six years later he lectured on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA at the monastery of Jianchusi (see BAO'ENSI). The influential treatise JUEGUAN LUN ("Extinguishing Cognition Treatise") is attributed by tradition to BODHIDHARMA, the legendary founder of the Chan school, but it is now generally believed to have been composed by Farong or one of his students. Although Farong's official biography in the XU GAOSENG ZHUAN does not mention this event, later stele inscriptions and Chan genealogical histories (see CHUANDENG LU) report that DAOXIN, the putative fourth patriarch of the Chan school, instructed Farong in the sudden teaching (DUNJIAO); Farong's connections with Daoxin are, however, historically dubious. Some of the more unusual positions Farong took include the notion that even inanimate objects, such as rocks, rivers, and flowers, possess the buddha-nature (FOXING). Farong was also one of the earliest teachers in the Chan school to advocate the nonreliance on conceptual descriptions of Buddhism (see BULI WENZI).

nonattachment. Despite its ubiquity in Western Buddhist literature, there is no precise equivalency in Indian Buddhist terminology for this English word. For some of the connotations of nonattachment, see ALOBHA; ANUPALABDHI; NIRVEDA; UPEKsĀ; VIMOKsA; VAIRĀGYA.

Nyi shu pa. See VIMsATIKĀ

of the 12 signs of the zodiac, is called Kukhavim.

one goes beyond, there arc no vim.^ t • things do not belong to the Divine Nature

osier ::: n. --> A kind of willow (Salix viminalis) growing in wet places in Europe and Asia, and introduced into North America. It is considered the best of the willows for basket work. The name is sometimes given to any kind of willow.
One of the long, pliable twigs of this plant, or of other similar plants. ::: a.


p'al haet'al 八解脱. See AstAVIMOKsA

paNcamārga. (T. lam lnga; C. wuwei; J. goi; K. owi 五位). In Sanskrit, "five paths," the most common description of the path to enlightenment in Sanskrit Buddhism: (1) the path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA), (2) the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA), (3) the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), (4) the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA), and (5) the adept path, lit., "the path where there is nothing more to learn" (AsAIKsAMĀRGA). These five paths are progressive, moving the practitioner sequentially from ordinary existence towards enlightenment and complete liberation from suffering. This system is elaborated especially in SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA materials, as well as in the YOGĀCĀRA school of the MAHĀYĀNA. Depending on the source in which it is discussed, the paNcamārga can therefore be deployed to describe the spiritual development culminating in the rank of ARHAT or culminating in the rank of buddha. The general features of each of the five stages are as follows. ¶ The first is the "path of accumulation" or "equipment" (saMbhāramārga), wherein the practitioner develops a small degree of three prerequisite qualities for spiritual advancement: morality (sĪLA) by way of the basic precepts, merit (PUnYA) by way of veneration, and concentration (SAMĀDHI). The path of accumulation marks the beginning of the religious life. ¶ In the second "path of preparation" (prayogamārga), the practitioner continues to cultivate those qualities developed in the first path, but also undertakes a more stringent cultivation of concentration (samādhi) through the practice of calmness (sAMATHA); he also begins the cultivation of wisdom (PRAJNĀ) through the practice of insight (VIPAsYANĀ). ¶ With the third path, the "path of vision" (darsanamārga), the practitioner comes to a direct perception of the true nature of reality as it is. This reality may be described in terms of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) and/or emptiness (suNYATĀ). In the Yogācāra school, this path is understood as the realization that subject and object derive from the same source and a subsequent perception of phenomenal objects without the intervention of conventional labels. The darsanamārga is of particular importance because it typically marks the end of the mundane path of training and the beginning of the supramundane path of sanctity; thus, it is upon entering the path of vision that one becomes a noble person (ĀRYA). In abhidharma models, the path of vision corresponds to the stage of stream-entry (SROTAĀPANNA); in later Mahāyāna models, attainment of this path marks the first stage (BHuMI) of the bodhisattva path. ¶ The fourth path, the "path of cultivation" or "development" (bhāvanāmārga), involves the reinforcement and deepening of the insights developed in the path of vision. This cultivation is accomplished by advanced stages of meditation, through which one eliminates the most subtle and deep-rooted afflictions (KLEsA). The various schools delineate the meditative practices involved in this path in a variety of ways. The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA, for example, schematizes this path both in terms of the nature or object of the meditation and in terms of the type of affliction that is abandoned during practice. ¶ Finally, the fifth stage, the adept path, lit., the "path where there is nothing more to learn" or the "path where no further training is necessary" (asaiksamārga), is synonymous with the soteriological goal, whether that is the state of an arhat or a buddha. With the consummation of the path of cultivation, the adept achieves the "adamantine-like concentration" (VAJROPAMASAMĀDHI), which leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA), resulting in the "knowledge of cessation" (KsAYAJNĀNA) and in some presentations an accompanying "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., the knowledges that the fetters were destroyed and could never again recur. With the attainment of this path, the practitioner has nothing more he needs to learn and is freed from the possibility of any further rebirth due to the causal force of KARMAN. This final path is also sometimes referred to as the NIstHĀMĀRGA, or "path of completion." All those proceeding to a state of liberation (VIMOKsA), whether as an arhat or as a buddha, are said to traverse these five paths. See also ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA; VIMOKsAMĀRGA.

PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra

PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa; C. Mohe bore boluomi jing; J. Maka hannya haramitsukyo; K. Maha panya paramil kyong 摩訶般若波羅蜜經). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines," one of the three most important of the "large" PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, together with the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in One-Hundred Thousand Lines") and the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines"). The early prajNāpāramitā sutras were named based upon their length. The scholarly consensus is that the earliest of the sutras of this genre was the version in eight thousand lines. Although it is not strictly the case that the two larger sutras are simply prolix expansions of the shorter sutra, there is considerable repetition among the texts, with the larger sutras increasing the number of categories to which various qualifications, including negations, were made. The prajNāpāramitā sutras are said to have an explicit meaning and a hidden meaning: the former is the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), the latter is the structure of the bodhisattva's path (MĀRGA) to this enlightenment. This structure is set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA attributed to MAITREYANĀTHA, one of the most widely commented upon of all Mahāyāna sĀSTRAs in India. Although the text does not explicitly say so, the AbhisamayālaMkāra is said to derive its categories from the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikā. Ārya VIMUKTISENA, Bhadanta Vimuktisena, and HARIBHADRA each wrote commentaries on the AbhisamayālaMkāra, in which they explicitly connect it with the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikā. The DAZHIDU LUN is also considered a commentary on this sutra.

Pang Yun. (J. Ho On; K. Pang On 龐蘊) (740-808). One of the most famous lay adepts of the CHAN ZONG, commonly known within the tradition as "Layman Pang" (PANG JUSHI); also referred to as "VIMALAKĪRTI of the East" (Dongtu Weimo). PENG SHAOSHENG (1740-1796), in his JUSHI ZHUAN ("Biographies of Lay Buddhists"), lists Pang Yun as one of the three great lay masters (sangong) of Chinese Buddhism, along with LI TONGXUAN (635-730) and LIU CHENGZHI (354-410), praising Pang for his mastery of Chan practice. One of the famous anecdotes regarding Pang is that, in his middle age, he gave his house away to be used for a monastery and discarded all his personal possessions by loading them onto a boat and sinking them in a river. Subsequently, he is said to have earned his livelihood by making and selling bamboo utensils. He is presumed to have carried on religious practices at a hermitage separate from his residence. Pang was father to both a son and a daughter. The daughter, LING ZHAO, who also attained a deep understanding of Chan, seems to have had an especially close spiritual relationship with her father. Pang is presumed to have visited the Chan master SHITOU XIQIAN (710-790) about 785, whom he asked, "What man is it who does not accompany the ten thousand dharmas?" Shitou covered the layman's mouth with his hand and Pang Yun was instantly enlightened. The layman stayed with Shitou until 786, when he traveled to visit MAZU DAOYI (707-786), one of the most influential Chan masters of his time. When the layman asked Mazu the same question he had asked Shitou, Mazu is said to have replied: "Wait till you've swallowed in one swig all the water of the West River, then I'll tell you," whereupon he attained great enlightenment. After staying with Mazu for two years, Pang Yun is believed to have started pilgrimages around central China, probably writing many verses that are extant now in materials such as the PANG JUSHI YULU ("Recorded Sayings of Layman Pang"), the posthumous records of Pang's later years compiled by his friend the prefect Yu Di. Perhaps the most famous saying attributed to Pang Yun is: "Supernatural powers and marvelous activities are drawing water and carrying firewood." Pang is said to have had a premonition of the time of his death. When he was about to die, he sat up cross-legged in his bed and told his daughter to report to him when it was noon, at which point he would pass away; she looked out and said, "The sun has just reached the zenith, but there is an eclipse." While the layman went out to look at the eclipse, his daughter sat down sat cross-legged on his bed and passed away herself. Seeing this, the layman said, "My daughter has anticipated me." He then postponed his death for seven days and died in the presence of his friend Yu Di, uttering these final words: "Please just regard as empty everything in existence, but beware of presuming that all nonexistence is real. Live comfortably in the world, where all is like shadows and echoes." Records pertaining to Layman Pang are also found in such major Chan texts as BIYAN LU, CHODANG CHIP, ZONGJING LU, and JINGDE CHUANDENG LU.

paNNāvimutta. See PRAJNĀVIMUKTA

Paramārtha. (C. Zhendi; J. Shindai; K. Chinje 眞諦) (499-569). Indian Buddhist monk, translator, and exegete. Paramārtha is said to have been a native of Ujjayinī in western India. Little is known of his early career, but he became renowned in China after arriving at the capital of Jiangang (near present-day Nanjing) and the court of the Liang-dynasty Emperor Wu (r. 502-549) in 546 CE. Under the patronage of Emperor Wu, Paramārtha began translating the many scriptures that he is said to have brought with him from India. After a rebellion took the life of the emperor, Paramārtha headed south, where he continued his translation activities with the support of local rulers. His translations include the SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA (552), Suixiang lun zhong shiliu di shu (555-556), Anuttarāsrayasutra (557), MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA (558?), and VIMsATIKĀ (563), among others; the apocryphal DASHENG QIXIN LUN is also said by tradition to have been translated (in 553) by Paramārtha. Another influential anthology attributed to Paramārtha is the Wuxiang lun (consisting of the treatises Zhuanshi lun, San wuxing lun, and Xianshi lun), which posits the existence of an immaculate ninth consciousness known as the AMALAVIJNĀNA and contends that the eighth consciousness, or ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA, is impure. These claims were further developed by his followers in the SHE LUN ZONG exegetical tradition, who based their claims on Paramārtha's influential translation of the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. Paramārtha died in 569 while translating the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA. Among his disciples, Huikai (518-568) and Fatai (d. 601) are most famous.

Paramatthadīpanī. In Pāli, "Lamp on the Ultimate Truth" (S. PARAMĀRTHA), a commentary on the UDĀNA, ITIVUTTAKA, VIMĀNAVATTHU, PETAVATTHU, THERAGĀTHĀ and THERĪGĀTHĀ of the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA by the post-fifth-century CE exegete DHAMMAPĀLA; this exegesis is also called the Vimalavilāsinī. ¶ The Paramatthadīpanī is also the name of a modern critique of the Porānatīkā written in Pāli by LEDI SAYADAW.

parihāni. (P. parihāni; T. yongs su nyams pa; C. tui; J. tai; K. t'oe 退). In Sanskrit, lit., "diminution," "retrogression," or "backsliding" from virtuous states that had previously been cultivated or mastered. Parihāni refers specifically to the diminution of mental states that had been directed toward liberation (VIMUKTI), which allows mental disturbances to reappear and thus causes regression to previous habitual tendencies involving unwholesome or mundane thoughts and activities. The term often appears in debates concerning the issue of whether the noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) are subject to backsliding. Such MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS as the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA, SARVĀSTIVĀDA, and SAMMITĪYA argued, for example, that ARHATs were subject to backsliding because they were still prone to vestigial negative proclivities of mind (ANUsAYA), even if those only manifested themselves while the monks were sleeping, e.g., nocturnal emissions. The STHAVIRANIKĀYA argued that arhats were not subject to backsliding since they had perfected all the necessary stages of training and were free from such proclivities. Related to this issue are discussions concerning the status of once-returners (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN) and nonreturners (ANĀGĀMIN): the majority of schools posited that once-returners and nonreturners could regress to the status of the stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), the first level of sanctity, but that the status of the stream-enterer was not subject to retrogression and was thus inviolate. In the PURE LAND tradition, backsliding is a core rationale justifying the pure land teachings, since, in the world of SAMSĀRA, backsliding is inevitable for all except the most resolute practitioners. According to the AMITĀBHASuTRA, for example, sentient beings have accumulated karmic burdens since time immemorial and are invariably subject to backsliding; thus, they will never be able to escape from the endless cycle of birth-and-death on their own. For this reason, the buddha AMITĀBHA encourages them to seek rebirth in the pure land, instead, where they will have no hindrances to their eventual attainment of liberation. In the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, reaching the stage where there no longer is any prospect of regression is a crucial threshold on the path to liberation. Different scriptures place this point of nonbacksliding at different stages along the path. One of the most common explanations about which stage is "irreversible" (AVAIVARTIKA) appears in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, which locates it on the eighth stage (BHuMI), the "immovable" (ACALĀ), where further progress is assured and where there is no possible of retrogressing to a preceding stage. However, HARIBHADRA in his commentary on the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA identifies two earlier points at which the bodhisattva becomes irreversible, one on the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA) and one on the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA).

parisuddhabuddhaksetra. (T. sangs rgyas kyi shing yongs su dag pa; C. qingjing foguotu; J. shojo bukkokudo; K. ch'ongjong pulgukt'o 清淨佛國土). In Sanskrit, "purified buddha-field." In the MAHĀYĀNA, when a buddha attains enlightenment, he not only achieves the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of a buddha, but also creates a land in which he will preach the dharma. That land can be either pure, impure, or mixed. A pure buddha field may be one in which the inhabitants engage in only virtuous deeds and experience no suffering. The term is also used to describe a buddha-field that does not include the unfortunate realms (APĀYA; DURGATI) of animals, ghosts, and hell denizens. The buddha-field of Amitābha, SUKHĀVATĪ, is a pure field in these two senses (although the term parisuddhabuddhaksetra does not appear in the SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA). The term may also be used with regard to whether the inhabitants of the buddha-field are all BODHISATTVAs, or all ĀRYABODHISATTVAs, that is, those who have achieved at least the first BHuMI. It is possible that the Chinese term JINGTU (the source of the English term "PURE LAND"), which does not appear to be a direct translation from Sanskrit, derives from parisuddhabuddhaksetra, perhaps as an abbreviation of it. In the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA's explanation of the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, the parisuddhabuddhaksetra is twofold, corresponding to the BHĀJANALOKA ("container world," referring to the wider environment or the physical or inanimate world) and the SATTVALOKA, the "world of sentient beings," who are the inhabitants of that "container." A degraded environment with treeless deserts, thornbushes, and so on is impure; when beings are sick and hungry, etc., the sattvaloka is impure. The perfect purity of a buddha-field comes about when a bodhisattva achieves the purity of those two worlds by counteracting their imperfections through the creation of an entirely pleasant environment, and through the supply of food, clothing, shelter, etc.

pelvimeter ::: n. --> An instrument for measuring the dimensions of the pelvis.

Petavatthu. In Pāli, "Accounts of Ghosts," the seventh book of the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA. It consists of fifty-one stories of petas (S. PRETA, often translated as "ghosts" or "hungry ghosts") who are suffering the negative consequences of their unsalutary deeds in a previous life. The stories seem to have been intended to serve as cautionary tales for the laity; the Petavatthu describes the horrors that await the wicked, just as the VIMĀNAVATTHU describes the pleasures in the heavens that await the good. In most of the stories, a monk encounters a peta and asks how he or she has come to suffer this fate. The peta then recounts the negative deeds in a former life that led to the present sorrowful rebirth.

prajNāvimukta. (P. paNNāvimutta; T. shes rab kyis rnam par grol ba; C. hui jietuo; J. egedatsu; K. hyehaet'al 慧解). In Sanskrit, "one who is liberated through wisdom." The term refers specifically to a person who has attained liberation through insight (VIPAsYANĀ) into the three marks of existence: impermanence (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANĀTMAN). Anyone who has attained any of the four stages of sanctity (ĀRYA)-stream-entry, once-returning, nonreturning, or arhatship-is said to have attained liberation through wisdom. Such liberation is equivalent to enlightenment (BODHI), results in the permanent eradication of the contaminants (ĀSRAVAKsAYA), and leads to the cessation of REBIRTH. In the Pāli abhidhamma and Sarvāstivāda ABHIDHARMA, the person "liberated through wisdom" is the sixth of seven types of enlightened disciples (ārya); the other six are: (1) the saddhānusāri (S. sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN), or faith-follower; (2) dhammānusāri (S. DHARMĀNUSĀRIN); (3) saddhāvimutta (S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA), or one liberated through faith; (4) ditthippatta (S. DṚstIPRĀPTA), or vision-attainer; (5) kāyasakkhī (S. KĀYASĀKsIN), or witnessing with this very body; (6) ubhatobhāgavimutta (S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA), or liberated in both ways. The prajNāvimukta who has attained liberation through the contemplation of no-self is contrasted with cetovimukta (P. cetovimutta; cf. CETOVIMUKTI), or "one liberated through mind," who has mastery of meditative absorptions (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA). The prajNāvimukta is also one of the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA ("twenty varieties of the āryasaMgha") based on the list given in the MAHĀVYUTPATTI.

prajNāvimukta

PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i snying po'i mdo; C. Bore boluomiduo xin jing; J. Hannya haramitta shingyo; K. Panya paramilta sim kyong 般若波羅蜜多心經). In English, the "Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra" (or, in other interpretations, the "DHĀRAnĪ-Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom"); a work known in English simply as the "Heart Sutra"; one of only a handful of Buddhist SuTRAs (including the "Lotus Sutra" and the "Diamond Sutra") to be widely known by an English title. The "Heart Sutra" is perhaps the most famous, and certainly the most widely recited, of all Buddhist sutras across all Mahāyāna traditions. It is also one of the most commented upon, eliciting more Indian commentaries than any Mahāyāna sutra (eight), including works by such luminaries as KAMALAsĪLA, VIMALAMITRA, and ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA, as well as such important East Asian figures as FAZANG, KuKAI, and HAKUIN EKAKU. As its title suggests, the scripture purports to be the quintessence or heart (hṛdaya) of the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), in its denotations as both supreme wisdom and the eponymous genre of scriptures. The sutra exists in long and short versions-with the longer version better known in India and the short version better known in East Asia-but even the long version is remarkably brief, requiring only a single page in translation. The short version, which is probably the earlier of the two recensions, is best known through its Chinese translation by XUANZANG made c. 649 CE. There has been speculation that the Chinese version may be a redaction of sections of the Chinese recension of the MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA (also translated by Xuanzang) as a mnemonic encoding (dhāranī) of the massive perfection of wisdom literature, which was then subsequently translated back into Sanskrit, perhaps by Xuanzang himself. Although there is as yet no scholarly consensus on the provenance of the text, if this argument is correct, this would make the "Heart Sutra" by far the most influential of all indigenous Chinese scriptures (see APOCRYPHA). The long version of the text, set on Vulture Peak (GṚDHRAKutAPARVATA) outside RĀJAGṚHA, begins with the Buddha entering SAMĀDHI. At that point, the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA (who rarely appears as an interlocutor in the prajNāpāramitā sutras) contemplates the perfection of wisdom and sees that the five aggregates (SKANDHA) are empty of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The monk sĀRIPUTRA, considered the wisest of the Buddha's sRĀVAKA disciples, is inspired by the Buddha to ask Avalokitesvara how one should train in the perfection of wisdom. Avalokitesvara's answer constitutes the remainder of the sutra (apart from a brief epilogue in the longer version of the text). That answer, which consists essentially of a litany of negations of the major categories of Buddhist thought-including such seminal lists as the five aggregates (skandha), twelve sense-fields (ĀYATANA), twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS-contains two celebrated statements. The first, made in reference to the first of the five aggregates, is "form (RuPA) is emptiness (suNYATĀ); emptiness is form" (RuPAM suNYATĀ sUNYATAIVA RuPAM). This is one of the most widely quoted and commented upon statements in the entire corpus of Mahāyāna sutras and thus is not easily amenable to succinct explication. In brief, however, the line suggests that emptiness, as the nature of ultimate reality, is not located in some rarified realm, but rather is found in the ordinary objects of everyday experience. The other celebrated statement is the spell (MANTRA) that concludes Avalokitesvara's discourse-GATE GATE PĀRAGATE PĀRASAMGATE BODHI SVĀHĀ-which, unlike many mantras, is amenable to translation: "gone, gone, gone beyond, gone completely beyond, enlightenment, svāha." This mantra has also been widely commented upon. The presence of the mantra in the sutra has led to its classification as a TANTRA rather than a sutra in some Tibetan catalogues; it also forms the basis of Indian tantric SĀDHANAs. The brevity of the text has given it a talismanic quality, being recited on all manner of occasions (it is commonly used as an exorcistic text in Tibet) and inscribed on all manner of objects, including fans, teacups, and neckties in modern Japan.

prajNāpāramitā. (P. paNNāpāramī; T. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa; C. bore boluomiduo/zhidu; J. hannya haramitta/chido; K. panya paramilta/chido 般若波羅蜜多/智度). In Sanskrit, "perfection of wisdom" or "perfect wisdom"; a polysemous term, which appears in Pāli accounts of the Buddha's prior training as a BODHISATTVA (P. bodhisatta), but is widely used in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhism. ¶ PrajNāpāramitā refers to a level of understanding beyond that of ordinary wisdom, especially referring to the the wisdom associated with, or required to achieve, buddhahood. The term receives a variety of interpretations, but it is often said to be the wisdom that does not conceive of an agent, an object, or an action as being ultimately real. The perfection of wisdom is also sometimes defined as the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ). ¶ As the wisdom associated with buddhahood, prajNāpāramitā is the sixth of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) that are practiced on the bodhisattva path. When the practice of the six perfections is aligned with the ten bodhisattva bhumis, the perfection of wisdom is practiced on the sixth BHuMI, called ABHIMUKHĪ. ¶ PrajNāpāramitā is also used to designate the genre of Mahāyāna sutras that sets forth the perfection of wisdom. These texts are considered to be among the earliest of the Mahāyāna sutras, with the first texts appearing sometime between the first century BCE and the first century CE. Here, the title "perfection of wisdom" may have a polemical meaning, claiming to possess a wisdom beyond that taught in the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. In addition to numerous descriptions of, and paeans to, emptiness, the perfection of wisdom sutras also extol the practice of the bodhisattva path as the superior form of Buddhist practice. Although emptiness is said to be the chief topic of the sutras, their "hidden meaning" is said to be the detailed structure of the bodhisattva path. A number of later commentaries, most notably the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, extracted terminology from these sutras in order to systematize the presentation of the bodhisattva path. There are numerous sutras with prajNāpāramitā in their titles, the earliest of which are designated simply by their length as measured in sLOKAs, a unit of metrical verse in traditional Sanskrit literature that is typically rendered in English as "stanza," "verse," or "line." Scholars speculate that there was a core text, which was then expanded. Hence, for example, the prajNāpāramitā sutra in eight thousand lines (AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) is often thought to be one of the earliest of the genre, later followed by twenty-five thousand lines (PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA), and one hundred thousand lines (sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), as well as compilations many times longer, such as XUANZANG's translation of the MAHĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA. The texts known in English as the "Heart Sutra" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA) and the "Diamond Sutra" (VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) are both much shorter versions of these prajNāpāramitā sutras. ¶ Perhaps because the Sanskrit term prajNāpāramitā is in the feminine gender, PrajNāpāramitā also became the name of a goddess, referred to as the mother of all buddhas, who is the embodiment of the perfection of wisdom. ¶ In the traditional Tibetan monastic curriculum, prajNāpāramitā is one of the primary topics of study, based on the AbhisamayālaMkāra of MAITREYANĀTHA and its commentaries.

prak sarira-vimoksanat ::: before the release from the body. [Gita 5.23]

pratītyasamutpāda. (P. paticcasamuppāda; T. rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba; C. yuanqi; J. engi; K. yon'gi 起). In Sanskrit, "dependent origination," "conditioned origination," lit., "origination by dependence" (of one thing on another); one of the core teachings in the Buddhist doctrinal system, having both ontological, epistemological, and soteriological implications. The notion of the conditionality of all existence is foundational in Buddhism. According to some accounts of the Buddha's life, it constituted the fundamental insight on the night of his enlightenment. In other accounts, in the first seven days and nights following his enlightenment, he sat contemplating the significance of his experience; finally on the seventh night he is said to have contemplated the fully realized chain of dependent origination in both forward and reverse order. In one of the earliest summaries of the Buddha's teachings (which is said to have been enough to bring sĀRIPUTRA to enlightenment), the Buddha is said to have taught: "When this is present, that comes to be. / From the arising of this, that arises. / When this is absent, that does not come to be. / From the cessation of this, that ceases." (P. imasmiM sati idaM hoti/imasuppādā idaM uppajjati/imasmiM asati idaM na hoti/imassa nirodhā idaM nirujjhati). This notion of causality (idaMpratyayatā) is normatively described in a sequence of causation involving twelve interconnected links (NIDĀNA), which are often called the "twelvefold chain" in English sources: (1) ignorance (AVIDYĀ, P. avijjā), (2) predispositions, or volitional actions (S. SAMSKĀRA, P. sankhāra), (3) consciousness (S. VIJNĀNA, P. viNNāna), (4) name and form, or mentality and materiality (NĀMARuPA), (5) the six internal sense-bases (ĀYATANA), (6) sensory contact (S. SPARsA, P. phassa), (7) sensation, or feeling (VEDANĀ), (8) thirst, or attachment (S. TṚsnĀ, P. tanhā), (9) grasping, or clinging (UPĀDĀNA), (10) existence or a process of becoming (BHAVA), (11) birth or rebirth (JĀTI), and (12) old age and death (JARĀMARAnA), this last link accompanied in its full recital by sorrow (soka), lamentation (parideva), pain (DUḤKHA) grief (daurmanasya), and despair (upāyāsa). Some formulations of the chain, as in the MAHĀPADĀNASUTTANTA, include only ten links (skipping the first two), suggesting that the standard list of twelve links developed over time. (The commentary to the Mahāpadānasuttanta explains away this inconsistency by noting that the ten-linked chain does not take past lives into account but applies only to the current life.) Each link in this chain of causality is said to be the condition for the following link, thus: "dependent on ignorance, predispositions (S. avidyāpratyayāḥ saMskārāḥ; P. avijjāpaccayā sankhārā), ... dependent on birth, old age and death (S. jātipratyayāM jarāmaranaM; P. jātipaccayā jarāmaranaM)." This chain of dependent origination stands as the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the two "extreme views" (ANTAGRĀHADṚstI) of eternalism (sĀsVATADṚstI)-viz., the view that there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next-and annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI)-the view that the person ceases to exist at death and is not reborn-because it validates the imputed continuity (SAMTĀNA) of the personality, without injecting any sense of a permanent substratum of existence into the process. Thus, when the Buddha is asked, "Who is it who senses?," he rejects the question as wrongly framed and rephrases it as, "With what as condition does sensation (vedanā) occur? By contact (sparsa)." Or when asked, "Who is it who is reborn?," he would rephrase the question as "With what as condition does birth (jāti) occur? By becoming (bhava)." Accurate understanding of dependent origination thus serves as an antidote (PRATIPAKsA) to the affliction of delusion (MOHA) and contemplating the links in this chain helps to overcome ignorance (AVIDYĀ). ¶ The twelvefold chain of dependent origination is generally conceived to unfold in what are referred to as the "forward" and "reverse" orders, although in fact both versions proceed through the chain in the same sequence. First, as a progressive process of ontological becoming (bhavānulomaparīksā), the forward version of the chain describes the process by which ignorance ultimately leads to birth and death and thus the full panoply of existence in the turning wheel of SAMSĀRA; in forward order, the chain is therefore an elaboration of the second noble truth, the truth of the origin of suffering (SAMUDAYASATYA). Second, the reverse order of the chain describes a negative process of soteriological eradication (ksayavyayānulomaparīksā), where the cessation of ignorance serves as the condition for the cessation of predispositions, and so on through the entire chain until even old age and death are eradicated and the adept is released from continued rebirth in saMsāra; in reverse order, the chain is therefore an elaboration of the third noble truth, the truth of the cessation of suffering (NIRODHASATYA). As a chain of ontological becoming, some traditional commentators organize the twelve links as occurring during the course of a single lifetime. Other commentators instead divide the twelve links over three lifetimes to illustrate explicitly the process of rebirth: ignorance and predispositions are assigned to a previous lifetime; consciousness, name and form, sense-fields, contact, sensation, thirst, grasping, and becoming are assigned to the current lifetime; and this leads to future birth, and eventual old age and death, in the immediately following lifetime. According to this interpretation, ignorance does not refer to a primordial ignorance, but rather to a specific moment of unsystematic reflection on things (AYONIsOMANASKĀRA) that prompts a volitional action (saMskāra). The predispositions created by that action imprint themselves on consciousness, which refers here to the "linking consciousness" (pratisaMdhivijNāna) that links the past and present lives, a consciousness that is reborn, developing into a body with internal sense organs and a mind with sensory consciousnesses, which come into contact with external sensory objects, giving rise to sensations that are pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. Sensations of pleasure, for example, can give rise to attachment to those sensations and then clinging, an intensification of that attachment. Such clinging at the end of life sustains the process of becoming, which leads to rebirth in the next existence, where one once again undergoes aging and death. This sequence of dependent conditions has repeated itself since time immemorial and will continue on indefinitely until liberation from rebirth is achieved. To illustrate the role of pratītyasamutpāda in the cycle of rebirth, its twelve links are sometimes depicted around the perimeter of the "wheel of life" (BHAVACAKRA). ¶ In the Upanisāsutta of the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, the standard twelvefold chain of dependent origination is connected to an alternate chain that is designated the "supramundane dependent origination" (P. lokuttara-paticcasamuppāda; S. lokottara-pratītyasamutpāda), which explicitly outlines the process leading to liberation. Here, the last factor in the standard chain, that of old age and death (jarāmarana), is substituted with suffering, which in turn becomes the first factor in this alternate series. According to the Nettipakarana, a Pāli exegetical treatise, this chain of supramundane dependent origination consists of (1) suffering (P. dukkha; S. duḥkha), (2) faith (P. saddhā; S. sRADDHĀ), (3) delight or satisfaction (P. pāmojja; S. prāmodya), (4) rapture or joy (P. pīti; S. PRĪTI), (5) tranquillity or repose (P. passaddhi; S. PRAsRABDHI), (6) mental ease or bliss (SUKHA), (7) concentration (SAMĀDHI), (8) knowledge and vision that accords with reality (P. yathābhutaNānadassana; S. YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA), (9) disillusionment (P. nibbidā; S. NIRVEDA), (10) dispassion (P. virāga; S. VAIRĀGYA), (11) liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), and (12) knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (P. āsavakkhayaNāna; S. āsravaksayajNāna; see ĀSRAVAKsAYA). The Kimatthiyasutta of the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA gives a slightly different version of the first links, replacing suffering and faith with (1) observance of precepts (P. kusalasīla; S. kusalasīla) and (2) freedom from remorse (P. avippatisāra; S. avipratisāra). ¶ Another denotation of pratītyasamutpāda is a more general one, the notion that everything comes into existence in dependence on something else, with such dependence including the dependence of an effect upon its cause, the dependence of a whole upon its parts, and the dependence of an object on the consciousness that designates it. This second meaning is especially associated with the MADHYAMAKA school of NĀGĀRJUNA, which sees a necessary relation between dependent origination and emptiness (suNYATĀ), arguing that because everything is dependently arisen, everything is empty of independence and intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA). Dependent origination is thus central to Nāgārjuna's conception of the middle way: because everything is dependent, nothing is independent, thus avoiding the extreme of existence, but because everything is originated, nothing is utterly nonexistent, thus avoiding the extreme of nonexistence. In East Asia, and specifically the HUAYAN ZONG, this second interpretation of dependent origination is also recast as the unimpeded (wu'ai) "dependent origination of the DHARMADHĀTU" (FAJIE YUANQI), in which all things throughout the entire universe are conceived as being enmeshed in a multivalent web of interconnection and interdependency.

prayoga. (T. sbyor ba; C. jiaxing; J. kegyo; K. kahaeng 加行). In Sanskrit, "application," "preparation," "joining together," "exertion." The term is widely used in soteriological, tantric, and astrological literature. It also functions as a technical term in logic, where it is often translated as "syllogism" and refers to a statement that contains a subject, a predicate, and a reason. A correct syllogism is composed of three parts, the subject (dharmin), the property being proved (SĀDHYADHARMA), and the reason (HETU or LInGA). For example, in the syllogism "Sound is impermanent because of being produced," the subject is sound, the property being proved is impermanence, and the reason is being produced. In order for the syllogism to be correct, three relations must exist among the three components of the syllogism: (1) the reason must be a property (DHARMA) of the subject, also called the "position" (PAKsA), (2) there must be a relationship of pervasion (VYĀPTI) between the reason and the property being proved (SĀDHYADHARMA), such that whatever is the reason is necessarily the property being proved, and (3) there must be a relationship of "exclusion" or reverse pervasion (vyatirekavyāpti) between the property being proved and the reason, such that whatever is not the property being proved is necessarily not the reason. ¶ In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ exegetical tradition based on the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, prayoga is the word used for the fourth to seventh of the eight ABHISAMAYAs ("clear realizations"). According to Ārya VIMUKTISENA's commentary (Vṛtti), the first three chapters set forth the three knowledges (JNĀNA) as topics to be studied and reflected upon (see sRUTAMAYĪPRAJNĀ, CINTĀMAYĪPRAJNĀ); the next four chapters set forth the practice of those knowledges, viz. the practice of the knowledge of a buddha. This practice is called prayoga. It is primarily at the level of meditation (BHĀVANĀMAYĪPRAJNĀ), and it leads to the SARVĀKĀRAJNATĀ, a buddha's omniscient knowledge of all aspects. The first prayoga is habituation to the perfect realization of all aspects (sarvākārābhisambodha); the second is learning to remain at the summit of the realization (murdhābhisamaya; cf. MuRDHAN); the third is a further habituation to each aspect, one by one (anupurvābhisamaya); and the fourth is the realization of all aspects in one single instant (ekaksanābhisamaya). This is the moment prior to omniscience. This prayoga is first detailed in twenty subtopics beginning with the cryptic statement that the practice is no practice at all; the 173 aspects (ĀKĀRA) that together cover the entire range of a bodhisattva's practice are set forth at all the stages of development, through the paths of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) up through the bodhisattva stages (BHuMI) to the purification of the buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) and final instants of the path. Through the first of the four prayogas, the bodhisattva gains mastery over all the aspects; through the second, he abides in the mastery of them; with the third, he goes through each and makes the practice special; and with the fourth, he enters into the state of a buddha. See also PRAYOGAMĀRGA.

prithivimaya ::: see pr.thivimaya

Proverbs ::: The Latinized word for the Book called "Mishlei Shlomoh" that is contained in Ketuvim (Writings). Its primary and most likely author is King Solomon and it contains stories of wisdom and guidance.

pr.thivimaya (prithivimaya) ::: composed of earth; consisting of the prthivimaya bhūta called pr.thivi1. prthu pr pajah

Pulguksa. (佛國寺). In Korean, "Buddha Land Monastery," located outside KYoNGJU, the ancient capital of the Silla dynasty, on the slopes of T'oham Mountain; this Silla royal monastery is the eleventh district monastery (PONSA) of the contemporary CHOGYE CHONG of Korean Buddhism and administers over sixty subsidiary monasteries and hermitages. According to the SAMGUK YUSA ("Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"), Pulguksa was constructed in 751 by Kim Taesong (700-774), chief minister of King Kyongdok (r. 742-765), and completed in 774; it may have been constructed on the site of a smaller temple that dated from c. 528, during the reign of the Silla King Pophŭng (r. 514-539). Although it was a large complex, Pulguksa was not as influential within the Silla Buddhist tradition as other Kyongju monasteries, such as HWANGNYONGSA and PUNHWANGSA. The monastery has since been renovated numerous times, one of the largest projects occurring at the beginning of the seventeenth century, after the monastery was burned during the Japanese Hideyoshi invasions of 1592-1598. Pulguksa's temple complex is built on a series of artificial terraces that were constructed out of giant stone blocks and is entered via two pairs of stone "bridges" cum staircases, which are Korean national treasures in their own right and frequently photographed. The main level of the monastery centers on two courtyards: one anchored by the TAEUNG CHoN, or the main shrine hall, which houses a statue of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha, the other by the kŭngnak chon, or hall of ultimate bliss (SUKHĀVATĪ), which houses an eighth-century bronze statue of the buddha AMITĀBHA. The taeung chon courtyard is graced with two stone pagodas, the Sokka t'ap (sākyamuni STuPA) and the Tabo t'ap (Prabhutaratna stupa), which are so famous that the second of them is depicted on the Korean ten-won coin. The juxtaposition of the two stupas derives from the climax of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), where the buddha PRABHuTARATNA (Many Treasures) invites sākyamuni to sit beside him inside his bejeweled stupa, thus validating the teachings sākyamuni delivered in the scripture. The Sokka t'ap represents sākyamuni's solitary quest for enlightenment; it is three stories tall and is notable for its bare simplicity. This stupa is in marked contrast to its ornate twin, the Tabo t'ap, or Pagoda of the buddha Prabhutaratna, which is modeled after a reliquary and has elaborate staircases, parapets, and stone lions (one of which was removed to the British Museum). During a 1966 renovation of the Sokka t'ap, the world's oldest printed document was discovered sealed inside the stupa: the MUGUJoNGGWANG TAEDARANI KYoNG (S. Rasmivimalavisuddhaprabhādhāranī; "Great DHĀRAnĪ of Immaculate Radiance"). The terminus ad quem for the printing of the Dhāranī is 751 CE, when the text was sealed inside the Sokka t'ap, but it may have been printed even earlier. Other important buildings include the Piro chon (VAIROCANA Hall) that enshrines an eighth-century bronze statue of its eponymous buddha, which is presumed to be the oldest bronze image in Korea; the Musol chon (The Wordless Hall), a lecture hall located directly behind the taeung chon, which was built around 670; and the Kwanŭm chon (AVALOKITEsVARA hall), built at the highest point of the complex. Two and a half miles (4 kms) up T'oham Mountain to the east of Pulguksa is its affiliated SoKKURAM grotto temple. Pulguksa and Sokkuram were jointly listed in 1995 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

pulsi haet'al 時解. See ASAMAYAVIMUKTA

Rang 'byung rdo rje. (Rangjung Dorje) (1284-1339). A Tibetan Buddhist master recognized as the third KARMA PA, renowned for his erudition and his knowledge of practice traditions based on both new translation (GSAR MA) and old translation (RNYING MA) tantras. He was born either in the Skyid rong Valley or in the western Tibetan region of Ding ri and, according to traditional sources, as a child, was known for his exceptional perspicacity. The DEB THER SNGON PO ("Blue Annals") records that as a five-year-old boy, he met O RGYAN PA RIN CHEN DPAL, his principal guru, who recognized the young boy as the reincarnation of his teacher KARMA PAKSHI when the child climbed up on a high seat that had been prepared for O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal and declared himself to have been Karma Pakshi in his previous life (this was before the institution of incarnate lamas was established in Tibet). Rang 'byung rdo rje trained first at MTSHUR PHU monastery. He also studied with teachers from GSANG PHU and JO NANG. His collected works include explanations of the major YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA treatises and commentaries and rituals based on the CAKRASAMVARA, HEVAJRA, GUHYASAMĀJA, and KĀLACAKRA tantras. According to his traditional biographies, while in retreat, he had a vision of VIMALAMITRA and PADMASAMBHAVA in which he received the complete transmission of the Rnying ma tantras. He received instructions on the RDZOGS CHEN doctrine from Rig 'dzin Gzhon nu rgyal po, and wrote short works on rdzogs chen. He also discovered a treasure text (GTER MA), known as the Karma snying thig. He was a renowned poet and wrote important works on GCOD practice. The third Karma pa was also a skilled physician and astrologer. He developed a new system of astrology known as Mtshur rtsi, or "Mtshur phu astrology," on the basis of which a new Tibetan calendar was formulated and promulgated at Mtshur phu monastery. In 1331, he was summoned to the court of the Yuan emperor Tugh Temür, but stopped enroute when he correctly interpreted portents that the emperor had died. He later traveled to the Mongol capital of Daidu (modern Beijing) during the reign of Togon Temür, for whom he procured an elixir of long life. After returning to Tibet, he was summoned once again to the Mongol capital, where he passed away while meditating in a three-dimensional CakrasaMvara MAndALA. Rang 'byung rdo rje's writings include the influential tantric work Zab mo nang don ("Profound Inner Meaning"). It is said that his image appeared in the full moon on the evening of his death, and illustrations of the third Karma pa often portray him seated amid a lunar disk.

Rasmivimalavisuddhaprabhādhāranī. See MUGUJoNGGWANG TAEDARANI KYoNG

ratna. (P. ratana; T. rin chen/dkon mchog; C. zhenbao; J. chinbo; K. chinbo 珍寶). In Sanskrit, "jewel," "valuable," or "treasure," the most common term for a precious object in Buddhist texts and regularly used in Buddhist literature as a metaphor for enlightenment, since jewels represent purity, permanence, preciousness, rarity, etc. TATHĀGATAGARBHA texts often call the tathāgatagarbha or buddha-nature the jewel-nature, since the preciousness of a jewel is unaffected even when it is sullied by mud (defilements); the TATHĀGATAGARBHASuTRA, for example, specifically compares the tathāgatagarbha to a jewel buried in the dirt (see also RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA). In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the buddha-nature is described in a simile as a jewel that a rich man (the Buddha) has surreptitiously sown into the robes of his destitute friend (sentient beings). Such CHAN masters as GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-840) and POJO CHINUL (1158-1210) use jewels as metaphors to explain their theories of the buddha-nature. A jewel is also used to represent the pristine nature of the realm of enlightenment: in the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, the bejeweled canopy of the king of the gods, INDRA (see INDRAJĀLA), is deployed to illustrate the mutual interdependence that pertains between all phenomena in the universe. Several different lists of jewels are found in Buddhist literature. The most important is the "three jewels" (RATNATRAYA; TRIRATNA) of the Buddha, DHARMA, and SAMGHA; commentaries explain that these three are called jewels because they are difficult to find and, once found, are of great value. The Tibetan translation of "three jewels," dkon mchog gsum (konchok sum) (lit. "three rare excellences") reflects this meaning. There are also several different lists of "seven jewels" (saptaratna). One list describes the seven "valuables" that are essential to the successful reign of a wheel-turning monarch (CAKRAVARTIN): a wheel, elephant, horse, gems, a queen, an able minister or treasurer, and a loyal adviser. Another list of seven is of the jewels decorating SUKHĀVATĪ, the PURE LAND of AMITĀBHA; these are listed in the AMITĀBHASuTRA (see also SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA) as gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, agate, ruby, and carnelian. Finally, there are seven "moral" jewels listed in mainstream Buddhist literature, as in the Pāli list of morality (P. sīla; S. sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), wisdom (P. paNNā; S. PRAJNĀ), liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), the knowledge and vision of liberation (P. vimuttiNānadassana; S. vimuktijNānadarsana), analytical knowledge (P. patisambhidā; S. PRATISAMVID), and the factors of enlightenment (P. bojjhanga; S. BODHYAnGA).

rdzogs chen. (dzokchen). A Tibetan philosophical and meditative tradition, usually rendered in English as "great perfection" or "great completion." Developed and maintained chiefly within the RNYING MA sect, rdzogs chen has also been embraced to varying degrees by other Tibetan Buddhist sects. The non-Buddhist Tibetan BON religion also upholds a rdzogs chen tradition. According to legend, the primordial buddha SAMANTABHADRA (T. Kun tu bzang po) taught rdzogs chen to the buddha VAJRASATTVA, who transmitted it to the first human lineage holder, DGA' RAB RDO RJE. From him, rdzogs chen was passed to MANJUsRĪMITRA and thence to sRĪSIMHA, and the Tibetan translator Ba gor VAIROCANA, who had been sent to India by the eighth-century Tibetan King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN. In addition to Vairocana, the semimythical figures of VIMALAMITRA and PADMASAMBHAVA are considered to be foundational teachers of rdzogs chen in Tibet. Historically, rdzogs chen appears to have been a Tibetan innovation, drawing on multiple influences, including both non-Buddhist native Tibetan beliefs and Chinese and Indian Buddhist teachings. The term was likely taken from the GUHYAGARBHATANTRA. In the creation and completion stages of tantric practice, one first generates a visualization of a deity and its MAndALA and next dissolves these into oneself, merging oneself with the deity. In the Guhyagarbha and certain other tantras, this is followed with a stage known as rdzogs chen, in which one rests in the unelaborated natural state of one's own innately luminous and pure mind. In the Rnying ma sect's nine-vehicle (T. THEG PA DGU) doxography of the Buddhist teachings, these three stages constitute the final three vehicles: the MAHĀYOGA, ANUYOGA, and ATIYOGA, or rdzogs chen. The rdzogs chen literature is traditionally divided into three categories, which roughly trace the historical development of the doctrine and practices: the mind class (SEMS SDE), space class (KLONG SDE), and instruction class (MAN NGAG SDE). These are collected in a group of texts called the RNYING MA'I RGYUD 'BUM ("treasury of Rnying ma tantras"). The mind class is comprised largely of texts attributed to Vairocana, including the so-called eighteen tantras and the KUN BYED RGYAL PO. They set forth a doctrine of primordial purity (ka dag) of mind (sems nyid), which is the basis of all things (kun gzhi). In the natural state, the mind, often referred to as BODHICITTA, is spontaneously aware of itself (rang rig), but through mental discursiveness (rtog pa) it creates delusion ('khrul ba) and thus gives rise to SAMSĀRA. Early rdzogs chen ostensibly rejected all forms of practice, asserting that striving for liberation would simply create more delusion. One is admonished to simply recognize the nature of one's own mind, which is naturally empty (stong pa), luminous ('od gsal ba), and pure. As tantra continued to grow in popularity in Tibet, and new techniques and doctrines were imported from India, a competing strand within rdzogs chen increasingly emphasized meditative practice. The texts of the space class (klong sde) reflect some of this, but it is in the instruction class (man ngag sde), dating from the eleventh to fourteenth centuries, that rdzogs chen fully assimilated tantra. The main texts of this class are the so-called seventeen tantras and the two "seminal heart" collections, the BI MA SNYING THIG ("Seminal Heart of Vimalamitra") and the MKHA' 'GRO SNYING THIG ("Seminal Heart of the dĀKINĪ"). The seventeen tantras and the "Seminal Heart of Vimalamitra" are said to have been taught by Vimalamitra and concealed as "treasure" (GTER MA), to be discovered at a later time. The "Seminal Heart of the dākinī" is said to have been taught by Padmasambhava and concealed as treasure by his consort, YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL. In the fourteenth century, the great scholar KLONG CHEN RAB 'BYAMS PA DRI MED 'OD ZER systematized the multitude of received rdzogs chen literature in his famous MDZOD BDUN ("seven treasuries") and the NGAL GSO SKOR GSUM ("Trilogy on Rest"), largely creating the rdzogs chen teachings as they are known today. With the man ngag sde, the rdzogs chen proponents made full use of the Tibetan innovation of treasure, a means by which later tantric developments were assimilated to the tradition without sacrificing its claim to eighth-century origins. The semilegendary figure of Padmasambhava was increasingly relied upon for this purpose, gradually eclipsing Vairocana and Vimalamitra as the main rdzogs chen founder. In subsequent centuries there have been extensive additions to the rdzogs chen literature, largely by means of the treasure genre, including the KLONG CHEN SNYING THIG of 'JIGS MED GLING PA and the Bar chad kun gsal of MCHOG GYUR GLING PA to name only two. Outside of the Rnying ma sect, the authenticity of these texts is frequently disputed, although there continue to be many adherents to rdzogs chen from other Tibetan Buddhist lineages. Rdzogs chen practitioners are commonly initiated into the teachings with "pointing-out instructions" (sems khrid/ngos sprod) in which a lama introduces the student to the nature of his or her mind. Two main practices known as KHREGS CHOD (breakthrough), in which one cultivates the experience of innate awareness (RIG PA), and THOD RGAL (leap over), elaborate visualizations of external light imagery, preserve the tension between the early admonition against practice and the appropriation of complex tantric techniques and doctrines. Extensive practices engaging the subtle body of psychic channels, winds, and drops (rtsa rlung thig le) further reflect the later tantric developments in rdzogs chen. ¶ RDZOGS CHEN is also used as the short name for one of the largest and most active Tibetan monasteries, belonging to the Rnying ma sect of Tibetan Buddhism, located in the eastern Tibetan region of Khams; the monastery's full name is Rus dam bsam gtan o rgyan chos gling (Rudam Samten Orgyan Choling). It is a major center for both academic study and meditation retreat according to Rnying ma doctrine. At its peak, the monastery housed over one thousand monks and sustained more than two hundred branches throughout central and eastern Tibet. The institution was founded in 1684-1685 by the first RDZOGS CHEN INCARNATION Padma rig 'dzin (Pema Rikdzin) with the support of the fifth DALAI LAMA NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO. Important meditation hermitages in the area include those of MDO MKHYEN RTSE YE SHE RDO RJE and MI PHAM 'JAM DBYANGS RNAM RGYAL RGYA MTSHO. DPAL SPRUL RIN PO CHE passed many years in retreat there, during which time he composed his great exposition of the preliminary practices of Tibetan Buddhism entitled the KUN BZANG BLA MA'I ZHAL LUNG ("Words of My Perfect Teacher").

Renwang jing. (J. Ninnogyo; K. Inwang kyong 仁王經). In Chinese, "Scripture for Humane Kings"; an influential indigenous Chinese scripture (see APOCRYPHA), known especially for its role in "state protection Buddhism" (HUGUO FOJIAO) and for its comprehensive outline of the Buddhist path of practice (MĀRGA). Its full title (infra) suggests that the scripture belongs to the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) genre of literature, but it includes also elements drawn from both the YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATAGARBHA traditions. The text's audience and interlocutors are not the typical sRĀVAKAs and BODHISATTVAs but instead kings hailing from the sixteen ancient regions of India, who beseech the Buddha to speak this sutra in order to protect both their states and their subjects from the chaos attending the extinction of the dharma (MOFA; SADDHARMAVIPRALOPA). By having kings rather than spiritual mentors serve as the interlocutors, the scripture thus focuses on those qualities thought to be essential to governing a state founded on Buddhist principles. The text's concepts of authority, the path, and the world draw analogies with the "humane kings" of this world who serve and venerate the transcendent monks and bodhisattvas. The service and worship rendered by the kings turns them into bodhisattvas, while the soteriological vocation of the monks and bodhisattvas conversely renders them kings. Thus, the relationship between the state and the religion is symbiotic. The sutra is now generally presumed to be an indigenous Chinese scripture that was composed to buttress imperial authority by exalting the benevolent ruler as a defender of the dharma. The Renwang jing is also known for including the ten levels of faith (sRADDHĀ) as a preliminary stage of the Buddhist path prior to the arousal of the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA). It is one of a number of Chinese Buddhist apocrypha that seek to provide a comprehensive elaboration of all fifty-two stages of the path, including the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING and the YUANJUE JING. The Renwang jing is not known in Sanskrit sources, but there are two recensions of the Chinese text. The first, Renwang bore boluomi jing, is purported to have been translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA and is dated to c. 402, and the latter, titled Renwang huguo bore boluomiduo jing, is attributed to AMOGHAVAJRA and dated to 765. The Amoghavajra recension is based substantially on the Kumārajīva text, but includes additional teachings on MAndALA, MANTRA, and DHĀRAnĪ, additions that reflect Amoghavajra's place in the Chinese esoteric Buddhist tradition. Furthermore, because Amoghavajra was an advisor to three Tang-dynasty rulers, his involvement in contemporary politics may also have helped to shape the later version. Chinese scriptural catalogues (JINGLU) were already suspicious about the authenticity of the Renwang jing as least as early as Fajing's 594 Zhongjing mulu; Fajing lists the text together with twenty-one other scriptures of doubtful authenticity (YIJING), because its content and diction do not resemble those of the ascribed translator. Modern scholars have also recognized these content issues. One of the more egregious examples is the RENWANG JING's reference to four different perfection of wisdom (prajNāpāramitā) sutras that the Buddha is said to have proclaimed; two of the sutras listed are, however, simply different Chinese translations of the same text, the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, a blunder that an Indian author could obviously not have committed. Another example is the scripture's discussion of a three-truth SAMĀDHI (sandi sanmei), in which these three types of concentrations are named worldly truth (shidi), authentic truth (zhendi), and supreme-meaning truth (diyiyidi). This schema is peculiar, and betrays its Chinese origins, because "authentic truth" and "supreme-meaning truth" are actually just different Chinese renderings of the same Sanskrit term, PARAMĀTHASATYA. Based on other internal evidence, scholars have dated the composition of the sutra to sometime around the middle of the fifth century. Whatever its provenance, the text is ultimately reclassified as an authentic translation in the 602 catalogue Zongjing mulu by Yancong and continues to be so listed in all subsequent East Asian catalogues. See also APOCRYPHA; SANDI.

Rikuji 離垢地. See VIMALĀ

Rnam grol gyi bstan bcos. See VIMUTTIMAGGA

rnam par grol ba'i lam. See VIMUKTIMĀRGA

rnam par grol ba. See VIMUKTI

rnam par thar pa brgyad. See AstAVIMOKsA

rnam par thar pa'i sgo. See VIMOKsAMUKHA

rnam par thar pa. See VIMOKsA

rnam thar. (namtar). In Tibetan, "complete liberation," translating the Sanskrit VIMOKsA. In the Tibetan context, rnam thar refers to a widespread literary genre of sacred biography or autobiography. As its translation suggests, the term usually indicates an emphasis on the stereotypically Buddhist aspects of the subject's life, including his or her religious training, practice of meditation, and eventual liberation. Such works often incorporate elements of the fabulous and the fantastic and have parallels with the genre of hagiography. Three types of rnam thar are often enumerated: the "outer autobiography" (phyi'i rnam thar), which narrates the important events of daily life, including travels and meetings with prominent persons; the "inner autobiography" (nang gi rnam thar), which describes religious teachings received and relationships with teachers and disciples; and the "secret autobiography" (GSANG BA'I RNAM THAR), which describes religious experiences, with the author often writing from the perspective of a transcendental subject.

Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po. (Rongzom Chokyi Sangpo) (1012-1088). An important figure in the renaissance of the RNYING MA tradition in Tibet. His collected works in two volumes include the Rdzogs pa chen po'i lta sgom ("Instructions on Cultivating the View of the Great Perfection") (see RDZOGS CHEN) and a seminal work on SDOM GSUM ("three codes") Dam tshig mdo rgyas. He was learned in the older traditions based on earlier translations and in the new traditions that spread after the return of the translators RIN CHEN BZANG PO and RNGOG LEGS PA'I SHES RAB. Traditionally, he is said to be the recipient of teachings deriving from Heshang MOHEYAN, VAIROCANA, and VIMALAMITRA--important figures of the early dissemination (SNGA DAR)--and it is said that upon meeting ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA after his arrival in Tibet, Atisa considered him a manifestation of his teacher Nag po pa (Kṛsnapāda). Rong zom instructed many important figures of the day, including the translator MAR PA, prior to his departure for India.

sābhisaMskāraparinirvāyin. (T. mngon par 'du byed dang bcas pa yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa; C. youxing banniepan; J. ugyohatsunehan; K. yuhaeng panyolban 有行般涅槃). In Sanskrit, "one who achieves NIRVĀnA through effort"; a particular sort of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the sābhisaMskāraparinirvāyin are nonreturners who, having achieved any of the sixteen birth states of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU), enter "nirvāna with remainder" (SOPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA) at that support, but only after they have made a conscious effort and applied a little force. This differentiates them from the UPAPADYAPARINIRVĀYIN and the ANABHISAMSKĀRAPARINIRVĀYIN.

saddhāvimutta. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA

sahāloka. (T. mi mjed kyi 'jig rten; C. suopo shijie; J. shaba sekai; K. saba segye 娑婆世界). In Sanskrit, lit. "world of endurance," in the MAHĀYĀNA, the name of the world system we inhabit where the buddha sĀKYAMUNI taught; the term may also be seen written as sahālokadhātu. The tradition offers at least two explanations for designating this realm as the sahāloka. First, it is called the "world of endurance" because of the suffering endured by the beings that populate it. Second, the Sanskrit term sahā can also mean "together with, conjointly," and in this sense the term is understood to indicate that in this realm karmic causes and their effects are inextricably bound together. There is a range of opinion concerning the extent of the sahā world. Some texts identify this land with the continent of JAMBUDVĪPA, some with all four continents of this world system, and some with the entire trichiliocosm (TRISĀHASRAMAHĀSĀHASRALOKADHĀTU). The sahāloka is the buddha-field (BUDDHAKsETRA) of sākyamuni, which is described as an impure field because it includes animals, ghosts, and hell denizens. In both the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, however, sākyamuni indicates that while unenlightened beings may perceive it as a world of suffering and desire, the sahā world is in reality his pure buddha field, a fact that is fully perceived by those who have achieved enlightenment. The highest divinity (DEVA) in the sahāloka is BRAHMĀ, one of whose epithets is SAHĀMPATI, "Lord of the Sahā World."

sakṛdāgāmin. (P. sakadāgāmi; T. lan gcig phyir 'ong ba; C. yilai/situohan; J. ichirai/shidagon; K. illae/sadaham 一來/斯陀含). In Sanskrit, lit. "once-returner"; the second (in ascending order) of the four grades of noble person (ĀRYAPUDGALA), the others being the SROTAĀPANNA or "stream-enterer" (the first grade), the ANĀGĀMIN or "nonreturner" (the next grade above sakṛdāgāmin), and the ARHAT or "worthy one" (the highest grade). The sakṛdāgāmin is one who has completely put aside the first three of ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth; namely, (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKĀYADṚstI), (2) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSĀ), (3) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARĀMARsA); and in addition, he has made progress in substantially overcoming the fourth and fifth fetters, namely, (4) sensual craving (KĀMARĀGA), and (5) malice (VYĀPĀDA). Having put aside the first three fetters completely and mitigated the fourth and fifth fetters, the sakṛdāgāmin is destined to be reborn in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) at most one more time, although he may be reborn in the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU) or the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) before attaining NIRVĀnA. Both SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA and SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA are once-returners. The sakṛdāgāmin is also one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). In this context sakṛdāgāmin is the name for candidates (pratipannaka) for the fruition of sakṛdāgāmin SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA). They may be either a follower through faith (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN) or a follower through doctrine (DHARMĀNUSĀRIN) with either dull (MṚDVINDRIYA) or keen faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). In all cases they are those who, before reaching the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), have eliminated six or seven of the levels of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) that the ordinary (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes, but they will not have eliminated the eighth or ninth level. Were they to have done so, they would be called candidates for the third fruit of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA).

sakṛdāgāmiphalastha. (P. sakadāgāmiphala; T. phyir 'ong 'bras gnas; C. zheng yilai guo; J. shoichiraika; K. chŭng illae kwa 證一來果). In Sanskrit, "one who has reached, or is the recipient of, the fruit of once-returner"; this term is paired with the SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA, one who is a candidate for the fruit of once-returner. Both refer to the "once-returner" (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), one of the four types of noble persons (ĀRYA); the sakṛdāgāmiphalapratipannaka has, however, only reached the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (unimpeded path), while the sakṛdāgāmiphalastha has reached the VIMUKTIMĀRGA (path of freedom). In general, according to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, a noble person reaches the goal of ARHAT by becoming free of all the afflictions (KLEsA) of the three realms, from the sensuous realm to the BHAVĀGRA, the highest level of the immaterial realm. There are nine levels to the three realms: the level of the sensous realm is counted as one, and each of the four meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA) of the realms of both subtle materiality and and immateriality are counted as one each. The path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) has sixteen instants, eight ānantaryamārga and eight vimuktimārga. The first four instants (consisting of two pairs of ānantaryamārga and vimuktimārga) are focused on the truth of suffering as it pertains to the sensuous realm, and then to the remaining eight levels of the two upper realms. The second four instants are focused on the truth of origination as it pertains to the sensuous realm, and then to the remaining eight levels of the two upper realms (see DHARMAKsĀNTI). In this way, during sixteen instants that systematize the path of vision, all the afflictions to be eliminated by the path of vision are removed. The sharpest people (TĪKsnENDRIYA), with the finest store of previous actions, like the Buddha, know all three realms are equally conditioned by suffering (SAMSKĀRADUḤKHATĀ) and feel disgust for all of it equally as SAMSĀRA; they enter into the path of vision, eliminate the fetters, and awaken as arhats. Others have gradations of good fortune, ranging from those who will reach the final goal after death, to those who spend many lives taking rebirth in different heavens in the upper two realms before finally reaching the goal of arhatship. Those whose prior store of actions is such that, prior to reaching the path of vision, they have eliminated all, some, or none of the nine sets of afflictions that specifically cause rebirth in the sensuous realm reach the intermediate fruits of nonreturner, once-returner, and stream-enterer, respectively, when they reach the path of vision. The number of births they will take, and the places they take them, give rise to an āryasaMgha made up of twenty different persons (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). In the Mahāyāna didactic reformulations of ABHIDHARMA, sakṛdāgāmin is a name for celestial bodhisattvas who are in their last life before taking birth in the TUsITA heaven prior to becoming complete and perfect buddhas (samyaksaMbuddha).

samādhi. (T. ting nge 'dzin; C. sanmei; J. sanmai; K. sammae 三昧). In Sanskrit, "concentration"; a foundational term in Buddhist meditation theory and practice, which is related to the ability to establish and maintain one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ) on a specific object of concentration. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA and the YOGĀCĀRA school list samādhi as one of a group of five determinative (VINIYATA) mental concomitants (CAITTA), whose function is to aid the mind in ascertaining or determining its object. The five are: aspiration or desire-to-act (CHANDA), determination or resolve (ADHIMOKsA), mindfulness or memory (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom or cognition (PRAJNĀ). According to ASAnGA, these five determinative factors accompany wholesome (KUsALA) states of mind, so that if one is present, all are present. In Pāli ABHIDHAMMA materials, concentration is one of the seven mental factors (P. cetasika) that are invariably associated with all moments of consciousness (CITTA, MANAS, or VIJNĀNA). Concentration occurs in many other important lists, including as the second of the three trainings (TRIsIKsĀ), and the last stage of the eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). Concentration is distinguished according to the quality of consciousness with which it is associated. "Right concentration" (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI, P. sammāsamādhi) is concentration associated with wholesome (KUsALA) states of mind; it is listed not only as one element of the eightfold noble path, but as one of seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA, P. bojjhanga), and, in an incipient state, as one of five powers (BALA) and the other categories that together make up the BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA (thirty-seven factors associated with awakening). High degrees of concentration can be developed through the practice of meditation (BHĀVANĀ). Concentration of such intensity receives the designation "one-pointedness of mind" (cittaikāgratā). When developed to its greatest degree, mental concentration leads to the attainment of DHYĀNA (P. JHĀNA), "meditative absorption." It is also the main mental factor defining the four magical powers (ṚDDHIPĀDA, P. iddhipāda). The cultivation of concentration for the purposes of attaining meditative absorption is called tranquillity meditation (sAMATHA). In the Pāli abhidhamma, three levels of concentration are distinguished in the practice of tranquility meditation: (1) preparatory concentration (PARIKAMMASAMĀDHI) is the degree of concentration established at the beginning of a meditation session. (2) Access or neighborhood concentration (UPACĀRASAMĀDHI) arises just as the practitioner approaches but does not enter the first level of meditative absorption; it is marked by the appearance in the mind of a representational image (PAtIBHĀGANIMITTA) of the object of meditation. (3) "Attainment" or "full" concentration (APPANĀSAMĀDHI) is the level of concentration that arises upon entering and abiding in any of the meditative absorptions. In the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, a wide variety of profound meditative experiences are described as samādhis and are mentioned as attainments of the bodhisattva as he ascends through the ten BHuMIs. The MAHĀVYUTPATTI lists 118 different samādhis that are specified by name in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, such as candravimala (stainless moon), sarvadharmodgata (surpassing all dharmas), siMhavikrīdita (lion's play), anantaprabha (limitless light), and acala (immovable). See also YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA.

samāhitajNāna. (T. mnyam bzhag ye shes; C. dengyin zhi; J. toinchi; K. tŭngin chi 等引智). In Sanskrit, "wisdom of equipoise," the state of direct realization of reality in which the ultimate truth is perceived without mediation by thought in a state of yogic direct perception (YOGIPRATYAKsA). In descriptions of the five paths (PANCAMĀRGA) to enlightenment, the attainment of such wisdom occurs on the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and is repeated over the course of the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). It has two parts, the VIMUKTIMĀRGA and the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA.

samayavimukta

samayavimukta. (T. dus kyis rnam par grol ba; C. shi jietuo; J. jigedatsu; K. si haet'al 時解). In Sanskrit, "one liberated dependent upon a specific occasion"; one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). The term refers to an ARHAT who is a sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN and who, because of weaker faculties, has limited periods of meditative concentration during which it is possible to achieve NIRVĀnA.

Sambhavimudra: The vacant externalised gaze of a Hatha Yogi where the mind is directed inwards; the Yogi appears to be looking at external objects but is not actually perceiving them as his mind is indrawn.

saMgha. (P. sangha; T. dge 'dun; C. sengqie; J. sogya; K. sŭngga 僧伽). A BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT term, generally translated as "community" or "order," it is the term most commonly used to refer to the order of Buddhist monks and nuns. (The classical Sanskrit and Pāli of this term is sangha, a form often seen in Western writings on Buddhism; this dictionary uses saMgha as the generic and nonsectarian Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit form.) The term literally means "that which is struck together well," suggesting something that is solid and not easily broken apart. In ancient India, the term originally meant a "guild," and the different offices in the saMgha were guild terms: e.g., ĀCĀRYA, which originally meant a "guild master," was adopted in Buddhism to refer to a teacher or preceptor of neophytes to the monastic community. The Buddhist saMgha began with the ordination of the first monks, the "group of five" (PANCAVARGIKA) to whom the Buddha delivered his first sermon, when he turned the wheel of the dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA) at SĀRNĀTH. At that time, there was no formal ordination ceremony; the Buddha simply used the EHIBHIKsUKĀ formula, lit. "Come, monk," to welcome someone who had joined the order. The order grew as rival teachers were converted, bringing their disciples with them. Eventually, a more formal ritual of ordination (UPASAMPADĀ) was developed. In addition, as circumstances warranted, the Buddha slowly began making rules to organize the daily life of the community as a whole and its individual members (see VINAYA). Although it seems that in the early years, the Buddha and his followers wandered without fixed dwellings, donors eventually provided places for them to spend the rainy season (see VARsĀ) and the shelters there evolved into monasteries (VIHĀRA). A saMgha came to be defined as a group of monks who lived within a particular geographical boundary (SĪMĀ) and who gathered fortnightly (see UPOsADHA) to recite the monastic code (PRĀTIMOKsA). That group had to consist of at least ten monks in a central region and five monks in more remote regions. In the centuries after the passing of the Buddha, variations developed over what constituted this code, leading to the formation of "fraternities" or NIKĀYAs; the tradition typically recognizes eighteen such groups as belonging to the MAINSTEAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, but there were clearly more. ¶ There is much discussion in Buddhist literature on the question of what constitutes the saMgha, especially the saMgha that is the third of the three jewels (RATNATRAYA), to which Buddhists go for refuge (sARAnA). One of the oldest categories is the eightfold saMgha, composed only of those who have reached a certain level of spiritual attainment. The eight are four groups of two, in each case one who is approaching and one who has attained one of the four ranks of stream-enterer, or SROTAĀPANNA; once-returner, or SAKṚDĀGĀMIN; nonreturner, or ANĀGĀMIN; and worthy one, or ARHAT. This is the saMgha of the saMgha jewel, and is sometimes referred to as the ĀRYASAMGHA, or "noble saMgha." A later and more elaborate category expanded this group of eight to a group of twenty, called the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA, or "twenty-member saMgha," based on their different faculties (INDRIYA) and the ways in which they reach NIRVĀnA; this subdivision appears especially in MAHĀYĀNA works, particularly in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature. Whether eight or twenty, it is this group of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) who are described as worthy of gifts (daksinīyapudgala). Those noble persons who are also ordained are sometimes referred to as the "ultimate saMgha" (PARAMĀRTHASAMGHA) as distinguished from the "conventional saMgha" (SAMVṚTISAMGHA), which is composed of the ordained monks and nuns who are still ordinary persons (PṚTHAGJANA). In a still broader sense, the term is sometimes used for a fourfold group, composed of monks (BHIKsU), nuns (BHIKsUnĪ), lay male disciples (UPĀSAKA), and lay female disciples (UPĀSIKĀ). However, this fourfold group is more commonly called PARIsAD ("followers" or "congregation"), suggesting that the term saMgha is more properly used to refer to the ordained community. In common parlance, however, especially in the West, saMgha has come to connote any community of Buddhists, whether monastic or lay, or a combination of the two. In the long history of Buddhism, however, the presence or absence of the Buddhist dispensation (sĀSANA) has traditionally been measured by the presence or absence of ordained monks who virtuously maintain their precepts. In the history of many Buddhist lands, the establishment of Buddhism is marked by the founding of the first monastery and the ordination of the first monks into the saMgha. See also SAMGHABHEDA; SAMMUTISAnGHA; ĀRYAPUDGALA; SŬNGT'ONG; SAnGHARĀJA.

sankhārupekkhāNāna. In Pāli, "knowledge arising from equanimity regarding all formations"; according to the VISUDDHIMAGGA, the eighth of nine knowledges (P. Nāna, S. JNĀNA) cultivated as part of "purity of knowledge and vision of progress along the path" (PAtIPADĀNĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI). This latter category, in turn, constitutes the sixth and penultimate purity (P. visuddhi, S. VIsUDDHI) to be developed along the path to liberation. Knowledge arising from equanimity regarding all formations arises as a consequence of understanding all conditioned formations (S. SAMSKĀRA) that comprise the individual and the universe as being characterized by the three marks (S. TRILAKsAnA) of impermanence (S. ANITYA), suffering (S. DUḤKHA) and nonself (S. ANĀTMAN). This understanding is the product of the immediately preceding (seventh) knowledge called "knowledge arising from contemplation of reflection" (PAtISAnKHĀNUPASSANĀNĀnA). Understanding the formations to be void (see suNYATĀ) in this way, the practitioner abandons both terror and delight, and, regarding them as neither "I" nor "mine," he becomes indifferent and neutral towards them. The sixth, seventh, and eighth knowledges when taken together are called "insight leading to emergence" (vutthānagāmini vipassanā) because they stand at the threshold of liberation. The Visuddhimagga states that, at this stage in the practice, one can continue to contemplate the formations with equanimity, or, if the mind turns towards the nibbāna element (S. NIRVĀnADHĀTU) as its object, one of three types of liberation (S. VIMUKTI) ensues. If liberation occurs while contemplating impermanence, it is called "signless liberation," if it occurs while contemplating suffering it is called "wishless liberation," and if it occurs while contemplating nonself it is called "empty liberation" (see VIMOKsAMUKHA).

saptakṛdbhavaparama. (T. re ltar thogs na srid pa lan bdun pa; C. jiqi fanyou; J. gokushippon'u; K. kŭkch'il panyu 極七返有). In Sanskrit, "one who takes up to seven existences" before NIRVĀnA; a specific type of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, they are those who, on reaching the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), have not yet eliminated even one of the set of nine levels of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), these being the impediments to the first DHYĀNA that the mundane (LAUKIKA) path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes; they will therefore take up to a maximum of seven rebirths in the sensuous realm before they reach the goal of ARHAT.

sāriputra. (P. Sāriputta; T. Shā ri bu; C. Shelifu; J. Sharihotsu; K. Saribul 舍利弗). In Sanskrit, "Son of sārī"; the first of two chief disciples of the Buddha, along with MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA. sāriputra's father was a wealthy brāhmana named Tisya (and sāriputra is sometimes called Upatisya, after his father) and his mother was named sārī or sārikā, because she had eyes like a sārika bird. sārī was the most intelligent woman in MAGADHA; she is also known as sāradvatī, so sāriputra is sometimes referred to as sāradvatīputra. sāriputra was born in Nālaka near RĀJAGṚHA. He had three younger brothers and three sisters, all of whom would eventually join the SAMGHA and become ARHATs. sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana were friends from childhood. Once, while attending a performance, both became overwhelmed with a sense of the vanity of all impermanent things and resolved to renounce the world together. They first became disciples of the agnostic SANJAYA VAIRĀtĪPUTRA, although they later took their leave of him and wandered through India in search of the truth. Finding no solution, they parted company, promising one another that whichever one should succeed in finding the truth would inform the other. It was then that sāriputra met the Buddha's disciple, AsVAJIT, one of the Buddha's first five disciples (PANCAVARGIKA) and already an arhat. sāriputra was impressed with Asvajit's countenance and demeanor and asked whether he was a master or a disciple. When he replied that he was a disciple, sāriputra asked him what his teacher taught. Asvajit said that he was new to the teachings and could only provide a summary, but then uttered one of the most famous statements in the history of Buddhism, "Of those phenomena produced through causes, the TATHĀGATA has proclaimed their causes (HETU) and also their cessation (NIRODHA). Thus has spoken the great renunciant." (See YE DHARMĀ s.v.). Hearing these words, sāriputra immediately became a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) and asked where he could find this teacher. In keeping with their earlier compact, he repeated the stanza to his friend Mahāmaudgalyāyana, who also immediately became a streamenterer. The two friends resolved to take ordination as disciples of the Buddha and, together with five hundred disciples of their former teacher SaNjaya, proceeded to the VEnUVANAVIHĀRA, where the Buddha was in residence. The Buddha ordained the entire group with the EHIBHIKsUKĀ ("Come, monks") formula, whereupon all except sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana became arhats. Mahāmaudgalyāyana was to attain arhatship seven days after his ordination, while sāriputra reached the goal after a fortnight upon hearing the Buddha preach the Vedanāpariggahasutta (the Sanskrit recension is entitled the Dīrghanakhaparivrājakaparipṛcchā). The Buddha declared sāriputra and Mahāmaudgalyāyana his chief disciples the day they were ordained, giving as his reason the fact that both had exerted themselves in religious practice for countless previous lives. sāriputra was declared chief among the Buddha's disciples in wisdom, while Mahāmaudgalyāyana was chief in mastery of supranormal powers (ṚDDHI). sāriputra was recognized as second only to the Buddha in his knowledge of the dharma. The Buddha praised sāriputra as an able teacher, calling him his dharmasenāpati, "dharma general" and often assigned topics for him to preach. Two of his most famous discourses were the DASUTTARASUTTA and the SAnGĪTISUTTA, which the Buddha asked him to preach on his behalf. Sāriputra was meticulous in his observance of the VINAYA, and was quick both to admonish monks in need of guidance and to praise them for their accomplishments. He was sought out by others to explicate points of doctrine and it was he who is said to have revealed the ABHIDHARMA to the human world after the Buddha taught it to his mother, who had been reborn in the TRĀYASTRIMsA heaven; when the Buddha returned to earth each day to collect alms, he would repeat to sāriputra what he had taught to the divinities in heaven. sāriputra died several months before the Buddha. Realizing that he had only seven days to live, he resolved to return to his native village and convert his mother; with this accomplished, he passed away. His body was cremated and his relics were eventually enshrined in a STuPA at NĀLANDĀ. sāriputra appears in many JĀTAKA stories as a companion of the Buddha, sometimes in human form, sometimes in animal form, and sometimes with one of them a human and the other an animal. sāriputra also plays a major role in the MAHĀYĀNA sutras, where he is a common interlocutor of the Buddha and of the chief BODHISATTVAs. Sometimes he is portrayed as a dignified arhat, elsewhere he is made the fool, as in the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA when a goddess turns him into a woman, much to his dismay. In either case, the point is that the wisest of the Buddha's arhat disciples, the master of the abhidharma, does not know the sublime teachings of the Mahāyāna and must have them explained to him. The implication is that the teachings of the Mahāyāna sutras are therefore more profound than anything found in the canons of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS. In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYA ("Heart Sutra"), it is sāriputra who asks AVALOKITEsVARA how to practice the perfection of wisdom, and even then he must be empowered to ask the question by the Buddha. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, it is sāriputra's question that prompts the Buddha to set forth the parable of the burning house. The Buddha predicts that in the future, sāriputra will become the buddha Padmaprabha.

Sarvadurgatiparisodhanatantra. (T. Ngan song thams cad yongs su sbyong ba'i rgyud; C. Zuisheng foding tuoluoni jingchu yezhang zhou jing; J. Saishobutchodarani jojogoshojukyo; K. Ch'oesŭng pulchong tarani chongje opchang chu kyong 最勝佛頂陀羅尼淨除業障呪經). In Sanskrit, "Tantra on the Complete Purification of All Negative Places of Rebirth," an important Indian tantra classified sometimes as a CARYĀTANTRA, but most commonly as a YOGATANTRA, associated with the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAMGRAHA. In the text, sAKRA asks the Buddha sĀKYAMUNI about the fate of a deity named Vimalamaniprabha, who is no longer living in the TRĀYASTRIMsA heaven. The Buddha explains that he has been reborn in the AVĪCI hell. The gods then ask the Buddha how to avoid rebirth in the three "evil destinies" (DURGATI) of animals, ghosts, and hell denizens. The Buddha sets forth a variety of rituals, including rituals for the four kinds of activities (sĀNTIKA, PAUstIKA, VAsĪKARAnA, ABHICĀRA) as well as rituals for the dead. The text was widely commented upon in Tibet, where it was a major source of rituals for the fortunate rebirth of the dead.

sarva-jnana-vimudhan nastan acetasah ::: [the insensible, bewildered in all knowledge and (fated to be) destroyed]. [Gita 3.32]

sarvajNatā. (P. sabbaNNu; T. kun shes/thams cad mkhyen pa; C. yiqie zhi; J. issaichi; K. ilch'e chi 一切智). In Sanskrit, "all-knower," "all-knowledge," or "omniscience"; in early versions of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras, the name for a buddha's knowledge; later, the term was used for the knowledge of a sRĀVAKA or PRATYEKABUDDHA, in contrast to a buddha's knowledge of all aspects (SARVĀKĀRAJNATĀ), which is reached by cultivating a bodhisattva's knowledge of the paths (MĀRGAJNATĀ). The "all" (sarva) means all the grounds (vastu) of the knowledge of defiled (SAMKLIstA) and pure (visuddha, see VIsUDDHI) dharmas systematized in the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. In the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA and VIMUKTISENA's commentary to that text, sarvajNatā has both a positive and a negative meaning. In the opening verses of the AbhisamayālaMkāra, for example, sarvajNatā is called the mother of the perfection of wisdom. In such cases it is a positive term for the part of a buddha's knowledge that is shared in common with srāvakas, and so on. In the third chapter of the same work, sarvajNatā is a negative term used to identify the absence of skillful means (UPĀYA) and the lack of the total absence of subject-object conceptualization (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA) in srāvakas, in order to point clearly to the superiority of the BODHISATTVA path.

satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag brgya pa; C. Shiwansong bore; J. Jumanju hannya; K. Simmansong panya 十萬頌般若). In Sanskrit, the "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines," the longest of the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras. Some scholars regard the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ (eight thousand lines) to be the earliest of the prajNāpāramitā sutras, which was then expanded into the AstadasasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitāsutra (eighteen thousand lines) and the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA (twenty-five thousand lines). According to this explanation, the most extensive of the expansions is the satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā, sometimes referred to as the "great mother [of the victors]." The composition sequence of these different sutras is not as clear as once thought, however, and there appear to be parts of the sātasāhasrikā not found in the Asta, which may go back to very early material. The text is in three major sections, with the first two expanding on the contents of the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā. The third section, which seems to be an independent text, contains discussions of topics such as the nature of enlightenment, the Buddha's omniscience, the body of the Buddha, and the six perfections. Unlike the other two briefer expansions, the version in one hundred thousand lines omits four chapters that occur in the AstasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā. It is said that after the Buddha taught the satasāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā, he entrusted it to the NĀGAs, who kept it in a jeweled casket in the bottom of the ocean, where it was eventually retrieved and brought to the human world by NĀGĀRJUNA.

. s.viṁ prasitim ::: same as tr.s.vi prasiti.

Sengzhao. (J. Sojo; K. Sŭngjo 僧肇) (374-414). Influential early Chinese monk and exegete, whose writings helped to popularize the works of the MADHYAMAKA school in China. Sengzhao is said to have been born into an improverished family but was able to support himself by working as a copyist. Thanks to his trade, he was able to read through much of traditional Chinese literature and philosophy, including such Daoist classics as the Zhuangzi and Laozi, and is said to have resolved to become a monk after reading the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. He later became a disciple of KUMĀRAJĪVA and served as the Chinese-language stylist for Kumārajīva's translations. After Yao Xing (r. 394-416) of the Latter Qin dynasty (384-417) destroyed the state of Liang in 401, Sengzhao followed his teacher to Chang'an, where he and his colleague Sengrui (352-436) were appointed as two of the main assistants in Kumārajīva's translation bureau there. Yao Xing ordered them to elucidate the scriptures Kumārajīva had translated, so Sengzhao subsequently wrote his BORE WUZHI LUN to explicate the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA that Kumārajīva and his team had translated in 404. This and other influential treatises by Sengzhao were later compiled together as the ZHAO LUN. Sengzhao's treatises and his commentary on the Vimalakīrtinirdesa played a crucial role in the development of MAHĀYĀNA thought in China. Sengzhao is treated retrospectively as a vaunt courier in the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese analogue of the Madhyamaka school, which was formally established some two centuries later by JIZANG (549-623). The influential BAOZANG LUN is also attributed to Sengzhao, although that treatise is probably a later work of the early CHAN tradition.

Shandao. (J. Zendo; K. Sondo 善導) (613-681). In Chinese, "Guide to Virtue"; putative third patriarch of the Chinese PURE LAND tradition; also known as Great Master Zhongnan. At an early age, Shandao became a monk under a certain DHARMA master Mingsheng (d.u.), with whom he studied the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA; he later devoted himself to the study of the GUAN WULIANGSHOU JING, which became one of his major inspirations. In 641, Shandao visited the monk DAOCHUO (562-645) at the monastery of Xuanzhongsi, where he is said to have cultivated vaipulya repentance (fangdeng canfa). Shandao also continued to train himself there in the visualization practices prescribed in the Guan Wuliangshou jing, which led to a profound vision of the buddha AMITĀBHA's PURE LAND (JINGTU) of SUKHĀVATĪ. Shandao subsequently eschewed philosophical exegesis and instead devoted himself to continued recitation of the Buddha's name (NIANFO) and visualization of the pure land as detailed in the Guan jing. After Daochuo's death, he remained in the Zongnan mountains before eventually moving to the Chinese capital of Chang'an, where he had great success in propagating the pure land teachings at the monastery of Guangmingsi. Shandao is also known to have painted numerous images of the pure land that appeared in his vision and presented them to his devotees. He was also famous for his continuous chanting of the AMITĀBHASuTRA. Shandao's influential commentary on the Guan Wuliangshou jing was favored by the Japanese monk HoNEN, whose teachings were the basis of the Japanese pure land tradition of JoDOSHu.

shengwen cidi 聲聞次第. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa. See PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA

shes rab kyis rnam par grol ba. See PRAJNĀVIMUKTA

shi jietuo 時解. See SAMAYAVIMUKTA

shingedatsu 心解. See CETOVIMUKTI

shinshoge 信勝解. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA

shojodoron 清淨道論. See VIMOKsAMĀRGA

shomonshidai 聲聞次第. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

Shotoku Taishi. (聖德太子) (572-622). Japanese statesman of the Asuka period (593-710) and second son of Emperor Yomei (r. 585-587), who is traditionally assumed to have played an important role in the early dissemination of Buddhism in Japan. He is also known as Umayado no Miko (Prince Stable Door), but by the eighth century, he became known as Shotoku Taishi (lit. Prince Sagacious Virtue). Given that the earliest significant writings on the life of Shotoku Taishi come from two early histories, the Kojiki (712) and Nihon shoki (720), which are both written nearly a century after his death, little can be said definitively about his biography. According to the traditional accounts in these two texts, Suiko (554-628), the aunt of Prince Shotoku and the Japanese monarch, appointed her nephew regent in 593, giving him broad political powers. Thanks to his enlightened leadership, Prince Shotoku is credited with numerous historical achievements. These include the promotion of Buddhism within the court under an edict he issued in 594; promulgation of the Seventeen-Article Constitution in 604, which stresses the importance of the monarchy and lays out basic Buddhist and Confucian principles; sponsorship of trade missions to China; construction of the monasteries of HoRYuJI and SHITENNoJI; authorship of two chronological histories (Tennoko and Kokki); and composition of three of the earliest Buddhist commentaries in Japan, on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, and sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA ("Lion's Roar of Queen srīmālā"), which demonstrate his deep familiarity with Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrine. The credibility of Prince Shotoku's achievements as described in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is undermined by fact that both texts were commissioned by the newly empowered monarchy in an attempt to strengthen its political standing. Some scholars have thus argued that because the new royal family wanted to identify itself with the powerful instrument of the new religion, they selected the person of Prince Shotoku, who shared their lineage, to serve as the first political patron of Buddhism in Japan. This historical narrative focused on Prince Shotoku thus denigrated the importance of the defeated SOGA clan's extensive patronage of Buddhism. As early as the Nara period (710-794), Prince Shotoku began taking on legendary, even mythical status, and was eventually transformed into one of Japan's greatest historical figures, representing the quintessence of Buddhist religious virtue and benevolent political leadership. Priests often dedicated temples to him or transferred the merit of religious enterprises to Shotoku. Both SHINRAN (1173-1263) and NICHIREN (1222-82) dedicated written works to his name. Throughout the Heian (794-1185) and Kamakura (1185-1333) periods, what is now referred to as the cult of Shotoku Taishi was widely popular and members of the aristocracy regularly venerated him (a practice referred to as Taishi shinko, lit. devotion to the Prince).

Shwegyin Sayadaw. (1822-1893). In Burmese, "Senior Monk from Shwegyin," honorific title of U Zagara (P. Jāgara), a prominent nineteenth-century reformist scholar-monk and founder of the SHWEGYIN GAING, which today is the second largest monastic fraternity (B. GAING; P. GAnA) in the Burmese sangha (S. SAMGHA). U Zagara was born in Shwegyin village near Shwebo in Upper Burma. As a novice (P. sāmanera; S. sRĀMAnERA) and as a young monk (P. BHIKKHU; S. BHIKsU) he studied under many of the prominent abbots of his time, and according to some sources was a colleague of the learned and ultra-orthodox Okpo Sayadaw, U Okkamwuntha (P. OkkaMvaMsa), founder of the DWAYA GAING, in British-occupied Lower Burma. Like the Okpo Sayadaw, U Zagara emphasized Pāli scholarship and scrupulous attention to monastic discipline (P. VINAYA) as the foundation of the Buddha's religion (P. sāsana; S. sĀSANA), qualities which brought him to the attention of the Burmese king, MINDON (r. 1853-1878). King Mindon, who had inaugurated a revival and reform of Buddhism throughout his kingdom, appointed U Zagara as a royal preceptor (B. SAYADAW) and built for him an elaborate monastic complex at the foot of Mandalay Hill. This attention soon brought U Zagara into conflict with the powerful THUDHAMMA Council, a royally appointed ecclesiastical body charged with governing the Burmese sangha of the kingdom. After a falling out with the Thudhamma patriarch (B. thathanabaing; P. SAnGHARĀJĀ), U Zagara petitioned the king for autonomy (P. ganavimutti) from Thudhamma control, which the king granted. He and his disciples thus formed the nucleus of the new Shwegyin gaing. Some years after the death of the Thudhamma patriarch, during the reign of Burma's last king, Thibaw (1878-1885), U Zagara was invited along with another senior monk to jointly head the Thudhamma Council. U Zagara declined the offer, focusing his energies instead on expanding the reach of the Shwegyin gaing throughout Upper and Lower Burma. The strong emphasis placed by U Zagara and his successors on Buddhist scholarship, monastic discipline, and strict institutional organization of member monasteries allowed the Shwegyin gaing to successfully weather the tumultuous years following the British conquest of the Burmese kingdom in 1885, which saw the dissolution of the Thudhamma Council and disestablishment of Buddhism as the state religion.

Shwegyin. The second largest monastic fraternity (B. GAING; P. GAnA) of modern Myanmar (Burmese) Buddhism comprising approximately five percent of the monastic population of the country. It is preceded in size by the majority THUDHAMMA GAING, which comprises 85-90% of the Burmese monkhood. The Shwegyin gaing was founded in the mid-nineteenth century and was one of three reformist monastic gaing to emerge during the reign of the Burmese king, MINDON (r.1853-1878), along with the DWAYA GAING and the Hngettwin gaing. The Shwegyin gaing takes its name from its founder, the first SHWEGYIN SAYADAW, U Zagara (P. Jāgara) (1822-1893), a renowned scholar-monk from the village of Shwegyin in Upper Burma. U Zagara was especially strict in his observance of VINAYA and insisted, as did the leaders of the other reformist gaing, that monks who scrupulously followed the vinaya were in no need of oversight by the royally appointed THUDHAMMA Council, an ecclesiastical body established to govern the Burmese sangha (S. SAMGHA) throughout the kingdom. King Mindon granted U Zagara and his disciples autonomy (P. ganavimutti) from Thudhamma control in 1860, marking the beginning of the Shwegyin gaing as an independent self-governing monastic fraternity. The Shwegyin Sayadaw established a network of monasteries in Upper and Lower Burma that were uniform in practice and institutional structure and regulated by its own gaing-specific hierarchical leadership. The Shwegyin gaing thus replicated for itself a system of monastic governance that the Thudhamma Council had been designed to provide for the Burmese sangha as a whole. This internal organization, along with the fraternity's emphasis on monastic discipline and Buddhist scholarship, enabled the Shwegyin gaing to survive and even flourish during the dislocations brought about by British conquest in 1885, which led to the dissolution of the Thudhamma Council and disestablishment of Buddhism as the state religion. Shwegyin monks can be distinguished from monks of other gaing by minor points of outward deportment. They are required to cover both shoulders with the upper robe whenever leaving their monastic compound, for example, unlike Thudhamma monks who require this style of attire only on such formal occasions as alms rounds or giving sermons. Shwegyin monks are not allowed to smoke tobacco, use umbrellas, or handle money. Shwegyin monasteries are also distinguished from those of other gaing in that they do not require lay people to remove their footwear when entering the monastic compound.

si haet'al 時解. See SAMAYAVIMUKTA

sīlapāramitā. (P. sīlapāramī; T. tshul khrims kyi pha rol tu phyin pa; C. jie boluomi; J. kaiharamitsu; K. kye p'aramil 戒波羅蜜). In Sanskrit, "perfection of morality," the second of the six or ten "perfections" (PĀRAMITĀ) of the BODHISATTVA, along with the perfection of charity (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ), forbearance (KsĀNTIPĀRAMITĀ), effort (VĪRYAPĀRAMITĀ), meditation (DHYĀNAPĀRAMITĀ), and wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ); and, in the longer list, the perfection of expedients (UPĀYAPĀRAMITĀ), vow (PRAnIDHĀNAPĀRAMITĀ), power (BALAPĀRAMITĀ), and knowledge (JNĀNAPĀRAMITĀ). In the MAHĀYĀNA tradition, the perfection of morality is accomplished through the bodhisattva precepts, and specifically "three sets of pure precepts" (trividhāni sīlāni; C. sanju jingjie, see sĪLATRAYA): (1) the saMvarasīla (see PRĀTIMOKsASAMVARA), or "restraining precepts," which refers to the rules of discipline (PRĀTIMOKsA) and deportment that help adepts restrain themselves from all types of unwholesome conduct; (2) the accumulation of wholesome qualities (kusaladharmasaMgrāhaka), which accumulates all types of wholesome conduct that give rise to the buddhadharmas; and (3) SATTVĀRTHAKRIYĀ, acting for the welfare of beings, which involve giving aid and comfort to sentient beings. Here, the first group corresponds to the preliminary "HĪNAYĀNA" precepts, while the second and third groups are regarded as reflecting a Mahāyāna position on morality. Thus, the perfection of morality, through the three sets of pure precepts, is conceived as a comprehensive description of Buddhist views on precepts, which incorporates both hīnayāna and Mahāyāna perspectives into an overarching system. According to the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), each of the ten stages (BHuMI) of the bodhisattva path leads to the attainment of one of the ten kinds of suchness (TATHATĀ), through practicing one of the ten perfections (pāramitā) and thus overcoming one of the ten types of obstructions (ĀVARAnA). As the second perfection, sīlapāramitā is practiced on the second stage of the bodhisattva path, the VIMALĀ (immaculate, stainless) bhumi, and leads to the attainment of supreme suchness (paramarthatathatā; C. zuisheng zhenru), by overcoming the obstruction of deluded conduct (mithyāpratipattyāvarana; C. xiexing zhang).

simhaet'al 心解. See CETOVIMUKTI

sinsŭnghae 信勝解. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA

snying thig. (nyingtik). In Tibetan, "heart drop" or "heart essence" (an abbreviation of snying gi thig le), a term used to describe an important genre of texts of the RNYING MA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The master sRĪSIMHA is said to have divided the "instruction class" (MAN NGAG SDE) of the great completion (RDZOGS CHEN) teachings into four cycles: the outer, inner, secret, and the most secret unexcelled cycle (yang gsang bla na med pa). In Tibet, VIMALAMITRA organized the teachings of this fourth cycle into an explanatory lineage with scriptures and an aural lineage without scriptures and then concealed these teachings, which were later revealed as the BI MA'I SNYING THIG ("Heart Essence of Vimalamitra"). During his stay in Tibet, PADMASAMBHAVA concealed teachings on the most secret unexcelled cycle, called "heart essence of the dĀKINĪ" (MKHA' 'GRO SNYING THIG). In the fourteenth century, these and other teachings were compiled and elaborated upon by KLONG CHEN RAB 'BYAMS into what are known as the "four heart essences" (SNYING THIG YA BZHI): (1) the "heart essence of VIMALAMITRA" (Bi ma'i snying thig), (2) the "ultimate essence of the lama" (bla ma yang thig), (3) the "heart essence of the dākinī" (mkha' 'gro snying thig), and (4) two sections composed by Klong chen pa, the "ultimate essence of the dākinī" (mkha' 'gro yang thig) and the "ultimate essence of the profound" (zab mo yang thig). Although tracing its roots back to Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra in the eighth century, the snying thig texts and their practices likely derive from Tibetan reformulations of great completion teachings beginning in the eleventh century, when new translations of Indian tantras were being made in Tibet. A wide range of new meditative systems were added into the rdzogs chen corpus, which would prove to be essential to Tibetan Buddhist practice, especially in the RNYING MA and BKA' BRGYUD sects in subsequent centuries.

Sona-Kolivīsa. (S. srona-ViMsatikoti/srona-KotiviMsa; T. Gro bzhin skyes bye ba nyi shu pa; C. Shoulongna/Ershiyi'er; J. Shurona/Nijuokuni; K. Surongna/Isibogi 守籠那/二十億耳). Pāli name of an ARHAT declared by the Buddha to be foremost among his monk disciples in striving energetically. According to the Pāli account, he was born the son of a wealthy man in the country of Campā. Because he had given a precious ring to a PRATYEKABUDDHA (P. paccekabuddha) in a previous life, his body was the color of burnished gold. His hands and feet were delicate, and fine curly hair covered his feet. King BIMBISĀRA of MAGADHA wished to see the unusual markings of the youth and sent for him. While at the Magadha capital of RĀJAGṚHA, Sona and eighty thousand companions went to see the Buddha, who was preaching at that time in the city. Impressed by the miraculous powers displayed by Sāgata (S. SVĀGATA), the Buddha's attendant, Sona asked his parents to allow him to enter the order. After his ordination, the Buddha gave Sona a subject of meditation (KAMMAttHĀNA), and Sona retired to the sītavana grove to practice. Sona strove diligently, taking up walking meditation as his main practice; however, because he was interrupted by frequent visitors, he made little progress and grew despondent. His feet became blistered and bled, so much so that the meditation path (P. cankama, S. CAnKRAMA) upon which he walked was soaked in blood like a slaughter house. Seeing this scene, the Buddha instructed Sona on how to temper his energy with tranquility, and in due time he attained arhatship. Because of his delicate feet, the Buddha is said to have given Sona dispensation to wear sandals of a single layer, even though monks and nuns were required to go barefoot. Sona declined the exemption, however, for he did not wish to be treated more leniently than his fellow monks. In response, the Buddha then gave permission to all his monks to use such sandals.

songmun ch'aje 聲聞次第. See VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA

sraddhāvimukta. (P. saddhāvimutta; T. dad pas rnam par grol ba; C. xinshengjie; J. shinshoge; K. sinsŭnghae 信勝解). In Sanskrit, "liberated through faith." In the Kītāgirisutta of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA, the Buddha describes seven types of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA, P. ariyapuggala). They are: (1) the follower of faith (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN, P. saddhānusāri), (2) the one liberated through faith (sraddhāvimukta), (3) the bodily witness (KĀYASĀKsIN, P. kāyasakkhi), (4) the one liberated both ways (UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA, P. ubhatobhāgavimutta), (5) the follower of the dharma (DHARMĀNUSĀRIN, P. dhammānusāri), (6) the one who has attained understanding (DṚstIPRĀPTA, P. ditthippatta), and (7), the one liberated through wisdom (PRAJNĀVIMUKTA, P. paNNāvimutta). A person liberated through faith is a noble person at any stage of the path, from the fruit of stream-enterer to the path of the arhat, who has understood the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and eliminated some of the defilements, but has not attained any of the DHYĀNA levels of the immaterial realm and who has a predominance of faith. Such a person may or may not have attained the levels of the subtle-materiality realm. The sraddhāvimukta is also found in the list of the members of the saMgha when it is subdivided into twenty (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). There are three sraddhāvimukta: recipients of the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA), and nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPHALASTHA). These parallel the three sraddhānusārin that are candidates for these same first three fruits of the noble path. See ĀRYAPUDGALA; ĀRYAMĀRGAPHALA.

sraddhāvimukta

sraddhādhimukta. (P. saddhādhimutta; T. dad pas lhag par mos pa; C. xinjie; J. shinge; K. sinhae 信解). In Sanskrit, "one who aspires through faith" or "one inclined to faith"; one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). In Sanskrit sources, the name is given to those with dull faculties (MṚDVINDRIYA) when they reach one of the first three results of the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGA) or religious life (sRĀMAnYAPHALA). They reach the result when they pass from the path of vision's (DARsANAMĀRGA) uninterrupted path (ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA) to its path of freedom (VIMUKTIMĀRGA). While on the uninterrupted path, they are called sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN. Contingent on the number of sets of afflictions (KLEsA) causing rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) that they have already eliminated prior to reaching the uninterrupted path, they become either SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA, SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA, or ANĀGĀMIPHALASTHA when they reach the path of liberation (VIMUKTIMĀRGA). Both the name sraddhānusārin and the sraddhādhimukta appear to have been borrowed from the list of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) found, for example, in the Kītāgirisutta of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA. The name sRADDHĀVIMUKTA found in the list of seven noble persons is changed to sraddhādhimukta in the expanded list of twenty members of the āryasaMgha. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA.

sraddhānusārin. (P. saddhānusāri; T. dad pa'i rjes su 'brang ba; C. suixin xing; J. zuishingyo; K. susin haeng 隨信行). In Sanskrit, "follower of faith." The SARVĀSTIVĀDA (e.g., ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA) and Pāli (e.g., VISUDDHIMAGGA) traditions of mainstream Buddhism both recognize seven types of noble ones (ĀRYA, P. ariya): (1) follower of faith (S. sraddhānusārin; P. saddhānusāri); (2) follower of the dharma (S. DHARMĀNUSĀRIN, P. dhammānusāri); (3) one liberated through faith (S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA; P. saddhāvimutta); (4) one who has formed right view (S. DṚstIPRĀPTA; P. ditthippatta), by developing both faith and wisdom; (5) the bodily witness (S. KĀYASĀKsIN; P. kāyasakkhi), viz., through the temporary suspension of mentality in the equipoise of cessation (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI); (6) one who is freed by wisdom (S. PRAJNĀVIMUKTA; P. paNNāvimutta), by freeing oneself through analysis; and (7) one who is freed both ways (S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA; P. ubhatobhāgavimutta), by freeing oneself through both meditative absorption and wisdom. A follower of faith is a person who has attained the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) and in whom the faculty (INDRIYA) of faith (sRADDHĀ) is predominant. Such a person will eventually become one who is freed through faith (sRADDHĀVIMUKTA). In the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, there is a basic division of path types and personality types, where a faith-follower and a dharma-follower eliminate hindrances to goals all at once or in a series, and respectively either pass through the intermediate stages of once-returner and nonreturner, or else skip such stages completely, before finally becoming ARHATs. In general, dharma-followers are those who proceed based on knowledge of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS as it pertains to all three realms of existence; they eliminate hindrances to all goals all at once, while the achievements of faith-followers are more progressive. According to the Sarvāstivāda VAIBHĀsIKA school of ABHIDHARMA, an ARHAT whose liberation is grounded in faith may be subject to backsliding from that state, whereas those who are dharmānusārin are unshakable (AKOPYA), because they have experienced the knowledge of nonproduction (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., that the afflictions (KLEsA) can never occur again, the complement of the knowledge of extinction (KsAYAJNĀNA). In the MAHĀYĀNA interpretation of the terms, bodhisattvas who are dharma-followers have knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ), i.e., they have gained a knowledge of the way things are (TATTVA) even at early stages of the path and will never revert to the HĪNAYĀNA; the faith-followers are not irreversible (AVAIVARTIKA) in that way until higher levels of the path. The sraddhānusārin is also found in the list of the members of the saMgha when it is subdivided into twenty (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). Among the sraddhānusārin, there are candidates for the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNAPHALAPRATIPANNAKA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA), and nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPHALAPRATIPANNAKA). The first has eliminated up to five of the nine sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), the second all but the final set, and the last all of the afflictions. The first takes a number of births (never more than seven) in the sensuous realm before reaching nirvāna, the second has only one rebirth in the sensuous realm left, and the nonreturner will never again take rebirth in the sensuous realm prior to reaching nirvāna.

sramana. (P. samana; T. dge sbyong; C. shamen; J. shamon; K. samun 沙門). In Sanskrit "renunciant," "mendicant," or "recluse," a term used in ancient India to refer to male religious of a number of different itinerant sects, including Buddhism, often associated with the warrior (KsATRIYA) caste, which challenged the hegemony of the brāhmana priests and mainstream Brahmanical religion deriving from the Vedas. Whereas the Brahmanical tradition traces itself back to a body of literature centered on the Vedas, the sramana movements instead derive from historical persons who all flourished around the sixth century BCE. Six different sramana groups are mentioned in the SĀMANNAPHALASUTTANTA of the DĪGHANIKĀYA, each representing different trends in Indian thought, including antinomianism (PuRAnA-KĀsYAPA); fatalism (MASKARIN-GOsĀLĪPUTRA of the ĀJĪVAKA school); materialism (AJITA-KEsAKAMBALA of the LOKĀYATA school); atomism (KAKUDA-KĀTYĀYANA); and agnosticism (SANJAYA-VAIRĀtĪPUTRA); the sixth group is the JAINA tradition of NIRGRANTHA JNĀTĪPUTRA, also known as MAHĀVĪRA, with which Buddhism shares many affinities. These six are typically referred to in Buddhist materials as the six "heterodox teachers" (TĪRTHIKA) and are consistently criticized by the Buddha for fostering wrong views (MITHYĀDṚstI). Some scholars suggest that these groups were loosely associated with a third phase in the development of pan-Indian religion called the āranyaka (forest dwellers) movement, where the highly specialized fire rituals (HOMA) set forth in the Brāhmanas for the propitiation of Vedic gods gave way to a more internalized form of spiritual praxis. These itinerant asetics or wanders were also called PARIVRĀJAKA (P. paribbājaka; "those who go forth into homelessness"), in direct contrast to the householders (GṚHASTHA) whose behavior was governed by the laws set down in dharmasāstras. Because so many of the beliefs and practices emblematic of the sramana movement have no direct Vedic antecedents, however, other scholars have proposed that the sramana groups may instead exemplify the resurfacing in Indian religion of aboriginal elements that had long been eclipsed by the imported rituals and beliefs that the Āryans brought with them to India. These doctrines, all of which have their parallels in Buddhism, include rebirth and transmigration (e.g., PUNARJANMAN); notions that actions have effect (e.g., KARMAN); asceticism (TAPAS, DHUTAnGA) and the search for ways of behavior that would not bind one to the round of SAMSĀRA; and liberation (MOKsA, VIMOKsA) as the goal of religious practice. In Buddhism, sramana is also used generically to refer to all monks, including the Buddha, whose epithets include sramana Gautama and Mahāsramana, "Great Renunciant." The term often occurs in the compound sramanabrāhmana (P. samanabrāhmana), "recluses and brāhmanas." This compound has a range of meanings. In some cases, it refers simply to those who practice and benefit from the Buddha's teachings. In other cases, it refers to non-Buddhist religious practitioners. In the edicts of AsOKA, the term is used to refer to those who are worthy of respect and offerings, with sramana taken to mean Buddhist monks (and possibly other ascetics) and brāhmana taken to mean brāhmana priests. The term sramana should be carefully distinguished from sRĀMAnERA (s.v.), a novice monk.

srāvaka. (P. sāvaka; T. nyan thos; C. shengwen; J. shomon; K. songmun 聲聞). In Sanskrit, lit. "listener"; viz., a direct "disciple" of the Buddha who "listened" to his teachings (and sometimes seen translated over-literally from the Chinese as "sound-hearer"). In the MAHĀYĀNA, the term was used to describe those who (along with PRATYEKABUDDHAs) sought their own liberation from suffering as an ARHAT by following the HĪNAYĀNA path (see ER SHENG), and was contrasted (negatively) to the BODHISATTVAs who seeks buddhahood for the sake of all beings. There is an issue in the Mahāyāna concerning whether srāvakas will eventually enter the bodhisattva path and become buddhas, or whether arhatship is a final state where no further progress along the path (MĀRGA) will be possible (see sRĀVAKAGOTRA). The SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, for example, declares that they will, and in the sutra the Buddha makes prophecies about the future buddhahood of several famous srāvakas. In many Mahāyāna sutras, srāvakas are often described as being in the audience of the Buddha's teaching, and certain srāvakas, such as sĀRIPUTRA, play important roles as interlocutors. In the third chapter of the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, a series of srāvakas explain why they are reluctant to visit the bodhisattva VIMALAKĪRTI, because of the insurmountable challenge his profound understanding of the dharma will present to them.

srona-KotiviMsa. See SOnA KOLIVĪSA

srona-ViMsatikoti. See SOnA KOLIVĪSA

srotaāpanna. [alt. srotāpanna; srotāpanna] (P. sotāpanna; T. rgyun du zhugs pa; C. yuliu [guo]/xutuohuan; J. yoru[ka]/shudaon; K. yeryu [kwa]/sudawon 預流[果]/須陀洹). In Sanskrit, "stream-enterer" or "stream-winner"; the first of four stages of sanctity (see ĀRYAPUDGALA) in mainstream Buddhism, followed by the once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN) and worthy one (ARHAT). These four stages are together referred to as "the fruits of recluseship" (sRĀMAnYAPHALA), viz., "the effects of religious practice." The term srotaāpanna appears very often in the Buddhist sutras, with members of the Buddha's audience said to have attained this stage immediately upon hearing him preach the dharma. The stage of stream-enterer begins with the initial vision of the reality of NIRVĀnA, at which point one "enters the stream" leading to liberation. Because of this achievement, the srotaāpanna has abandoned completely the first three of ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth (SAMSĀRA): (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKĀYADṚstI), (2) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSĀ), (3) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARĀMARsA). For this reason, after becoming a stream-enterer, the adept will never again be reborn into the unfortunate rebirth destinies (APĀYA, DURGATI) as a demigod, animal, ghost, or hell denizen and is destined to become an arhat in a maximum of seven more lifetimes (see SAPTAKṚDBHAVAPARAMA). There are two stages to stream-entry: SROTAĀPANNAPHALAPRATIPANNAKA, or one who is practicing, or is a candidate for, the fruition of stream-entry; and SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA, or one who has reached, or is the recipient of, the fruition of stream-entry. The srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka has only reached the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (unimpeded path), whereas the srotaāpannaphalastha has reached the VIMUKTIMĀRGA (path of freedom). In the five-path system (PANCAMĀRGA), stream-entry is equivalent to the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) on the sRĀVAKA and PRATYEKABUDDHA paths. The srotaāpanna is also one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). In this context srotaāpanna is the name for candidates (pratipannaka) for srotaāpanna (the first fruit of the noble path). They may be either a follower through faith (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN) or a follower through doctrine (DHARMĀNUSĀRIN) with either dull (MṚDVINDRIYA) or keen faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). In all cases, they may have destroyed from none up to as many as five of the sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) that the ordinary (LAUKIKA) path of meditation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA) removes, but they will not have eliminated the sixth to the ninth sets. Were they to have removed the sixth set they would be called candidates for the second fruit of once-returner (sakṛdāgāmin), and were they to have removed the ninth set they would be called candidates for the third fruit of nonreturner (anāgāmin).

srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka. (P. sotāpattimagga; T. rgyun du zhugs pa'i 'bras bu la zhugs pa; C. yuliu xiang; J. yoruko; K. yeryu hyang 預流向). In Sanskrit, one who is practicing, or is candidate for the fruit of stream-enterer. Both the srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka and SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA (one who has reached, or is the recipient of the fruit of stream-enterer) are called "stream-enterer" (SROTAĀPANNA) and are noble persons (ĀRYA); the srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka has only reached the ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA (unimpeded path), the srotaāpannaphalastha has reached the VIMUKTIMĀRGA (path of freedom) of the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA). The level of ordinary humans is the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU), viz., the level where beings are dominated by sense pleasure (KĀMA). Those whose prior store of actions is such that, prior to reaching the path of vision, they have eliminated as many as five of the nine sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensuous realm, are candidates for the fruit stream-enterer when they reach the path of vision's unimpeded path; and they are recipients of the fruit of stream-enterer when they reach the path of freedom. This is one of the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA ("twenty varieties of the ārya saMgha") based on the list given in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA; srotaāpannaphalapratipannaka is also included in the category of follower of faith (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN).

srotaāpannaphalastha. (P. sotāpattiphala; T. rgyun du zhugs pa'i 'bras bu la gnas pa; C. zheng yuliu guo; J. shoyoruka; K. chŭng yeryu kwa 證預流果). In Sanskrit, one who has reached, or is the recipient of the fruit of stream-enterer, one of the eight ĀRYAPUDGALA ("noble persons") and one of the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA ("twenty varieties of the āryasaMgha") based on the list given in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA. The srotaāpannaphalastha is also included in the category of those who have aspired through faith (sRADDHĀDHIMUKTA). See SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA.

Subhuti. (T. Rab 'byor; C. Xuputi; J. Shubodai; K. Subori 須菩提). Sanskrit and Pāli proper name of an eminent ARHAT who was foremost among the Buddha's disciples in dwelling at peace in remote places and in worthiness to receive gifts. He was the younger brother of ANĀTHAPIndADA and took ordination on the day the JETAVANA grove was dedicated, when he heard the Buddha preach. He mastered the ubhatovibhanga, the two collections comprising the VINAYAPItAKA, after which he retired to the forest to practice meditation. He attained arhatship on the basis of maitrīdhyāna (P. mettājhāna), meditative absorption cultivated through contemplation of loving-kindness (MAITRĪ). On his alms-rounds, Subhuti would cultivate loving-kindness at the door of every house where he stopped, thus expanding the amount of merit accrued by his donor. Subhuti taught the dharma without distinction or limitation, for which reason the Buddha singled him out for praise. Subhuti was widely revered for his holiness and was sought out as a recipient of gifts. King BIMBISĀRA once promised to build a cave dwelling for him in RĀJAGṚHA but later forgot. Without a dwelling place, Subhuti sat in the open air to practice meditation. Over time, this caused a drought in the region, for the clouds would not rain lest this disturb the saint's meditations. When Bimbisāra became aware of this issue, he built a grass hut for him, and as soon as Subhuti sat inside it, the clouds poured down rain. During the time of Padmottara Buddha, Subhuti had been a famous hermit named Nanda with forty thousand disciples. Once when the Buddha was visiting his hermitage, he directed one of his monks proficient in loving-kindness and foremost in worthiness to receive gifts to preach to his host. Upon hearing the sermon, all forty thousand disciples of Nanda became arhats, while Nanda, enthralled by the charisma of the preaching monk, resolved one day to earn the same distinction. Subhuti also plays a prominent role in a number of MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The most famous of these roles is as the Buddha's chief interlocutor in PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras like the VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA. In the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, Subhuti is one the four sRĀVAKAs who understands the parable of the burning house; later his buddhahood is prophesied by the Buddha. In the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, Subhuti is one of the arhats who is reluctant to visit Vimalakīrti. Among the Buddha's ten major disciples, he is said to have been foremost in the knowledge of insubstantiality.

Sutrasamuccaya. (T. Mdo kun las btus pa; C. Dasheng baoyaoyi lun; J. Daijo hoyogiron; K. Taesŭng poyoŭi non 大乘寶要義論). In Sanskrit, "Compendium of Sutras," a work attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA, an anthology of passages from sixty-eight mainly MAHĀYĀNA sutras (or collections of sutras), organized under thirteen topics. These topics extol the bodhisattva and the Mahāyāna path, noting the rarity and hence precious nature of such things as faith in the Buddha, great compassion, and laymen who are able to follow the bodhisattva path. The text is of historical interest because it provides evidence of the Mahāyāna sutras that were extant at the time of Nāgārjuna. These include, in addition to various PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras, such famous works as the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. The Chinese translation was made by Dharmaraksa (c. 1018-1058) during the Northern Song dynasty and was among the last stratum of Indian materials to be entered into the Chinese Buddhist canon (C. DAZANGJING).

svabhāvakāya. (T. ngo bo nyid sku; C. zixing shen; J. jishoshin; K. chasong sin 自性身). In Sanskrit, lit. "self-nature body," the buddha-body in its most elemental nature (also seen written as svābhāvikakāya); one of the four types of buddha bodies (BUDDHAKĀYA) discussed in the BUDDHABHuMIsĀSTRA (Fodijing lun), the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA (She dasheng lun), and the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhisāstra), along with the "body intended for personal enjoyment" (SVASAMBHOGAKĀYA), the "body intended for others' enjoyment" (PARASAMBHOGAKĀYA), and the "transformation body" (NIRMĀnAKĀYA). This type of buddha-body is functionally equivalent to the DHARMAKĀYA in the two or "three bodies" (TRIKĀYA) schema of buddha-bodies. ¶ A different understanding of the svabhāvakāya derives from the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature. The final chapter of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA sets forth an elliptic presentation of the svabhāvakāya that led to a number of different later interpretations. According to Ārya VIMUKTISENA's interpretation, the svabhāvakāya is not a separate buddha-body, but rather the ultimate nature (in essence, the emptiness or suNYATĀ) that locates or underpins the other three bodies (the dharmakāya, SAMBHOGAKĀYA, and nirmānakāya). He proposes just three bodies. HARIBHADRA disagrees with this interpretation and proposes four bodies. Strongly influenced by YOGĀCĀRA thought, he privileges the dharmakāya and says it has two parts: a knowledge body (JNĀNADHARMAKĀYA), which is a buddha's omniscient mind, and a svabhāvakāya, which is the ultimate nature of that mind. This controversy was widely debated in Tibet in the commentarial tradition.

Svāgata. (P. Sāgata; T. Legs 'ongs; C. Shanlai; J. Zenrai; K. Sollae 善來). Sanskrit proper name of an eminent ARHAT elder declared by the Buddha to be foremost among his monk disciples in contemplation of the heat element (tejadhātu); also written in BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT as Sāgata. According to the Pāli account, Sāgata was the personal attendant of the Buddha when SOnA KOLIVĪSA (S. srona-ViMsatikoti/srona-KotiviMsa) and eighty thousand companions visited RĀJAGṚHA at the request of King BIMBISĀRA. Sāgata appears to have been naturally endowed with supernatural powers (P. iddhi, S. ṚDDHI) and left such an impression on Sona Kolavīsa that he joined the order. At the king's request, Sāgata displayed numerous marvels in the sky and, when asked to show an even greater wonder, he fell at the Buddha's feet and declared him to be his teacher. In the hermitage of the Jatilas in Ambatittha (S. Āmratirtha), Sāgata dwelt in a powerful NĀGA's cave, angering him, yet he was easily able to defeat the creature. When the people of Kosambī (S. KAUsĀMBĪ) heard of this feat, they resolved to honor Svāgata with a feast. The wicked chabbaggīyā (S. sAdVĀRGIKA) monks, jealous of Sāgata's fame, were intent on his undoing, and so recommended to the citizens of Kosambī that they offer him liquor. Sāgata was offered liquor at every house until he fell unconscious and had to be carried back to the Buddha. Although he was laid down properly with his head facing the Buddha, he turned around and lay with his feet towards the Buddha. The Buddha used this occasion to preach about the heedlessness (PRAMĀDA) that arises from intoxication and passed a rule against the use of alcohol and other intoxicants. The next day when Sāgata awoke, he was informed of what had happened and begged the Buddha for forgiveness. After a short while, through diligent practice, he attained insight into the three marks of existence and became an arhat.

. s.vi prasiti ::: swift movement. [Cf. R trsvim tr

syāmatārā. (T. Sgrol ljang). In Sanskrit, "Dark Tārā"; in Tibetan "Green Tārā"; according to a widely held Tibetan myth, the goddess who consorted with a monkey (an emanation of AVALOKITEsVARA) and gave birth to the Tibetan people. Later, she took the form of the princess BHṚKUTĪ, Nepalese wife of King SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO. After Avalokitesvara, syāmatārā is perhaps the most widely worshipped Buddhist deity in Tibet and the focus of the nonsectarian Tārā cult. The Namas Tāre EkaviMsatistotra ("Twenty-One Praises of Tārā") is one of the most widely known prayers in Tibet, and her MANTRA, oM tāre tuttāre ture svāha, is second in popularity only to OM MAnI PADME HuM, AVALOKITEsVARA's mantra. Each Tibetan sect has its own tantric rituals (SĀDHANA) and ritual propitiations (VIDHI) for Green Tārā, who is considered particularly helpful to those building monasteries and other religious structures, and to those starting business ventures. Green Tārā is iconographically represented as sitting in LALITĀSANA with her left leg bent and resting on her lotus seat, her right leg pendant, with the knee slightly raised, the foot resting on a second smaller lotus. ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA, an Indian Buddhist monk and scholar revered by Tibetan Buddhists as a leading teacher in the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet, was a devotee of Green Tārā, and the temple commemorating his principal residence during his later years in central Tibet, in Snye thang (Nyethang), is the Sgrol ma lha khang (Drolma Lhakang) "Tārā Temple," which is widely believed by Tibetans to have a statue of syāmatārā that can speak. See also TĀRĀ.

TaNaK (Tanakh) ::: A relatively modern acronym for the Jewish Bible, made up of the names of the three parts of the Torah (Pentateuch or Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—thus TNK pronounced TaNaK.

thar lam. See MOKsAMĀRGA, VIMOKsAMĀRGA

. thviṁ prasitim ::: same as pr.thvi prasiti. pr prthvi trsvi . g Veda 4.4.1]. thvi tr

three gates to deliverance. (S. vimoksamukha; T. rnam thar sgo; C. jietuo men 解門)

. thvi prasiti ::: wide movement. [Cf. R.g Veda 4.4.1] pr prthvim

Tiantai Zhiyi. (J. Tendai Chigi; K. Ch'ont'ae Chiŭi 天台智顗) (538-597). One of the most influential monks in Chinese Buddhist history and de facto founder of the TIANTAI ZONG. A native of Jingzhou (in present-day Hunan province), Zhiyi was ordained at the age of eighteen after his parents died during the wartime turmoil that preceded the Sui dynasty's unification of China. He studied VINAYA and various MAHĀYĀNA scriptures, including the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") and related scriptures. In 560, Zhiyi met NANYUE HUISI (515-577), who is later listed as the second patriarch of the Tiantai lineage, on Mt. Dasu in Guangzhou and studied Huisi's teachings on the suiziyi sanmei (cultivating SAMĀDHI wherever mind is directed, or the samādhi of freely flowing thoughts), the "four practices of ease and bliss" (si anle xing), a practice based on the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, and the lotus repentance ritual. Zhiyi left Huisi at his teacher's command and headed for the southern capital of Jinling (present-day Jiangsu province) at the age of thirty (567) to teach the Saddharmapundarīkasutra and the DAZHIDU LUN for eight years at the monastery of Waguansi. The Shi chanboluomi cidi famen [alt. Cidi chanmen] are his lecture notes from this period of meditation and teaching. In 575, he retired to Mt. Tiantai (present-day Zhejiang province), where he built a monastery (later named Xiuchansi by the emperor) and devoted himself to meditative practice for eleven years. During this time he compiled the Fajie cidi chumen and the Tiantai xiao zhiguan. After persistent invitations from the king of Chen, Zhiyi returned to Jinling in 585 and two years later wrote the FAHUA WENJU, an authoritative commentary on the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. Subsequently in Yangzhou, Zhiyi conferred the bodhisattva precepts on the crown prince, who later became Emperor Yang (r. 604-617) of the Sui dynasty. Zhiyi was then given the title Great Master Zhizhe (Wise One). Zhiyi also established another monastery on Mt. Dangyang in Yuquan (present-day Hunan province), which Emperor Wen (r. 581-604) later named Yuquansi. Zhiyi then began lecturing on what became his masterpieces, the FAHUA XUANYI (593) and the MOHE ZHIGUAN (594). At the request of the king of Jin, in 595 Zhiyi returned to Yangzhou, where he composed his famous commentaries on the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, i.e., the Weimojing xuanshou and the Weimojing wenshou, before dying in 597. Among the thirty or so works attributed to Zhiyi, the Fahua xuanyi, Fahuawenju, and Mohe zhiguan are most renowned and are together known as the Tiantai san dabu (three great Tiantai commentaries).

TLAs "jargon" As of 2014-08-14, {this dictionary} included 1285 {three-letter acronyms}, which is 7% of the 26^3 = 17576 possible. Here's a {grep} command to find them: egrep '^[A-Z][A-Z][A-Z]$' Dictionary or a {GNU} {Emacs} command: (occur "^[A-Z][A-Z][A-Z]$") Here they are: {AAC}, {AAL}, {AAP}, {ABC}, {ABI}, {ABM}, {ABP}, {ABR}, {ACA}, {ACE}, {ACF}, {ACK}, {ACL}, {ACM}, {ACP}, {ACT}, {ADC}, {ADL}, {ADM}, {ADO}, {ADR}, {ADS}, {ADT}, {AED}, {AEP}, {AES}, {AFJ}, {AFK}, {AFP}, {AFS}, {AGL}, {AGP}, {AIA}, {AID}, {AIR}, {AIT}, {AIX}, {AKC}, {AKL}, {ALC}, {ALF}, {ALM}, {ALP}, {ALU}, {AMD}, {AMI}, {AML}, {AMO}, {AMP}, {AMS}, {AND}, {ANI}, {ANL}, {ANR}, {ANS}, {ANU}, {AOL}, {AOP}, {AOS}, {APA}, {APC}, {APE}, {API}, {APL}, {APM}, {APT}, {AQL}, {ARC}, {ARL}, {ARM}, {ARP}, {ARQ}, {ART}, {ASA}, {ASE}, {ASF}, {ASK}, {ASL}, {ASM}, {ASN}, {ASP}, {ASR}, {AST}, {ATA}, {ATK}, {ATM}, {ATS}, {ATX}, {AUI}, {AUP}, {AVC}, {AVI}, {AVS}, {AWE}, {AWG}, {AWT}, {AYT}, {BAD}, {BAL}, {BAP}, {BBC}, {BBL}, {BBS}, {BCC}, {BCD}, {BCL}, {BCS}, {BDC}, {BDL}, {BEA}, {BEG}, {BEL}, {BER}, {BFI}, {BGA}, {BGP}, {BIP}, {BLT}, {BMF}, {BMP}, {BNC}, {BNF}, {BOA}, {BOF}, {BOS}, {BPI}, {BPR}, {BPS}, {BQS}, {BRB}, {BRH}, {BRI}, {BRS}, {BSA}, {BSD}, {BSI}, {BSL}, {BSS}, {BST}, {BTB}, {BTS}, {BTW}, {BWQ}, {CAD}, {CAE}, {CAF}, {CAI}, {CAL}, {CAM}, {CAN}, {CAP}, {CAR}, {CAS}, {CAT}, {CAV}, {CBD}, {CBN}, {CBR}, {CBT}, {CBV}, {CCD}, {CCL}, {CCP}, {CCR}, {CCS}, {CDA}, {CDC}, {CDE}, {CDF}, {CDL}, {CDM}, {CDR}, {CDS}, {CDW}, {CEN}, {CER}, {CFD}, {CFP}, {CGA}, {CGI}, {CGM}, {CHI}, {CID}, {CIF}, {CIL}, {CIM}, {CIO}, {CIR}, {CIS}, {CIX}, {CJK}, {CLI}, {CLM}, {CLP}, {CLR}, {CLU}, {CLV}, {CLX}, {CMA}, {CMC}, {CML}, {CMM}, {CMP}, {CMS}, {CMU}, {CMZ}, {CNC}, {CNI}, {CNN}, {CNR}, {COM}, {COS}, {CPE}, {CPI}, {CPL}, {CPM}, {CPS}, {CPU}, {CRC}, {CRL}, {CRM}, {CRT}, {CSG}, {CSL}, {CSM}, {CSO}, {CSP}, {CSR}, {CSS}, {CSU}, {CSV}, {CTC}, {CTI}, {CTL}, {CTS}, {CTY}, {CUA}, {CUL}, {CUT}, {CVS}, {CWI}, {DAA}, {DAC}, {DAG}, {DAS}, {DAT}, {DAU}, {DBA}, {DBC}, {DBH}, {DCA}, {DCC}, {DCE}, {DCG}, {DCI}, {DCL}, {DCP}, {DCS}, {DCT}, {DDB}, {DDE}, {DDL}, {DDM}, {DDN}, {DDO}, 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{FAQ}, {FAT}, {FCB}, {FCP}, {FCS}, {FDC}, {FDD}, {FDT}, {FEA}, {FEC}, {FED}, {FEL}, {FFP}, {FFT}, {FGL}, {FHS}, {FIR}, {FIX}, {FLI}, {FMQ}, {FMS}, {FMV}, {FNC}, {FOD}, {FPA}, {FPM}, {FPU}, {FQL}, {FRA}, {FRL}, {FSB}, {FSF}, {FSK}, {FSL}, {FSM}, {FSP}, {FTP}, {FTW}, {FTX}, {FUD}, {FXO}, {FXS}, {FYA}, {FYI}, {GAL}, {GAN}, {GAP}, {GAT}, {GCC}, {GCL}, {GCR}, {GCT}, {GDA}, {GDB}, {GDI}, {GEA}, {GEI}, {GEM}, {GFR}, {GFS}, {GHC}, {GIF}, {GIN}, {GIP}, {GIS}, {GKS}, {GLB}, {GLS}, {GLU}, {GMD}, {GMT}, {GNN}, {GNU}, {GOL}, {GOM}, {GPF}, {GPL}, {GPM}, {GPS}, {GPV}, {GPX}, {GRE}, {GRG}, {GSI}, {GSL}, {GSM}, {GSS}, {GTL}, {GUI}, {GVL}, {GWM}, {HAL}, {HCF}, {HCI}, {HCS}, {HDA}, {HDC}, {HDD}, {HDF}, {HDL}, {HDM}, {HEP}, {HFC}, {HID}, {HLL}, {HMA}, {HMP}, {HNC}, {HOL}, {HPF}, {HPL}, {HPR}, {HSB}, {HSC}, {HSM}, {HSV}, {HTH}, {HVD}, {IAB}, {IAD}, {IAL}, {IAM}, {IAP}, {IAR}, {IAS}, {IAW}, {IBM}, {ICA}, {ICE}, {ICI}, {ICL}, {ICQ}, {ICT}, {ICW}, {IDD}, {IDE}, {IDL}, {IEC}, {IEF}, {IEN}, {IFC}, {IFF}, {IFP}, {IFS}, {IFX}, {IGC}, {IGL}, {IGP}, {IGS}, {IGU}, {IHS}, {IHV}, {IIL}, {IIR}, {IIS}, {IIT}, {ILF}, {IMD}, {IML}, {IMO}, {IMP}, {IMR}, {IMS}, {IOI}, {IOS}, {IOW}, {IPA}, {IPC}, {IPE}, {IPL}, {IPS}, {IPT}, {IPX}, {IQL}, {IRC}, {IRL}, {IRM}, {IRQ}, {ISA}, {ISE}, {ISF}, {ISL}, {ISO}, {ISP}, {IST}, {ISV}, {ITP}, {ITS}, {ITU}, {IVR}, {IVY}, {IXC}, {IXO}, {JAD}, {JAZ}, {JCL}, {JCP}, {JDK}, {JES}, {JIT}, {JMS}, {JNI}, {JPL}, {JRE}, {JRL}, {JRN}, {JSA}, {JSF}, {JSP}, {JTB}, {JTC}, {JTS}, {JVM}, {KAP}, {KBS}, {KCL}, {KEE}, {KFX}, {KIS}, {KLB}, {KMS}, {KNI}, {KRC}, {KRL}, {KRS}, {KSL}, {KSR}, {KTH}, {KVM}, {LAN}, {LAP}, {LAT}, {LAU}, {LAX}, {LBA}, {LBE}, {LBL}, {LBX}, {LCC}, {LCD}, {LCF}, {LCL}, {LCP}, {LCS}, {LDB}, {LDL}, {LDP}, {LDT}, {LEC}, {LED}, {LEO}, {LER}, {LGN}, {LIF}, {LIS}, {LKA}, {LLC}, {LLP}, {LML}, {LNF}, {LOC}, {LOL}, {LOM}, {LOP}, {LPC}, {LPF}, {LPG}, {LPI}, {LPL}, {LPS}, {LPT}, {LRC}, {LRU}, {LSA}, {LSB}, {LSE}, {LSL}, {LSP}, {LSR}, {LTL}, {LTR}, {LUG}, {LUN}, {LVD}, {LWP}, {MAC}, {MAD}, {MAL}, {MAN}, {MAO}, {MAP}, {MAS}, {MAU}, {MBS}, {MCA}, {MCC}, {MCI}, {MCL}, {MCP}, {MCS}, {MDA}, {MDF}, {MDI}, {MDL}, {MFC}, {MFE}, {MFM}, {MHS}, {MIB}, {MIF}, {MIG}, {MII}, {MIS}, {MIT}, {MIX}, {MJS}, {MLL}, {MMI}, {MML}, {MMO}, {MMS}, {MMU}, {MMX}, {MNP}, {MOO}, {MOS}, {MPC}, {MPG}, {MPI}, {MPL}, {MPP}, {MPV}, {MPX}, {MQG}, {MRI}, {MRP}, {MRS}, {MSB}, {MSM}, {MSN}, {MSS}, {MSX}, {MTA}, {MTS}, {MTU}, {MUA}, {MUD}, {MUP}, {MVC}, {MVS}, {MXI}, {NAG}, {NAK}, {NAS}, {NAT}, {NAU}, {NBS}, {NBT}, {NCD}, {NCP}, {NCS}, {NDL}, {NDS}, {NEC}, {NFA}, {NFS}, {NFT}, {NGL}, {NIC}, {NIH}, {NII}, {NIL}, {NIS}, {NLM}, {NLP}, {NLS}, {NLX}, {NMI}, {NMU}, {NNI}, {NOC}, {NOL}, {NOR}, {NOS}, {NOT}, {NPC}, {NPL}, {NQS}, {NRZ}, {NSE}, {NSF}, {NSI}, {NSS}, {NTP}, {NTU}, {NVL}, {NVS}, {OAP}, {OBE}, {OBJ}, {OCL}, {OCP}, {OCR}, {OCS}, {OCX}, {ODA}, {ODC}, {ODI}, {ODP}, {ODS}, {ODT}, {OEM}, {OFA}, {OIC}, {OID}, {OIL}, {OLC}, {OLE}, {OMA}, {OMF}, {OMG}, {OMR}, {OMS}, {OMT}, {ONC}, {OOA}, {OOD}, {OOF}, {OOP}, {OPC}, {OPF}, {OPS}, {ORB}, {ORM}, {OSA}, {OSD}, {OSE}, {OSF}, {OSI}, {OSP}, {OTI}, {OTP}, {OTT}, {OWL}, {PAD}, {PAL}, {PAM}, {PAP}, {PAT}, {PAW}, {PBD}, {PBM}, {PBX}, {PCA}, {PCB}, {PCF}, {PCI}, {PCL}, {PCM}, {PCN}, {PCS}, {PCU}, {PDA}, {PDC}, {PDF}, {PDH}, {PDL}, {PDM}, {PDP}, {PDS}, {PDU}, {PEM}, {PEP}, {PER}, {PEX}, {PFE}, {PFL}, {PFP}, {PGA}, {PGP}, {PHP}, {PIC}, {PID}, {PIE}, {PIL}, {PIM}, {PIN}, {PIP}, {PIT}, {PKE}, {PKI}, {PLC}, {PLD}, {PLL}, {PMC}, {PML}, {PMP}, {PNG}, {PNP}, {POA}, {POC}, {POE}, {POM}, {POP}, {POR}, {POS}, {PPC}, {PPD}, {PPL}, {PPM}, {PPN}, {PPP}, {PQS}, {PRA}, {PRI}, {PRL}, {PSA}, {PSD}, {PSF}, {PSI}, {PSK}, {PSL}, {PSN}, {PSO}, {PSU}, {PTF}, {PTI}, {PTN}, {PTT}, {PUB}, {PVC}, {PVM}, {PWM}, {QAM}, {QBE}, {QCA}, {QIC}, {QMW}, {QNX}, {QPE}, {RAD}, {RAL}, {RAM}, {RAS}, {RCC}, {RCL}, {RCS}, {RDF}, {RDI}, {RDL}, {RDP}, {RDS}, {REC}, {REM}, {REP}, {REX}, {RFC}, {RFE}, {RFI}, {RFP}, {RFT}, {RGB}, {RIP}, {RJE}, {RKM}, {RLE}, {RLF}, {RLL}, {RMI}, {RMS}, {RNF}, {ROM}, {RPC}, {RPG}, {RPI}, {RPL}, {RPM}, {RPN}, {RPT}, {RRL}, {RRS}, {RSA}, {RSI}, {RSL}, {RSN}, {RSS}, {RTF}, {RTI}, {RTL}, {RTM}, {RTP}, {RTS}, {RTT}, {RWP}, {SAA}, {SAC}, {SAD}, {SAL}, {SAM}, {SAN}, {SAP}, {SAR}, {SAS}, {SBD}, {SBE}, {SBM}, {SBR}, {SCA}, {SCC}, {SCI}, {SCL}, {SCM}, {SCO}, {SDE}, {SDF}, {SDH}, {SDI}, {SDK}, {SDL}, {SDM}, {SDP}, {SDS}, {SEA}, {SEC}, {SED}, {SEE}, {SEI}, {SEL}, {SEM}, {SEP}, {SET}, {SEX}, {SFA}, {SFL}, {SGI}, {SHA}, {SIA}, {SIG}, {SIL}, {SIM}, {SIP}, {SIR}, {SKU}, {SMB}, {SMG}, {SMI}, {SML}, {SMM}, {SMP}, {SMS}, {SMT}, {SNA}, {SNI}, {SNR}, {SOA}, {SOE}, {SOH}, {SOJ}, {SOL}, {SOM}, {SOS}, {SPC}, {SPD}, {SPE}, {SPG}, {SPI}, {SPL}, {SPM}, {SPS}, {SPX}, {SQE}, {SQL}, {SQR}, {SRI}, {SRL}, {SRP}, {SSA}, {SSD}, {SSE}, {SSI}, {SSL}, {SSO}, {SSR}, {STB}, {STD}, {STP}, {STX}, {SUB}, {SVC}, {SVG}, {SVS}, {SWL}, {SWT}, {SYN}, {TAA}, {TAB}, {TAC}, {TAL}, {TAO}, {TAP}, {TBF}, {TBK}, {TCB}, {TCM}, {TCO}, {TCP}, {TDD}, {TDF}, {TDI}, {TDM}, {TDR}, {TEI}, {TET}, {TFT}, {TGA}, {TIA}, {TIP}, {TLA}, {TLB}, {TLD}, {TLI}, {TLS}, {TMG}, {TNC}, {TNX}, {TOK}, {TOP}, {TOS}, {TPA}, {TPF}, {TPL}, {TPO}, {TPS}, {TPU}, {TPX}, {TRO}, {TRS}, {TSO}, {TSP}, {TSR}, {TSV}, {TTD}, {TTL}, {TTS}, {TUB}, {TUI}, {TXL}, {UAN}, {UAT}, {UAW}, {UBD}, {UCB}, {UCP}, {UCS}, {UCX}, {UDF}, {UDP}, {UFO}, {UIL}, {UIS}, {UKC}, {ULP}, {UMB}, {UML}, {UNC}, {UNI}, {UPS}, {URC}, {URI}, {URL}, {URN}, {USB}, {USE}, {USL}, {USP}, {USR}, {UTC}, {UTF}, {UTP}, {VAL}, {VAN}, {VAR}, {VAX}, {VBA}, {VCD}, {VCL}, {VCR}, {VDL}, {VDM}, {VDT}, {VDU}, {VEE}, {VEL}, {VGA}, {VGX}, {VHE}, {VHS}, {VIF}, {VIM}, {VLB}, {VLM}, {VME}, {VML}, {VMS}, {VOS}, {VPL}, {VPN}, {VQF}, {VRC}, {VSE}, {VSF}, {VSP}, {VSX}, {VTC}, {VTS}, {VTW}, {VUE}, {VUP}, {VXI}, {WAM}, {WAN}, {WAP}, {WBS}, {WCL}, {WDM}, {WEB}, {WEP}, {WFL}, {WFW}, {WGL}, {WIC}, {WLL}, {WMA}, {WMI}, {WML}, {WMV}, {WOM}, {WPA}, {WPG}, {WPI}, {WRT}, {WSL}, {WTF}, {WTH}, {WWW}, {XDL}, {XDR}, {XFS}, {XGA}, {XIE}, {XML}, {XMM}, {XMS}, {XNF}, {XNS}, {XON}, {XPC}, {XPG}, {XPL}, {XRN}, {XSB}, {XSD}, {XSI}, {XSL}, {XTI}, {XTP}, {XUI}, {XUL}, {XVT}, {XXX}, {YSM}, {ZAP}, {ZFC}, {ZIF}, {ZIL}, {ZOG}, {ZUG} (2014-08-14)

TriMsikā. (T. Sum cu pa; C. Weishi sanshi lun song; J. Yuishiki sanjuronju; K. Yusik samsip non song 唯識三十論頌). In Sanskrit, lit., the "Thirty"; a work in thirty verses by the fourth or fifth century CE YOGĀCĀRA master VASUBANDHU; also known as the TriMsatikā and the TriMsikāvijNaptimātratā. Together with his VIMsATIKĀ (the "Twenty"), it is considered a classic synopsis of Yogācāra doctrine. In this work, which is extant in Sanskrit as well as in Chinese and Tibetan translations, Vasubandhu introduces the major categories of Yogācāra thought, including the foundational consciousness or ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA, and the mental concomitants (CAITTA) that accompany consciousness; the afflicted mental consciousness or KLIstAMANAS (simply called MANAS in the text), which falsely perceives the ālayavijNāna as self; the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA); the three absences of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA); "consciousness-only" or "representation-only" (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ); and "revolution of the basis," or ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI. Among the commentaries on the text, the most influential is that by STHIRAMATI.

Tsa ri. Also spelled Tsā ri; an important pilgrimage region in the sacred geography of Tibet, its central feature is the Pure Crystal Mountain (Dag pa shel ri). The BKA' BRGYUD sect, in particular, considers the site to be one of three quintessential pilgrimage destinations connected with the CAKRASAMVARATANTRA (together with KAILĀSA and LA PHYI). According to the CakrasaMvaratantra tradition, two of the twenty-four sacred lands (PĪtHA), viz., Cārita and Devīkota, are believed to be located in the region. Hunting and even cultivation are banned in some parts of the valley. Situated on the remote border between Tibet and Assam, Tsa ri is also one of the Himalayan region's most difficult and dangerous locations to access. The circumambulation trails skirting the mountain traverse high passes, deep ravines, and dense jungle. They also pass through territory controlled by tribal groups who are often unfriendly to outside visitors. For this reason, the state-sponsored pilgrimage season was traditionally preceded by government negotiations (and payments) in order to guarantee safe passage for pilgrims. The area is said to have been sanctified by visits from PADMASAMBHAVA and VIMALAMITRA, who are thought to have deposited there numerous treasure texts (GTER MA). Tsa ri later became primarily associated with the 'BRUG PA BKA' BRGYUD through the activity of GTSANG PA RGYA RAS YE SHES RDO RJE, who is often said to have "opened" the site as a powerful place for spiritual practice.

twenty varieties of the saMgha. (S. viMsatiprabhedasaMgha; T. dge 'dun nyi shu; C. ershi sengqie/shengwen cidi, 二十僧伽/聲聞次第)

ubhayatobhāgavimukta. (P. ubhatobhāgavimutta; T. gnyis ka'i cha las rnam par grol ba; C. ju jietuo; J. kugedatsu; K. ku haet'al 解). In Sanskrit, "liberated both ways." This is the type of liberation achieved by those noble persons (ĀRYA) who are liberated, first, by way of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA; P. JHĀNA), which is called "liberation of mind" (CETOVIMUKTI; P. cetovimutti), and second, "liberation through wisdom" (PRAJNĀVIMUKTI; P. paNNāvimutti), which involves insight by way of any of the four noble paths (ĀRYAMĀRGA), viz., the path of the stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA) to the path of the ARHAT. Liberation may be achieved via wisdom alone, but arhats enlightened in this manner, without any attainment of dhyāna, are in some materials pejoratively termed "dry insight workers" (P. SUKKHAVIPASSAKA); strands of contemporary Burmese VIPASSANĀ meditation theory, however, emphasize this focus on wisdom alone as a more subitist approach to enlightenment that does not require lengthy perfection of the dhyānas. Twofold liberation is thought to be a more complete experience, and all buddhas and their chief disciples are liberated in both these two ways. The ubhayatobhāgavimukta is also one of the VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA ("twenty varieties of the ĀRYASAMGHA") based on the list given in the MAHĀVYUTPATTI.

ubhayatobhāgavimukta

upapadyaparinirvāyin. [alt. utpattiparinirvāyin] (T. skyes nas yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa; C. sheng ban/sheng banniepan; J. shohatsu/shohatsunehan; K. saeng pan/saeng panyolban 生般/生般涅槃). In Sanskrit, "one who achieves NIRVĀnA at birth," a particular sort of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). According to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, the utpattiparinirvāyin are nonreturners who, having linked up with any of the sixteen birth states of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU), enter the "nirvāna with remainder" (SOPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA) on that support. They are those who make an effort, unlike the ANABHISAMSKĀRAPARINIRVĀYIN, but to whom effort comes naturally, unlike the SĀBHISAMSKĀRAPARINIRVĀYIN.

urdhvasrotas. (T. gong du 'pho ba; C. shangliu ban/shangliu banniepan; J. joruhatsu/joruhatsunehan; K. sangnyu pan/sangnyu panyolban 上流般/上流般涅槃). In Sanskrit, "one who goes higher" or "upstreamer"; a specific type of nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), one of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). There are different accounts of the types of urdhvasrotas. According to Ārya VIMUKTISENA's explanation of the list of āryasaMgha found in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRAVṚTTI, based on the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, there are four: the pluta (those who leap over), ardhapluta (those who leap over half), sarvasthānacyuta (those who die in every place), and bhavāgraparama (those who journey to the summit of existence). All cultivate a meditation that enters and exits uncontaminated (ANĀSRAVA) states that cause them to take birth in the sUDDHĀVĀSA (pure abodes). This meditation allows them to jump at will from one meditative state (a DHYĀNA or SAMĀPATTI) to another without having to go through the intermediate stages. The pluta enters the first dhyāna, is reborn among the BRAHMAKĀYIKA divinities of the first meditative absorption and, through the force of earlier meditative development, emerges from that level of absorption, forsakes all levels in between, and is reborn in the pure abode region of the AKANIstHA heaven of the highest divinities, where he enters NIRVĀnA. The ardhapluta is similarly reborn among the brahmakāyika divinities of the first meditative absorption, also forsakes the levels in between the first and fourth absorption, and is reborn in the pure abodes, but not each in turn. Omitting some of them, he is then born in the AKANIstHA heaven, where he enters nirvāna. The sarvasthānacyuta, as the name suggests, is born among the brahmakāyika divinities of the first meditative absorption and then goes through the process of taking birth in every other heaven in the subtle materiality and immaterial realms except the great Brahmā heaven until he enters nirvāna in the akanistha heaven. The bhavāgraparama are born as divinities in the heavens up to the level of the BṚHATPHALA (great fruition) heaven, forsake the pure abodes, and, having taken rebirths in stages in the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU), enter nirvāna in the BHAVĀGRA (the summit of existence) heaven.

vairāgya. (P. virāga; T. chags bral; C. liran/liyu/wuyu; J. rizen/riyoku/muyoku; K. iyom/iyok/muyok 離染/離欲/無欲). In Sanskrit, "dispassion [toward the world]"; an important step in the soteriological process leading to NIRVĀnA. In the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ, vairāgya is said to correspond to "lack of greed" (S. ALOBHA; C. wutan), one of the three wholesome faculties (trīni kusalamulāni, see KUsALAMuLA), along with "lack of anger" (S. apratigha; C. wuchen) and "nondelusion" (S. amoha; C. wuchi). Vairāgya is an essential factor in reaching the state that is uncontaminated (ANĀSRAVA) by the afflictions (KLEsA), a characteristic of the ARHAT path. Vairāgya is the tenth of the twelve links (NIDĀNA) in what is known in Pāli Buddhist literature as "supramundane dependent origination" (P. lokuttara-paticcasamuppāda; S. LOKOTTARA-PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). This supramundane chain leads to liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), rather than continued rebirth in SAMSĀRA, which is the end result of the more common mundane chain. In this "supramundane" chain, the twelve links are (1) suffering (P. dukkha; S. DUḤKHA), (2) faith (P. saddhā; S. sRADDHĀ), (3) delight or satisfaction (P. pāmojja; S. prāmodya), (4) physical rapture or joy (P. pīti; S. PRĪTI), (5) tranquillity or repose (P. passaddhi; S. PRAsRABDHI), (6) mental ease or bliss (SUKHA), (7) concentration (SAMĀDHI), (8) knowledge and vision that accords with reality (P. yathābhutaNānadassana; S. YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA), (9) disillusionment (P. nibbidā; S. NIRVEDA), (10) dispassion (P. virāga; S. vairāgya), (11) liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), and (12) knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (P. āsavakkhāya; S. ĀSRAVAKsAYA). The *Āryasāsanaprakarana (C. Xianyang shengjiao lun), a summary exposition of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA, also mentions vairāgya in a similar list of twelve links, the difference being that the first two links are replaced by "observance of precepts" (P. kusalasīla; S. kusalasīla), and "freedom from remorse" (P. avippatisāra; S. avipratisāra).

Vairocana. (T. Rnam par snang mdzad; C. Dari rulai/Piluzhena; J. Dainichi nyorai/Birushana; K. Taeil yorae/Pirojana 大日如來/盧遮那). In Sanskrit, "Resplendent"; one of the five buddhas (PANCATATHĀGATA) and the chief buddha of the TATHĀGATAKULA; he is also one of the major buddhas of East Asian Buddhism, where he is often conflated with MAHĀVAIROCANA. The origin of Vairocana can be traced back to the Hindu tradition, where he appears as a relatively minor deity associated with the Sun. ¶ Although the name Vairocana appears in some mainstream Buddhist and PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ materials, it is not until the emergence of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA that Vairocana comes to be widely regarded as the buddha who is the personification of the universal truth of the religion. In its "Chapter on Vairocana," Vairocana is considered to be the main buddha of the sutra, who is omnipresent as the DHARMAKĀYA. Vairocana is, however, also described in the sutra as a buddha who mastered the BODHISATTVA path by making vows to attain buddhahood, performing all types of virtuous deeds, hearing the dharma, cultivating meditative practices, and realizing the truth of the dependent origination of the dharma realm (C. FAJIE YUANQI) in which each and every thing in existence is in multivalent interaction with all other things in a state of complete and perfect interfusion. In this case, Vairocana as the reward body (SAMBHOGAKĀYA) is called ROCANA (C. Lushena) in order to distinguish him from Vairocana (C. Piluzhena) as the dharmakāya buddha. With the growing popularity of the AvataMsakasutra, Vairocana becomes one of the principal buddhas of East Asian Buddhism. Many Vairocana images were constructed in China starting in the sixth century, and colossal images of him were erected in the LONGMEN Grottoes near Luoyang in northern China and in ToDAIJI in Nara, Japan. In Korea, Vairocana (as the dharmakāya buddha) often appeared at the center of a buddha triad, flanked by sĀKYAMUNI (as the NIRMĀnAKĀYA) and ROCANA (as the saMbhogakāya). Vairocana's popularity expanded with his appearance in the MAHĀVAIROCANASuTRA, and, from this point on, Vairocana is generally regarded as the main buddha of the AvataMsakasutra and the HUAYAN ZONG, while Mahāvairocana is regarded as the main buddha of the MAHĀVAIROCANĀBHISAMBODHISuTRA and the ZHENYAN or SHINGON schools. ¶ Vairocana is also the central deity of the VAJRADHĀTU (J. KONGoKAI) and the GARBHADHĀTU (J. TAIZoKAI) MAndALAs of YOGATANTRA associated with the SARVATATHĀGATATATTVASAMGRAHA, a highly influential tantric text in India, Tibet, and East Asia. He appears in the central assembly of the vajradhātu mandala, displaying the MUDRĀ of wisdom (dainichi ken-in), surrounded by the four directional buddhas (AKsOBHYA, RATNASAMBHAVA, AMITĀBHA, and AMOGHASIDDHI), each of whom embodies four aspects of Vairocana's wisdom. In the garbhadhātu mandala, Vairocana is located at the center of the eight-petaled lotus in the central cloister of the mandala, along with the four buddhas and four bodhisattvas sitting on the eight petals. Vairocana is typically depicted as white in color, holding the wheel of dharma (DHARMACAKRA) in his hands, which are in the gesture of teaching (VITARKAMUDRĀ). Vairocana is closely associated with the bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA, and his consort is Vajradhātvīsvarī. The commentaries on the SarvatathāgatatattvasaMgraha recount that Prince SIDDHĀRTHA was meditating on the banks of the NAIRANJANĀ River when he was roused by Vairocana and the buddhas of the ten directions, who informed him that such meditation would not result in the achievement of buddhahood. He thus left his physical body behind and traveled in a mind-made body (MANOMAYAKĀYA) to the AKANIstHA heaven, where he received various consecrations and achieved buddhahood. He next descended to the summit of Mount SUMERU, where he taught the yogatantras. Finally, he returned to the world, inhabited his physical body, and then displayed to the world the well-known defeat of MĀRA and the achievement of buddhahood. ¶ Vairocana is also the name of one of the chief figures in the earlier dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism to Tibet, where he is known by his Tibetan pronunciation of Bai ro tsa na. He was one of the first seven Tibetans (SAD MI BDUN) to be ordained as Buddhist monks by the Indian master sĀNTARAKsITA at the first Tibetan monastery, BSAM YAS. According to Tibetan accounts, he was sent by King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN to India to study Sanskrit and to gather texts and teachings. He is said to have received teachings of the "mind class" (SEMS SDE) and the "expanse class" (KLONG SDE) at BODHGAYĀ, before traveling to OddIYĀNA, where he met the master sRĪSIMHA, who gave him exoteric teachings during the day and instructed him secretly in the great completeness (RDZOGS CHEN) practices at night. Returning to Tibet, he followed the same program, instructing the king secretly in the "mind class" teachings at night. This raised suspicions, which led to his banishment to eastern Tibet. He was later allowed to return, at the request of VIMALAMITRA. He is renowned as one of the three major figures (along with PADMASAMBHAVA and Vimalamitra) in the dissemination of the rdzogs chen teachings in Tibet and translated many texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan; the manuscripts of some of his translations have been discovered at DUNHUANG. See also JNĀNAMUstI.

vajropamasamādhi. (T. rdo rje lta bu'i ting nge 'dzin; C. jingang yu ding/jingang sanmei; J. kongoyujo/kongozanmai/kongosanmai; K. kŭmgang yu chong/kŭmgang sammae 金剛喩定/金剛三昧). In Sanskrit, "adamantine-like concentration," sometimes called simply the "adamantine concentration" (VAJRASAMĀDHI); a crucial stage in both SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and MAHĀYĀNA presentations of the path (MĀRGA). The experience of vajropamasamādhi initiates the "path of completion" (NIstHĀMĀRGA) or the "path where no further training is necessary" (AsAIKsAMĀRGA), the fifth and final stage of the five-path schema (PANCAMĀRGA). The arising of this concentration initiates a process of abandonment (PRAHĀnA), which ultimately leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA), resulting in the "knowledge of cessation" (KsAYAJNĀNA) and, in some presentations, an accompanying "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., the knowledges that the fetters are destroyed and can never again recur. At that point, depending on the path that has been followed, the meditator becomes an ARHAT or a buddha. Because it is able to destroy the very worst of the fetters, this concentration is said to be "like adamant" (vajropama). The vajropamasamādhi thus involves both an "uninterrupted path" (ĀNANTARYAMĀRGA) and a path of liberation (VIMUKTIMĀRGA) and serves as the crucial transition point in completing the path and freeing oneself from SAMSĀRA. In the MAHĀPARNIRVĀnASuTRA, this special type of concentration is closely associated with seeing the buddha-nature (BUDDHADHĀTU; FOXING) and achieving the complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI) of the buddhas.

vastujNāna. (T. gzhi shes; C. yiqiexiang zhi; J. issaisochi; K. ilch'esang chi 一切相智). In Sanskrit, "knowledge of bases" (VASTU), in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature, referring to knowledge that the bases (SKANDHA, ĀYATANA, DHĀTU, etc.) described in main-stream Buddhist sources lack any semblance of a personal self. It is one of the three knowledges (along with SARVĀKĀRAJNATĀ and MĀRGAJNATĀ) set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, a commentary on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA that describe the MAHĀYĀNA path and result. In the AbhisamayālaMkāra, the vastujNāna is more commonly called just SARVAJNATĀ ("all-knowledge"). When it is not informed by skillful means (UPĀYA), that is, great compassion (MAHĀKARUnĀ), it is understood negatively as the practice of a sRĀVAKA or PRATYEKABUDDHA that leads to their inferior goal of NIRVĀnA and must be forsaken. When it is informed by skillful means, it is an essential component both of the practice of a bodhisattva (mārgajNatā), and of a buddha's knowledge (sarvākārajNatā). As an authentic knowledge of nonself gained through a direct understanding of the four noble truths, it is possessed by those who have reached the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA).

Vasubandhu. (T. Dbyig gnyen; C. Shiqin; J. Seshin; K. Sech'in 世親) (fl. c. fourth or fifth centuries CE). One of the most influential authors in the history of Buddhism, and the only major figure to make significant contributions to both the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS and MAHĀYĀNA. In Tibetan Buddhism, Vasubandhu is counted as one of the "six ornaments" (T. rgyan drug), along with NĀGĀRJUNA, ĀRYADEVA, ASAnGA, DIGNĀGA, and DHARMAKĪRTI. There has been considerable speculation about his dates, so much so that ERICH FRAUWALLNER proposed that there were two different Vasubandhus. This theory has been rejected, but there is still no consensus on his dates, with most scholars placing him in the fourth or fifth century CE. Vasubandhu is said to have been born in Purusapura in GANDHĀRA (identified with Peshawar in modern Pakistan), as the brother or half brother (with the same mother) of Asanga. He was ordained as a monk in a SARVĀSTIVĀDA school and studied VAIBHĀsIKA ABHIDHARMA philosophy in KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA, as well as the tenets of the rival SAUTRĀNTIKA school. At the conclusion of his studies, he composed his first and what would be his most famous work, the Abhidharmakosa, or "Treasury of the Abhidharma." In over six hundred stanzas in nine chapters, he set forth the major points of the Vaibhāsika system. He then composed a prose autocommentary, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, in which he critiqued from a Sautrāntika perspective some of the Vaibhāsika positions that he had outlined in the verses. These two texts would become two of the most influential texts on the abhidharma in the later history of Buddhism on the subcontinent and beyond, serving, for example, as the root texts for abhidharma studies in Tibet and as the foundational text for the Kusha (Kosa) school of early Japanese Buddhism. At some point after his composition of the Kosa, he encountered his half brother Asanga, author of at least some of the texts collected in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, who "converted" him to the Mahāyāna. After his conversion, Vasubandhu became a prolific author on Mahāyāna materials, helping especially to frame the philosophy of the Yogācāra school. Major works attributed to him include the VIMsATIKĀ, or "Twenty [Stanzas]" and the TRIMsIKĀ, or "Thirty [Stanzas]," two works that set forth succinctly the basic philosophical positions of the Yogācāra. The TriMsikā was, together with DHARMAPĀLA's commentary to the text, the basis of XUANZANG's massive commentary, the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), which was the foundational text for the FAXIANG ZONG of East Asian Yogācāra. In his TRISVABHĀVANIRDEsA, Vasubandhu also set forth the central doctrine of the Yogācāra, the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA), of imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIsPANNA). His VYĀKHYĀYUKTI set forth principles for the exegesis of passages from the sutras. He is also credited with commentaries on a number of Mahāyāna sutras, including the AKsAYAMATINIRDEsA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA (with his commentary serving as the basis of the DI LUN ZONG in China), as well as commentaries on three of the five treatises of MAITREYA, the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA. He also wrote a commentary on Asanga's MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. His KARMASIDDHIPRAKARAnA, or "Investigation Establishing [the Correct Understanding] of KARMAN," examines the theory of action in light of the Yogācāra doctrine of the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. The PANCASKANDHAPRAKARAnA, or "Explanation of the Five Aggregates," presents a somewhat different view of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) than that found in his Abhidharmakosabhāsya and thus probably dates from his Mahāyāna period; it is a reworking of the presentation of the five aggregates found in Asanga's ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. In addition to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya and the ViMsatikā, a third text of his was highly influential in East Asia. It is a commentary on the larger SUKHĀVATĪVYuHA, whose Sanskrit title might be reconstructed as the *Sukhāvatīvyuhopadesa. However, the work is known only in Chinese, as the JINGTU LUN, and its attribution to Vasubandhu has been called into question. Nonetheless, based on this traditional attribution, Vasubandhu is counted as an Indian patriarch of the PURE LAND schools of East Asia. ¶ In Tibet, a bṛhattīkā commentary on the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ and a paddhati on three PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras (T. Yum gsum gnod 'joms) are attributed to Vasubandhu, although his authorship is disputed.

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Vimalakīrtinirdesa

Vimalakīrtinirdesa. (T. Dri med grags pas bstan pa'i mdo; C. Weimo jing; J. Yuimagyo; K. Yuma kyong 維摩經). In Sanskrit, "Vimalakīrti's Instructions"; one of the most beloved Indian Mahāyāna sutras, renowned especially for having a layman, the eponymous VIMALAKĪRTI, as its protagonist. The text probably dates from around the second century CE. Among the seven translations of the sutra into Chinese, the most famous is that made by KUMĀRAJĪVA in 406. His translation seems to have been adapted to appeal to Chinese mores, emphasizing the worldly elements of Vimalakīrti's teachings and introducing the term "filial piety" into the text. The sutra was also translated by XUANZANG in 650. The sutra was translated into Tibetan twice, the more famous being that of Chos nyid tshul khrims in the ninth century. It has also been rendered into Sogdian, Khotanese, and Uighur. The original Sanskrit of the text was lost for over a millennia until a Sanskrit manuscript was discovered in the PO TA LA palace in Tibet in 2001. The narrative of the sutra begins with the Buddha requesting that his leading sRĀVAKA disciples visit his lay disciple Vimalakīrti, who is ill. Each demurs, recounting a previous meeting with Vimalakīrti in which the layman had chastised the monk for his limited understanding of the dharma. The Buddha then instructs his leading bodhisattva disciples to visit Vimalakīrti. Each again demurs until MANJUsRĪ reluctantly agrees. Vimalakīrti explains that his sickness is the sickness of all sentient beings, and goes on to describe how a sick bodhisattva should understand his sickness, emphasizing the necessity of both wisdom (PRAJNĀ) and method (UPĀYA). A large audience of monks and bodhisattvas then comes to Vimalakīrti's house, where he delivers a sermon on "inconceivable liberation" (acintyavimoksa). Among the audience is sĀRIPUTRA, the wisest of the Buddha's srāvaka disciples. As in other Mahāyāna sutras, the eminent srāvaka is made to play the fool, repeatedly failing to understand how all dichotomies are overcome in emptiness (suNYATĀ), most famously when a goddess momentarily transforms him into a female. Later, a series of bodhisattvas take turns describing various forms of duality and how they are overcome in nonduality. Vimalakīrti is the last to be invited to speak. He remains silent and is praised for this teaching of the entrance into nonduality. The sutra is widely quoted in later literature, especially on the topics of emptiness, method, and nonduality. It became particularly famous in East Asia because the protagonist is a layman, who repeatedly demonstrates that his wisdom is superior to that of monks. Scenes from the sutra are often depicted in East Asian Buddhist art.

Vimalakīrti

Vimalakīrti. (T. Dri med grags pa; C. Weimojie; J. Yuimakitsu; K. Yumahil 維摩詰). Sanskrit proper name of a mythical Indian Buddhist layman. He is the subject of an eponymous sutra that describes his victories in debates with elite MAHĀYĀNA BODHISATTVAs. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA.

Vimalamitra

Vimalamitra. (T. Dri med bshes gnyen). An Indian master revered in Tibet as one of the chief figures in the transmission of the RDZOGS CHEN teachings of the RNYING MA sect, especially of the "heart drop" (SNYING THIG) tradition. He is said to have received rdzogs chen teachings from both JNānasura and sRĪSIMHA. According to legend, Vimalamitra transmitted these teachings to Tibet when he was invited (when he was supposedly already two hundred years old) to come to Tibet by King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, arriving either before or after the king's death in 799. He remained in Tibet for thirteen years, before leaving for China. While in Tibet, he collaborated in the translation of a number of texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan, including the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, the GUHYAGARBHATANTRA, and the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). Vimalamitra is especially renowned for his transmission of the teachings of the "instruction class" (MANG NGAG SDE), which were gathered in a collection named after him, the BI MA SNYING THIG. He is also said to have concealed treasure texts (gter ma) at a hermitage above BSAM YAS monastery. The works attributed to him preserved in the Tibetan canons are all tantric in subject matter, with two exceptions, a commentary on the SAPTASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("Perfection of Wisdom in Seven Hundred Lines") and a commentary on the PrajNāpāramitāhṛdayasutra. Both are straightforward exegetical works, which prompted the Tibetan historian 'Gos lo tsā ba to report in his DEB THER SNGON PO ("Blue Annals") that these commentaries were not the product of the tantric master revered in Rnying ma, and that in fact there must have been two Vimalamitras.

Vimalaprabhā

Vimalaprabhā. (T. Dri med 'od). In Sanskrit, "Stainless Light," the most important commentary on the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. It is traditionally attributed to Pundarīka, one of the kings of sAMBHALA.

Vimana (Sanskrit) Vimāna A car or chariot of the gods, capable of traveling through the air. While Indian mythology speaks of the devas or gods as possessing rapid self-moving chariots or vehicles with which they traverse space, gods was often used by ancient Indians for their highly intellectual, extremely scientific forefathers of now forgotten antiquity. Thus, the vimanas which were used by the Atlanteans are spoken of as being self-moving and carrying their occupants through the air (cf SD 2:427-8).

Vimānavatthu. In Pāli, "Accounts of the Celestial Abodes," the sixth book of the Pāli KHUDDAKANIKĀYA. The text contains accounts of the heavenly abodes (P. vimāna, lit. "mansion, palace") of various divinities (DEVA), which they acquired as rewards for meritorious deeds performed in previous lives. Its eighty-three stories were told to Moggallāna (MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA) and other saints during their sojourns in celestial realms, who in turn related them to the Buddha. The Vimānavatthu appears in the Pali Text Society's English translation series as Stories of the Mansions.

Vimānavatthu

Vimarsha: Dissatisfaction, displeasure; impatience.

Vimoksha (Sanskrit) Vimokṣa Final emancipation, liberation; nirvana.

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ViMsatikā

ViMsatikā. (T. Nyi shu pa; C. Weishi ershi lun; J. Yuishiki nijuron; K. Yusik isip non 唯識二十). The "Twenty," also known as ViMsatikāvijNaptimātratāsiddhikārikā, the "Twenty Stanzas Proving Representation-Only," one of the most influential independent (i.e., noncommentarial) works of the fourth-or fifth-century Indian master VASUBANDHU. A short work in twenty verses, it outlines the basic position of the YOGĀCĀRA regarding the status of external objects, arguing that such objects do not exist apart from the consciousness that perceives them. He argues, for example, that the fact that objects appear to exist in an external world is not proof of that existence, since an external world also appears to exist in dreams. Therefore, all external phenomena are merely projections of consciousness (VIJNĀNA) and thus are representation-only (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ).

viMsatiprabhedasaMgha

viMsatiprabhedasaMgha. (T. dge 'dun nyi shu; C. ershi sengqie/shengwen cidi; J. nijusogya/shomonshidai; K. isip sŭngga/songmun ch'aje 二十僧伽/聲聞次第). In Sanskrit, "the twenty varieties of the SAMGHA" or "twenty members of the community"; a subdivision of the eight noble persons (AstĀRYAPUDGALA) into twenty based on different faculties (INDRIYA) and the ways in which they reach NIRVĀnA; a subdivision used in Mahāyāna works, particularly in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature, as a template to further identify as many as forty-eight ĀRYA BODHISATTVAs. Only those who have reached the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGA) or the religious life (srāmanya) that begins with the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) are included in this idealized saMgha. The twenty varieties are based on the eight noble persons, two for each of the four fruits of the noble path or religious life (ĀRYAMĀRGAPHALA; sRĀMAnYAPHALA). The four fruits, from lowest to highest, are stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), and worthy one (ARHAT). For each there is one who enters (SROTAĀPANNAPRATIPANNAKA, etc.) and one who abides (SROTAĀPANNAPHALASTHA, etc.) in a particular fruition. This list also includes the seven noble persons (P. ariyapuggala; S. ĀRYAPUDGALA) as found in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA. They are (1) the follower of faith (P. saddhānusāri; S. sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN); (2) the one liberated through faith (P. saddhāvimutta; S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA); (3) the bodily witness (P. kāyasakkhi; S. KĀYASĀKsIN); (4) the one liberated both ways (P. ubhatobhāgavimutta; S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA); (5) the follower of the dharma (P. dhammānusāri; S. DHARMĀNUSĀRIN); (6) the one who has attained understanding (P. ditthippatta; S. DṚstIPRĀPTA); and (7) the one liberated through wisdom (P. paNNāvimutta; S. PRAJNĀVIMUKTA).

Vimuktisena. [alt. Ārya Vimuktisena] (T. Grol sde). An Indian scholar-monk (likely from the sixth century CE) who is the author of the first extant commentary (vṛtti) on the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, a work associated with the name of MAITREYA or MAITREYANĀTHA, the most influential PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ commentary for Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vimuktisena connects the AbhisamayālaMkāra to the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ ("Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines"), making the otherwise cryptic AbhisamayālaMkāra comprehensible. In scholastic Tibetan Buddhism his name is linked with the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka synthesis, but Vimuktisena's view is more closely aligned to MADHYAMAKA, without the distinctive terminology associated with the PRAMĀnA school of DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI.

Vimuktisena

*Vimuttimagga

*Vimuttimagga. (T. Rnam grol gyi bstan bcos; C. Jietuodao lun; J. Gedatsudoron; K. Haet'alto non 解道論). In Pāli, "Treatise on the Path to Liberation"; an Indian ABHIDHARMA treatise attributed to Upatissa (S. *Upatisya). The Vimuttimagga was composed sometime prior to the fifth century, perhaps in northern India. It is no longer extant in its Indian recension, but was translated into Chinese in its entirety in 505; portions were also translated into Tibetan. The original language of the text is uncertain, and is usually known by its putative Pāli title (its Sanskrit reconstruction would be *Vimuktimārga). It is clear that the work was known to the Pāli exegete BUDDHAGHOSA, who made use of it in composing his VISUDDHIMAGGA, although he does not cite it by name. Like the Visuddhimagga, the *Vimuttimagga sets forth the path in terms of the three trainings in morality (P. sīla; S. sĪLA), meditation (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (P. paNNā; S. PRAJNĀ). The *Vimuttimagga is, however, a much shorter text, omitting the illustrative stories Buddhaghosa offers and including a more succinct section on prajNā. While the Visuddhimagga is regarded as a text delivering the doctrine of the conservative MAHĀVIHĀRA branch of the Sri Lankan Pāli tradition, the *Vimuttimagga is thought to represent instead the views of the ABHAYAGIRI sect, a school that was influenced by MAHĀYĀNA thought.

vipasyanā. (P. vipassanā; T. lhag mthong; C. guan; J. kan; K. kwan 觀). In Sanskrit, "insight"; a technical term for an understanding of reality (either conceptual or nonconceptual) at a level of mental concentration equal to or exceeding that of sAMATHA. The presence of vipasyanā is the distinguishing feature of the wisdom that derives from meditation (BHĀVANĀMAYĪPRAJNĀ). Such insight is required to destroy the various levels of afflictions (KLEsA) and to proceed on the path to liberation (VIMOKsA) from REBIRTH. See also VIPASSANĀ; MOHE ZHIGUAN; XIUXI ZHIGUAN ZUOCHAN FAYAO.

visaMyogaphala. (T. bral ba'i 'bras bu; C. liji guo; J. rikeka; K. igye kwa 離繫果). In Sanskrit, "separation effect"; a term used to describe liberation from rebirth and the reality of NIRVĀnA. This is one of the five effects (PHALA) enumerated in the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA and the YOGĀCĀRA system. Liberation (VIMOKsA) and nirvāna are forms of cessation (NIRODHA) and as such are unconditioned phenomena (ASAMSKṚTADHARMA) and permanent (NITYA) because they do not change moment by moment. Specifically, they are classified as "analytical cessations" (PRATISAMKHYĀNIRODHA), that is, states of cessation that arise through the process of insight. In the Buddha's delineation of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni), the third truth of cessation (NIRODHASATYA) is followed by the fourth truth of the path (MĀRGASATYA). Later commentators would explain that cessation and path stand in a relationship of effect and cause, respectively. However, this is not possible in the literal sense, because an impermanent and conditioned phenomenon such as the path cannot serve as the cause for a permanent and unconditioned phenomenon such as cessation. In order to preserve this distinction but nonetheless acknowledge the role of religious practice in bringing about the state of nirvāna, the Vaibhāsika school proposed the category of visaMyogaphala, which is essentially an effect that has no cause. Thus, the practice of the path leads to a permanent separation from the KLEsAs, and because that state of separation is permanent, it not formally the effect of a cause.

visuddhi. [alt. visuddha] (P. visuddhi; T. rnam par dag pa; C. qingjing; J. shojo; K. ch'ongjong 清淨). In Sanskrit, "purity"; of which two types are enumerated: innate purity (prakṛti or svabhāvavisuddhi) and purity free of temporary or adventitious stains (āgantukamalavisuddhi). The former is the natural state of the mind (see PRABHĀSVARA) as in the Pāli AnGUTTARANIKĀYA: "The mind, O monks, is luminous (P. pabhassara), but is defiled by adventitious defilements" (pabhassaraM idaM bhikkhave cittaM, taN ca kho āgantukehi upakkilesehi upakkilitthaM). The latter is the mind when the path (MĀRGA) has cleansed it of hindrances (see NĪVARAnA; ĀVARAnA). In Pāli, there are seven purities (visuddhi) that must be developed along the path leading to liberation. The list of seven purities is first enumerated in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA and forms the outline for both BUDDHAGHOSA's VISUDDHIMAGGA and Upatissa's earlier *VIMUTTIMAGGA. The seven purities are likened to seven carriages that one takes in sequence to reach seven progressive goals. Thus, (1) the purity of morality (P. sīlavisuddhi; see S. sĪLAVIsUDDHI) leads to its goal of (2) the purity of mind (CITTAVISUDDHI), and the purity of mind leads to its goal of (3) purity of understanding or views (DIttHIVISUDDHI). The purity of understanding leads to its goal of (4) purity of overcoming doubt (KAnKHĀVITARAnAVISUDDHI), and the purity of overcoming doubt leads to its goal of (5) the purity of knowledge and vision of what is and is not the path (MAGGĀMAGGANĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI). The purity of knowledge and vision of what is and is not the path leads to its goal of (6) knowledge and vision of progress along the path (PAtIPADĀNĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI), and knowledge and vision of progress along the path leads to its goal of (7) the purity of knowledge and vision (NĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI). The goal of this last purity is liberation through the attainment of any of the four supramundane paths (P. ariyamagga; S. ĀRYAMĀRGA).

Visuddhimagga. In Pāli, "Path of Purity"; the definitive Pāli compedium of Buddhist doctrine and practice, written by the exegete BUDDHAGHOSA at the MAHĀVIHĀRA in ANURĀDHAPURA, Sri Lanka, in the fifth century CE. The work serves as a prolegomenon to the soteriological content of the entire Pāli canon in terms of the three trainings in morality (P. sīla; S. sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (P. paNNā; S. PRAJNĀ). These are the "three trainings" (P. tisikkhā; S. TRIsIKsĀ) or "higher trainings" (P. adhisikkhā; S. adhisiksā). In his use of this organizing principle for his material, Buddhaghosa is clearly following Upatissa's earlier *VIMUTTIMAGGA, which is now extant only in a Chinese translation. Buddhaghosa had originally come to Sri Lanka from India in order to translate the Sinhalese commentaries (AttHAKATHĀ) to the Pāli canon back into the Pāli language. It is said that, in order to test his knowledge, the Mahāvihāra monks first gave him two verses and ordered him to write a commentary on them; the Visuddhimagga was the result. Legend has it that, after completing the treatise, the divinities hid the text so that he would be forced to rewrite it. After a third time, the divinities finally relented, and when all three copies were compared, they were found to be identical, testifying to the impeccability of Buddhaghosa's understanding of the doctrine. The commentaries that Buddhaghosa was then allowed to edit and translate make numerous references to the Visuddhimagga. The text contains a total of twenty-three chapters: two chapters on precepts, eleven on meditation, and ten on wisdom. In its encyclopedic breadth, it is the closest equivalent in Pāli to the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA. The post-fifth century CE exegete DHAMMAPĀLA wrote a Pāli commentary to the Visuddhimagga titled the PARAMATTHAMANJuSĀ ("Container of Ultimate Truth"), which is also often referred to in the literature as the "Great Subcommentary" (Mahātīkā).

vītarāgapurvin. (T. chags bral sngon song; C. xian liyu ren; J. senriyokunin; K. son iyok in 先離欲人). In Sanskrit, "one already free from attachment," that is, one who has eliminated the afflictions (KLEsA) that cause rebirth in the sensual realm (KĀMADHĀTU) prior to reaching the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA); a general designation used in ABHIDHARMA to describe a set of the twenty members of the ĀRYASAMGHA (see VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). The vītarāgapurvin are said to be those who do not gain each of the four fruits of the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGAPHALA) in a series, but leap over one or more before reaching NIRVĀnA. See SROTAĀPANNAPHALAPRATIPANNAKA; SAKṚDĀGĀMIPHALASTHA.

Viwan. See VIMANA

Weimojie suoshuo jing zhu. (J. Yuimakitsu shosetsukyochu; K. Yumahil sosol kyong chu 維摩詰所説經註). An influential commentary on the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. The commentary is attributed to KUMĀRAJĪVA, but it was actually written by his disciple SENG ZHAO, who recorded the interpretations of his teacher and combined them with those offered by other of Kumārajīva's disciples, such as DAOSHENG and Daorong. The commentary offers a paragraph-by-paragraph analysis of the sutra and follows the order of Kumārajīva's Chinese translation of the sutra. It is the first of the many commentaries on this famed rendering of the Vimalakīrtinirdesa and is still the most frequently cited.

Weimojie 維摩詰. See VIMALAKĪRTI, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA

Weimo jing 維摩經. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA

Weishi ershi lun 唯識二十論. See VIMsATIKĀ

withy ::: n. --> The osier willow (Salix viminalis). See Osier, n. (a).
A withe. See Withe, 1. ::: a. --> Made of withes; like a withe; flexible and tough; also, abounding in withes.


wujinzang yuan. (J. mujinzoin; K. mujinjang won 無盡藏院). In Chinese, "inexhaustible storehouse cloister"; the emblematic institution of the Third Stage Sect (SANJIE JIAO), a major school of Buddhism during the Tang dynasty. The wujinzang yuan was established at Huadusi (Propagation and Salvation Monastery) in the capital Chang'an early in the Tang dynasty, probably between 618 and 627. The institution was based on the concept of "merit-sharing," i.e., that one could enter into the universal inexhaustible storehouse of the dharma realm, as articulated by the sect's founder XINXING (540-594), by offering alms to the wujinzang yuan on behalf of all sentient beings. By 713, when the Tang emperor Xuanzong (r. 712-756) issued an edict closing it due to charges of embezzlement, the wujinzang yuan had served as a major agency for promoting the sect for almost a century. Drawing on the AVATAMSAKASuTRA and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the sect interpreted the Sinographs wujin (inexhaustible) to mean that both the field of reverence-viz., the three jewels (RATNATRAYA)-and the field of compassion-viz., sentient beings-were inexhaustible. The wujinzang yuan, therefore, was the place where the sect's sixteen kinds of almsgiving (DĀNA) were to be practiced, through offerings made to (1) the buddha, (2) the dharma, (3) the saMgha, and (4) all sentient beings; (5) works that serve to ward off evil; (6) works that serve to do good; and offerings of (7) incense, (8) lamps, (9) the monks' baths, (10) bells and chants, (11) clothing, (12) dwellings, (13) beds and seats, (14) receptacles for food, (15) coal and fire, and (16) food and drink. There were two kinds of offerings made to the wujinzang yuan: (1) regular offerings collected in the form of a daily levy and (2) offerings received at particular times of the year. A Sanjie jiao text discovered at DUNHUANG says that a person is expected to offer one fen (a hundredth of a tael) of cash or one ge (a tenth of a pint) of grain per day, or thirty-six qian (a tenth of a Chinese ounce) or 3.6 dou (pecks) of grain per annum. However, the offerings were mostly made at specific times of the year, such as on the fourth day of the first lunar month, the day commemorating Xinxing's death, and the ULLAMBANA festival on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month. For those adherents who could not make offerings directly at Huadu monastery, the sect would temporarily open local branches, called "merit offices" (gongde chu), especially at the time of the Ullambana festival. The assets of the wujinzang yuan consisted for the most part of such tangible assets as money, cloth, gold and silver, and jade. The offerings were used, for example, to fund the restoration of monasteries and the performance of religious services (i.e., the reverence field of merit, jingtian), and to provide alms to the poor (i.e., the compassion field of merit, beitian; see PUnYAKsETRA). People could also receive loans from the wujinzang, a function comparable to today's microloans made to help raise people out of poverty. During the reign of Empress Wu, Fuxiansi in Luoyang was for a brief time also the site of a wujinzang yuan. See also XIANGFA JUEYI JING.

wushi. (J. goji; K. osi 五時). In Chinese, "the five periods [of the Buddha's teaching]"; the TIANTAI school's temporal taxonomy of Buddhist doctrines (JIAOXIANG PANSHI), according to which the Buddha's teachings differ because he preached them at different points during his pedagogical career. The initial account of his awakening that the Buddha taught immediately after his enlightenment was described in the AVATAMSAKASuTRA; this stage is thus termed the HUAYAN period (huayan shiqi). This account of the experience of buddhahood was, however, so unadulterated and sublime that many sRĀVAKA disciples were utterly unable to comprehend its message. The Buddha therefore began his teaching anew in a second period that was termed Luyuan shiqi (after the Deer Park, MṚGADĀVA, where many of the ĀGAMA scriptures were taught) or ahan shiqi (after the āgamas, which were the compilation of the Buddha's words from this period). This period was said to be an explicit attempt on the part of the Buddha to accommodate those disciples who were confounded during the first period, by teaching his insights in their most elementary form. The third period is called fangdeng (VAIPULYA) shiqi, where the "HĪNAYĀNA" teachings of the second period were superseded by teaching the aspiration for the MAHĀYĀNA. Various sutras that explicitly compare Mahāyāna favorably to "hīnayāna"-such as the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA-were supposedly products of this period. The fourth period is termed the bore shiqi, after its eponymous sutras, the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ. This was the stage of the Buddha's teaching career where he began to remove the boundaries separating Mahāyāna and "hīnayāna" by leading his audience from the presumption that there were two separate vehicles to instead a common realization of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The final period is called Fahua Niepan shiqi, after its two representative sutras, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA and the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA. The teachings associated with this period are described as the "consummate" or "perfect" teachings (YUANJIAO) because they espouse the idea of one vehicle (or the one buddha vehicle; C. YISHENG; S. EKAYĀNA), which Tiantai claimed was the truest form of the Buddha's original intention (benyuan; see PuRVAPRAnIDHĀNA). The Tiantai school also compares these five stages of the teachings to the five stages in the clarification of milk (see WUWEI, "five tastes"). See also TIANTAI BAJIAO.

xin jietuo 心解. See CETOVIMUKTI

xinshengjie 信勝解. See sRADDHĀVIMUKTA

Xinxing. (J Shingyo; K. Sinhaeng 信行) (540-594). In Chinese, "Practice of Faith"; founder of the "Third-Stage Sect" (SANJIE JIAO), a school of popular Buddhism that flourished during the Tang dynasty. Born in Ye in presentday Henan province, Xinxing ordained as a novice monk by the age of seventeen, after which he wandered the country, studying Buddhism and reading such Buddhist scriptures as the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, and MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA. Feeling guilty for accepting from the laity offerings that he did not believe he deserved, Xinxing eventually abandoned monastic life, participating in various state labor projects and cultivating ascetic practices. He is also known to have bowed to all he met on the street, following the teachings of the SADĀPARIBHuTA chapter of the Saddharmapundarīkasutra. It is uncertain exactly when Xinxing established the Third-Stage Sect, but it was probably sometime around 587. In 589, at the behest of Emperor Wendi, he entered Chang'an, the capital city of the Sui dynasty, and stayed at Zhenjisi (Authentic Quiescence Monastery, later renamed Huadu monastery), where he promoted actively the teachings of the school until his death in 594. Xinxing had about three hundred followers, including Sengyong (543-631) and Huiru (d. c. 618). Due to the proscription of the sect during the Tang dynasty, only a few fragments of Xinxing's writings are extant. These include the Sanjie fofa ("Buddhadharma during the Third Stage"), in four rolls, and sections of the Duigen qixing fa ("Principles on Practicing in Response to the Sense-Bases") and the Ming Dasheng wujinzang fa ("Clarifying the Teaching of the Mahāyāna's Inexhaustible Storehouse"). ¶ Xinxing's teachings derive from the doctrines of the degenerate dharma (MOFA) and the buddha-nature (FOXING); they emphasize almsgiving (S. DĀNA) as an efficient salvific method, which contributed to the development of the school's distinctive institution, the WUJINZANG YUAN (inexhaustible storehouse cloister). Because people during the degenerate age (mofa) were inevitably mistaken in their perceptions of reality, it was impossible for them to make any meaningful distinctions, whether between right and wrong, good and evil, or ordained and lay. Instead, adherents were taught to treat all things as manifestations of the buddha-nature, leading to a "universalist" perspective on Buddhism that was presumed to have supplanted all the previous teachings of the religion. Xinxing asserted that almsgiving was the epitome of Buddhist practice during the degenerate age of the dharma and that the true perfection of giving (DĀNAPĀRAMITĀ) meant that all people, monks and laypeople alike, should be making offerings to relieve the suffering of those most in need, including the poor, the orphaned, and the sick. In its radical reinterpretation of the practice of giving in Buddhism, even animals were considered to be a more appropriate object of charity than were buddhas, bodhisattvas, monks, or the three jewels (RATNATRAYA). Particularly significant were offerings made to the inexhaustible storehouse cloister (Wujinzang yuan), which served the needs of the impoverished and suffering in society-especially offerings made on the anniversary of Xinxing's death. See also XIANGFA JUEYI JING.

Yamim Tovim: plural yom tov.

yathābhutajNānadarsana. (P. yathābhutaNānadassana; C. rushi zhijian; J. nyojitsu chiken; K. yosil chigyon 如實知見). In Sanskrit, "knowledge and vision that accord with reality"; a crucial insight leading to deliverance (VIMUKTI), which results in dispassion toward the things of this world because of seeing things as they actually are: i.e., as impermanence (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANĀTMAN). "Knowledge and vision (jNānadarsana)" is usually interpreted to suggest the direct insight into things "as they are" (yathābhuta), meaning these three marks of existence (TRILAKsAnA), or sometimes the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. YathābhutajNānadarsana is presumed to be closely related to wisdom (PRAJNĀ), but with one significant difference: yathābhutajNānadarsana is the first true insight, but it is intermittent and weak, while prajNā is continuous and strong. Seeing things as they are, however, is intense enough that the insight so gleaned is sufficient to transform an ordinary person (PṚTHAGJANA) into an ĀRYA. ¶ In the Upanisāsutta of the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, the standard twelvefold chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) is connected to an alternate chain that is designated the "supramundane dependent origination" (P. lokuttara-paticcasamuppāda; S. lokottara-pratītyasamutpāda), which outlines the process leading to liberation and prominently includes the knowledge and vision that accord with reality. Here, the last factor in the standard chain, that of old age and death (JARĀMARAnA), is substituted with suffering (P. dukkha; S. DUḤKHA), which in turn becomes the first factor in this alternate series. According to the Nettipakarana, a Pāli exegetical treatise, this chain of supramundane dependent origination consists of: (1) suffering (P. dukkha; S. duḥkha), (2) faith (P. saddhā; S. sRADDHĀ), (3) delight or satisfaction (P. pāmojja; S. prāmodya), (4) rapture or joy (P. pīti; S. PRĪTI), (5) tranquility or repose (P. passaddhi; S. PRAsRABDHI), (6) mental ease or bliss (SUKHA), (7) concentration (SAMĀDHI), (8) knowledge and vision that accord with reality (P. yathābhutaNānadassana; S. yathābhutajNānadarsana), (9) disgust (P. nibbidā; S. NIRVEDA), (10) dispassion (P. virāga; S. VAIRĀGYA), (11) liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), and (12) knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (P. āsavakkhayaNāna; S. āsravaksayajNāna; see ĀSRAVAKsAYA). The Kimatthiyasutta of the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA gives a slightly different version of the first links, replacing suffering and faith with (1) observance of precepts (P. kusalasīla; S. kusalasīla) and (2) freedom from remorse (P. avippatisāra; S. avipratisāra). In both formulations, yathābhutajNānadarsana arises as a result of the preceding factor of meditative concentration (samādhi); it is regarded as the specific awareness (JNĀNA) of the nature of reality, which is seen (DARsANA) vividly and directly. In this context, yathābhutajNānadarsana is essentially synonymous with insight (VIPAsYANĀ). As this chain of transcendental dependent origination is sometimes interpreted, the stage of faith (P. saddhā; S. sraddhā) is made manifest through generosity (DĀNA) and observing precepts (sĪLA), which frees the mind from feelings of remorse and guilt (avipratisāra). The stage of delight or satisfaction (prāmodya) refers to a satisfied or relaxed state of mind, which is freed from any mental disturbances that might prevent concentration. The stages of rapture (prīti), bliss (sukha), and concentration (samādhi) are factors associated with the four levels of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). The knowledge and vision that accord with reality arise in dependence on the preceding samādhi; it is able to destroy the afflictions (KLEsA), rather than simply suppress them, as occurs in the state of concentration, and thus leads to liberation from SAMSĀRA. The fact that samādhi provides a basis for seeing things "as they are," which generates an insight that can bring about liberation, demonstrates the explicitly soteriological dimensions of concentration in a Buddhist meditative context. ¶ In Pāli sources, such as the VISUDDHIMAGGA, yathābhutajNānadarsana is the fifteenth of eighteen principal types of superior insight (P. mahāvipassanā), which liberate the mind from delusions regarding the world and the self. The eighteen insights are contemplations of: (1) impermanence (aniccānupassanā); (2) suffering (dukkhānupassanā); (3) nonself (anattānupassanā); (4) aversion (nibbidānupassanā); (5) dispassion (virāgānupassanā); (6) extinction (nirodhānupassanā); (7) abandoning (patinissaggānupassanā); (8) waning (khayānupassanā); (9) disappearing (vayānupassanā); (10) change (viparināmānupassanā); (11) signlessness (animittānupassanā); (12) wishlessness (appanihitānupassanā); (13) emptiness (suNNatānupassanā); (14) advanced understanding into phenomena (adhipaNNādhammavipassanā); (15) knowledge and vision that accord with reality (yathābhutaNānadassana); (16) contemplation of danger (ādīnavānupassanā); (17) contemplation involving reflection (patisankhānupassanā); and (18) contemplation of turning away (vivattanānupassanā). The counterparts which are overcome through these eighteen insights are: (1) the idea of permanence, (2) the idea of pleasure, (3) the idea of self, (4) delighting, (5) greed, (6) origination, (7) grasping, (8) the idea of compactness, (9) the accumulation of action (kamma), (10) the idea of lastingness, (11) signs, (12) desire, (13) misinterpretation, (14) misinterpretation due to grasping, (15) misinterpretation due to confusion, (16) misinterpretation due to reliance, (17) nonreflection or thoughtlessness, (18) misinterpretation due to entanglement.

Yijiao jing. (J. Yuikyogyo; K. Yugyo kyong 遺教經). In Chinese, "Scripture on the Bequeathed Teachings"; also known as Foshuo banniepan jiaojie jing ("Scripture on the Admonishments Taught by the Buddha [before] his PARINIRVĀnA") and Fo yijiao jing ("Scripture on the Teachings Bequeathed by the Buddha"). Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of this text are not known to have existed. The Chinese translation of this text is attributed to KUMĀRAJĪVA, but the text is now widely assumed to be an indigenous Chinese Buddhist scripture (see APOCRYPHA). The sutra is set against the backdrop of the Buddha's parinirvāna, when he imparts his final instructions to the gathered disciples. The Buddha instructs his disciples to uphold the precepts and regard them as their teacher after his entry into parinirvāna. He then instructs them to control sensuality (KĀMA) and cultivate serenity and DHYĀNA. Finally, the Buddha asks the assembly if they have any questions regarding the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. When no one replies, the Buddha succinctly expounds upon impermanence and the need to seek liberation (VIMOKsA). This sutra bears striking resemblances in style and content to the MAHĀPARINIBBĀNASUTTA and AsVAGHOsA's BUDDHACARITA. Along with the SISHI'ER ZHANG JING and GUISHAN JINGCE, the Yijiao jing has been cherished by the CHAN tradition for its simple and clear exposition. Sometime during the late Tang and early Song dynasties, the three texts were edited together as the Fozu sanjing ("The Three Scriptures of the Buddhas and Patriarchs") and recommended to Chan neophytes.

Yogācāra. (T. Rnal 'byor spyod pa; C. Yuqiexing pai; J. Yugagyoha; K. Yugahaeng p'a 瑜伽行派). In Sanskrit, "Practice of YOGA"; one of the two major MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools (along with MADHYAMAKA) in India, known especially for its doctrines of "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA) or "representation-only" (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ), the TRISVABHĀVA, and the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. In addition, much of the exposition of the structure of the Mahāyāna path (MĀRGA) and of the Mahāyāna ABHIDHARMA derives from this school. The texts of the school were widely influential in Tibet and East Asia. Although several of the terms associated with the school occur in such important Mahāyāna sutras as the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, and especially the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, the exposition of the key doctrines was largely the work of two Indian scholastics of the fourth to fifth centuries CE, the half brothers ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU and their commentators, especially STHIRAMATI and DHARMAPĀLA. Asanga's major works include the central parts of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, and the ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. Vasubandhu's most famous Yogācāra works are the VIMsATIKĀ and the TRIMsIKĀ (his most famous work of all, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, is said to have been composed prior to his conversion to the Mahāyāna). Among the "five books of MAITREYA" (see BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA), three are particularly significant in Yogācāra: the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA, and the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA. Important contributions to Yogācāra thought were also made by the logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI. Although Yogācāra and Madhyamaka engaged in polemics, in the latter phases of Buddhism in India, a synthesis of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka took place in the works of such authors as sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA; Tibetan doxographers dubbed this synthesis YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. ¶ Yogācāra authors offered detailed presentations and analyses of virtually all of the important topics in Buddhist thought and practice, built upon an edifice deriving from meditative experience. The school is perhaps most famous for the doctrines of "mind-only" (cittamātra) and "representation-only" (vijNaptimātra), according to which the conception of the objects of experience as existing external to and independent of the consciousness perceiving them was regarded as the fundamental ignorance and the cause of suffering. Instead of the standard six consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA) posited by other Buddhist schools (the five sensory consciousnesses and the mental consciousness), some Yogācāra texts described eight forms of consciousness: these six, plus the seventh "afflicted mind" (KLIstAMANAS), which mistakenly generates the false notion of a perduing self (ĀTMAN), and the eighth foundational, or "storehouse," consciousness (ālayavijNāna). This foundational consciousness is the repository of seeds (BĪJA) or imprints (VĀSANĀ) produced by past actions (KARMAN) that fructify as experience, producing simultaneously consciousness and the objects of consciousness. The afflicted mind mistakenly regards the foundational consciousness as a permanent and independent self. The doctrine of the three natures (trisvabhāva), although variously interpreted, is also often explained in light of the doctrine of representation-only. The imaginary nature (PARIKALPITA) refers to misconceptions, such as the belief in self and in the existence of objects that exist apart from consciousness. The dependent nature (PARATANTRA) encompasses impermanent phenomena, which are products of causes and conditions. The consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) is reality, classically defined as the absence of the imaginary nature in the dependent nature. By removing these latent predispositions from the ālayavijNāna and overcoming the mistaken bifurcation of experience between a perceiving subject and perceived objects (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA), a transformation of consciousness (ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI) occurs which turns the deluded mind of the sentient being into the enlightenment cognition of the buddhas (BUDDHAJNĀNA), with the ālayavijNāna being transformed into the mirrorlike wisdom (ĀDARsAJNĀNA). In the realm of soteriology, much of what would become the standard Mahāyāna elaboration of the five paths (PANCAMĀRGA) and the bodies (KĀYA, e.g., TRIKĀYA) of a buddha is found in works by Yogācāra authors, although there are important differences between Yogācāra and Madhyamaka on a number of key soteriological questions, including whether there is one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) or three final vehicles (TRIYĀNA), that is, whether all beings are destined for buddhahood, or whether some, such as the ARHATs of the mainstream Buddhist schools, are stuck in a soteriological dead end. ¶ Not all the scholastics regarded as Yogācāra exegetes adhered to all of the most famous doctrines of the school. The most common division of the school is into those who do and do not assert the existence of eight consciousnesses (and hence the ālayavijNāna). The former, who include Asanga and Vasubandhu, are called "followers of scripture" (āgamānusārin), and the latter, who include the famous logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI, are called "followers of reasoning" (nyāyānusārin). Yogācāra strands of Buddhism were extremely influential in the development of indigenous East Asian schools of Buddhism, including the mature schools of HUAYAN and even CHAN. For specifically East Asian analogues of Yogācāra, see FAXIANG ZONG, XIANG ZONG, DI LUN ZONG, and SHE LUN ZONG.

Yuimae. (C. Weimo hui; K. Yuma hoe 維摩會). In Japanese, "VIMALAKĪRTI ceremony." One of the three great ceremonies (Nankyo san[n]e) held in the ancient Japanese capital of Nara. In 656, when the senior courtier Nakatomi no Kamatari (an ancestor of the Fujiwara clan) became seriously ill, the Paekche nun Pommyong (J. Homyo) advised Empress Saimei to sponsor a reading of the "Inquiry about Illness" chapter of the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA in order to speed his recovery. The reading was successful and, out of gratitude, Kamatari and his family subsequently sponsored a lecture on the sutra in 658 to commemorate the construction of the new monastery of Sankaiji. This ceremony was transferred to the Hossoshu (C. FAXIANG ZONG) monastery of KoFUKUJI in Nara in 712, where it was held periodically every two to five years; it is now observed annually on the tenth day of the tenth lunar month. For seven days, a lecture on the Vimalakīrtinirdesa is offered to the public and offerings are made to the SAMGHA.

Yuimagyo 維摩經. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA

Yuimakitsu 維摩詰. See VIMALAKĪRTI

Yuishiki nijuron 唯識二十論. See VIMsATIKĀ

Yumahil 維摩詰. See VIMALAKĪRTI

Yuma kyong 維摩經. See VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA

Yusik isip non 唯識二十論. See VIMsATIKĀ

zarthe ::: n. --> A European bream (Abramis vimba).

Zhi Qian. (J. Shi Ken; K. Chi Kyom 支謙) (fl. c. 220-252). Prolific earlier translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese. A descendant of an Indo-Scythian émigré from the KUSHAN kingdom in the KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA region of northwest India, Zhi Qian is said to have been fluent in six languages. Although never ordained as a monk, Zhi Qian studied under the guidance of Zhi Liang (d.u.), a disciple of the renowned Indo-Scythian translator LOKAKsEMA (fl. c. 178-198 CE). Zhi Qian fled northern China in the political chaos that accompanied the collapse of the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), eventually migrating to the Wu Kingdom in the south. There, he settled first in Wuchang and later in the Wu capital of Jianye, which was where the majority of his translations appear to have been made. Zhi Qian was known to have been artistically talented, and many of his translations were noted for their fluent style that did not strive to adhere to the exact meaning of each word and phrase, but instead sought to convey the insights of the text in an accessible fashion for a Chinese audience. The fifty-three translations that are attributed to Zhi Qian range widely between ĀGAMA and didactic materials and early MAHĀYĀNA scriptural literature, but also include many spurious later attributions (see APOCRYPHA). Among the translations that may with confidence be ascribed to Zhi Qian are early renderings of the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the PUSA BENYE JING, the SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, and a primitive recension of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA. Zhi Qian is also presumed to be one of the first Buddhist commentators in the East Asian tradition: DAO'AN (314-385) states in his scriptural catalogue ZONGLI ZHONGJING MULU (now embedded in the CHU SANZANG JIJI) that Zhi Qian wrote a commentary to the sĀLISTAMBASuTRA (C. Liaoben shengsi jing) while preparing its translation. Late in his life, Zhi Qian retired to Mt. Qionglong, where he is said to have passed away at the age of sixty.



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1:Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam. Instruction enlarges the natural powers of the mind. ~ horace, @wisdomtrove

*** NEWFULLDB 2.4M ***

1:DE CE NE ÎNBOLNĂVIM? Majoritatea oamenilor ~ Anonymous,
2:Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam. Instruction enlarges the natural powers of the mind. ~ Horace,
3:Vim. Diadorim nada não me disse. A poeira das estradas pegava pesada de orvalho. ~ Jo o Guimar es Rosa,
4:ah, musica,' inquit [Dumbledore], oculos detergens. 'haec maiorem habet vim magicam quam quaevis ars nostra. ~ J K Rowling,
5:Vim a saber mais tarde que muitos homens vêem sempre a boa fortuna dos outros como uma desfeita contra si próprios. ~ Robin Hobb,
6:What differentiates victors and victims are visions and vigor. Victims won't get the vim to step out of their situations. ~ Israelmore Ayivor,
7:a southern colloquialism for vim, vigor, or gumption. A man who stood firm in the face of adversity was said to have spizzerinctum. ~ Mark Bowden,
8:I did not rush in with the vim I would have displayed a year or so earlier, before Life had made me the grim, suspicious man I am to-day: ~ P G Wodehouse,
9:A criança que fui chora na estrada. Deixei-a ali quando vim ser quem sou. Mas hoje, vendo que o que sou é nada, Quero ir buscar quem fui onde ficou. ~ Fernando Pessoa,
10:beggars approached the task of trying to persuade perfect strangers to bear the burden of their maintenance with that optimistic vim which makes all the difference. ~ P G Wodehouse,
11:Gauguin says that when sailors have to move a heavy load or raise an anchor, they all sing together to keep them up and give them vim. That's just what artists lack! ~ Vincent Van Gogh,
12:She went at him like a nun briskly rubbing a pair of underpants against a washboard, full of pure vim and gusto. But no matter how sexless she tried to be, sex kept slipping in there anyway. ~ Charlotte Stein,
13:beggars approached the task of trying to persuade perfect strangers to bear the burden of their maintenance with that optimistic vim which makes all the difference. It was one of those happy mornings. ~ P G Wodehouse,
14:Ut haec ipsa qui non sentiat deorum vim habere is nihil omnino sensurus esse videatur."

If any man cannot feel the power of God when he looks upon the stars, then I doubt whether he is capable of any feeling at all. ~ Horace,
15:The transformation of part of the northern part of this continent into "America" inaugurated a nearly boundless epoch of opportunity and innovation, and thus deserves to be celebrated with great vim and gusto, with or without the participation of those who wish they had never been born. ~ Christopher Hitchens,
16:Ao contrário do que geralmente se pensa, as palavras auxiliadoras que abrem caminho aos grandes e dramáticos diálogos são em geral modestas, comuns, corriqueiras, ninguém diria que perguntar, Queres um café, poderia servir de introdução a um amargo debate sobre sentimentos que se perderam ou sobre a doçura de uma reconciliação a que não se sabe como chegar. Maria da Paz deveria ter respondido com a merecida secura, Não vim cá para tomar café, mas, olhando para dentro de si, viu que não era tal, viu que realmente tinha vindo para tomar um café, que a sua própria felicidade, imagine-se, dependeria desse café. ~ Jos Saramago,
17:disseram: mande um poema para a revista onde colaboram
todos
e eu respondi: mando se não colaborar ninguém, porque
nada se reparte: ou se devora tudo
ou não se toca em nada,
morre-se mil vezes de uma só morte ou
uma só vez das mortes todas juntas:
só colaboro na minha morte:
e eles entenderam tudo, e pensaram: que este não colabore nunca,
que o demónio o leve, e foram-se,
e eu fiquei contente de nada e de ninguém,
e vim logo escrever este, o mais curto possível, e depressa, e
vazio poema de sentido e de endereço e
de razão deveras,
só porque sim, isto é: só porque não agora ~ Herberto Helder,
18:Așa evoluează intimitatea. La început, cineva oferă cea mai bună imagine despre sine, produsul final strălucitor, înfrumusețat prin exagerări, falsuri și umor. Apoi sînt cerute mai multe detalii, iar acela zugrăvește un al doilea portret, apoi un al treilea - nu după mult timp cele mai frumoase tușe dispar, iar secretul este în sfârșit dezvăluit. Planurile imaginii se amestecă și ne dau de gol și, cu toate că zugrăvim în continuare, tabloul nu ma e credibil. Sîntem siliți să ne mulțumim cu speranța că aceste autoportrete înfumurate ale noastre pe care le oferim soțiilor, copiilor și partenerilor de afaceri sînt luate de bune. ~ F Scott Fitzgerald,
19:Eis a sublime estupidez do mundo; quando nossa fortuna está abalada - muitas vezes pelos excessos de nossos próprios atos - culpamos o sol, a lua e as estrelas pelos nossos desastres; como se fôssemos canalhas por necessidade, idiotas por influência celeste; escroques, ladrões e traidores por comando do zodíaco; bêbados, mentirosos e adúlteros por forçada obediência a determinações dos planetas; como se toda a perversidade que há em nós fosse pura instigação divina. É a admirável desculpa do homem devasso - responsabiliza uma estrela por sua devassidão. Meu pai se entendeu com minha mãe sob a Cauda do Dragão e vim ao mundo sob a Ursa Maior; portanto devo ser lascivo e perverso. Bah! Eu seria o que eu sou, mesmo que a estrela mais virginal do mundo tivesse iluminado a minha bastardia. ~ William Shakespeare,
20:Os vermes "Ele fere e cura!". Quando, mais tarde, vim a saber que a lança de Aquiles também curou uma ferida que fez, tive tais ou quais veleidades de escrever uma dissertação a este propósito. Cheguei a pegar em livros velhos, livros mortos, livros enterrados, a abri-los, a compará-los, catando o texto e o sentido, para achar a origem comum do oráculo pagão e do pensamento israelita. Catei os próprios vermes dos livros, para que me dissessem o que havia nos textos roídos por eles. — Meu senhor, respondeu-me um longo verme gordo, nós não sabemos absolutamente nada dos textos que roemos, nem escolhemos o que roemos, nem amamos ou detestamos o que roemos; nós roemos. Não lhe arranquei mais nada. Os outros todos, como se houvessem passado palavra, repetiam a mesma cantilena. Talvez esse discreto silêncio sobre os textos roídos fosse ainda um modo de roer o roído. ~ Machado de Assis,
21:3 de Setembro Vendo que se fatigavam a remar... (Mc 6.28.) Não é o esforço estrênuo que leva a termo a obra que Deus nos dá para fazer. Só Deus mesmo, que sempre trabalha sem tensão e nunca em excesso, pode fazer a obra que dá a Seus filhos. Quando eles descansam confiados nEle para que a execute, então ela será bem feita e completa. A maneira de deixá-lO fazer a Sua obra através de nós é participarmos de Cristo tão plenamente, pela fé, que Jesus transborde da nossa vida. Um homem que aprendeu este segredo disse certa vez: "Eu vim a Jesus e bebi, e creio que nunca mais terei sede. Tomei como meu lema: 'Não trabalhar em excesso, mas transbordar'; e isto já trouxe uma grande mudança à minha vida." Em transbordar não há esforço. Possui uma força irresistível, mas tranqüila. É a vida normal a que Cristo nos convida hoje e sempre, em que Ele mesmo é quem está sempre realizando tudo, com a Sua onipotência. — The Sunday School Times "Na calma da ressurreição está o poder da ressurreição! ~ Anonymous,
22:Esquecer a senhora? É parte da minha vida, parte de mim mesmo. Estava em cada verso que li, desde que aqui vim pela primeira vez, menino rude e comum, que a senhora, já naquele tempo, magoava tanto. Desde aquele tempo, esteve em todas as minhas esperanças... no rio, nas velas dos navios, no pântano, nos bosques, no mar, nas ruas. A senhora foi a personificação de todas as fantasias bonitas do meu espírito. As pedras que formam os edifícios mais fortes de Londres não são mais reais ou mais impossíveis de ser deslocadas pelas suas mãos, do que sua presença, sua influência, o foram para mim, sempre, aqui e em toda parte. Estella, até a hora em que eu morrer, a senhora vai ser parte do meu caráter, parte do pouco que há de bom em mim, e do que há de mal. Mas, ao nos separarmos, eu sempre irei associá-la com o bem, e é assim, com toda a lealdade, que pensarei na senhora, sempre, pois foi para mim um alento, mais do que um desalento, e agora deixe que eu sinta toda a minha dor. Que Deus a abençoe! ~ Charles Dickens,
23:Engana-se, Estella! Faz parte de minha vida desde que a conheci, faz parde de mim mesmo! Eu a vi em cada linha que li depois da primeira vez que aqui vim, sendo ainda um pobre menino grosseiro e vulgar, um menino cujo coração feriu. Desde então esteve em todos os meus sonhos de futuro. No rio, nas velas dos navios, nos pântanos, nas nuvens, na luz, nas sombras no vento, no mar, nos matos e nas ruas foi a personificação de todas as fantasias graciosas que meu espírito concebeu. As pedras com que se construíram os mais sólidos edifícios de Londres não são mais reais do que a sua influência sobre mim. E lhe seria mais fácil deslocá-las com suas mãos de mulher do que afastar da minha vida a sua presença constante e sua influência. Aqui em toda parte. Hoje e sempre, Estella. Até a última hora da minha vida, Estella, viverá no íntimo do meu ser, será uma parte do pouco do bem e do pouco do mal que há em mim. Mas quando estivermos longe um do outro, nas minhas recordações eu a associarei sempre ao bem, só ao bem, porque deve me ter feito muito mais bem do que mal. Apesar do sofrimento atroz que agora sinto... Oh! que Deus a guarde! que Deus a Perdoe. ~ Charles Dickens,
24:Using Words Learning to express their potent reactions in words rather than in actions is critical for spirited children. If they can tell us they are angry, they don’t have to kick us to get the message across. It’s our labels that they turn to as they are building their vocabulary—the words we use to describe and explain intensity. Three-year-old Al is a blond, tousled-haired minitornado. “I’ve got gusto,” he informed me. “My dad says it’s okay to do things with gusto—as long as you don’t hurt anybody!” “I’m full of it,” a five-year-old shared, “just like my Grandpa Dick.” “My mom plays whisper games with me to help me practice my soft voice because usually I’ve very dramatic,” six-year-old Chrissie exclaimed. “I have powerful reactions,” eight-year-old Kerry told me. These children, as young as three (and sometimes even two) understand their intensity and feel good about it. They haven’t been told they were wild, aggressive, or mean. The words to describe their intensity have focused on the vim, vigor, and energy racing through their body in a positive way. It is those words that help them to feel comfortable with their intensity rather than embarrassed or frightened by it. As a result, they don’t have to run wild, scream, hit, or throw things to express themselves—at least most of the time. They can talk about it instead. ~ Mary Sheedy Kurcinka,
25:I did it the hard way

Many of the big dreams I dreamt,
I dreamt, when I met a failed attempt.
Life taught me to believe that
Great ideas can start from a wretched hut.

Many of the strongest steps I took,
I took, when I was given the fiercest look.
My passion pokes me to understand
That people’s mockeries, I can withstand.

Many of the fastest speeds I gained,
I gained when I was bitterly stained.
I first thought the only way was to quit
As I tried again, I no longer have guilt.

Many of the bravest decisions I made,
I made, when my life was about to fade.
I was frustrated and ripe to sink.
But then I strive to release the ink.

Many of the longest journeys I started,
I started, having no resource; money parted
I relied on God my creator all dawn long
And at dusk He gave me a new song.

Many of the hardest questions I tackled,
I tackled, when I was heckled.
They were very troublesome to settle
But I make it happen little by little

Yet, it was not I, but the Lord Jesus
The saviour who gives me success.
In Him, through Him and by Him
I have the liberty to do everything with vim.

I don’t want to enjoy this liberty alone.
You too must step out of your comfort zone.
It’s not easy, but you can do it anyway.
Jesus is the life, the truth and the way. ~ Israelmore Ayivor,
26:I did it the hard way (a poem)
        

Many of the big dreams I dreamt,
I dreamt, when I met a failed attempt.
Life taught me to believe that
Great ideas can start from a wretched hut.

Many of the strongest steps I took,
I took, when I was given the fiercest look.
My passion pokes me to understand
That people’s mockeries, I can withstand.

Many of the fastest speeds I gained,
I gained when I was bitterly stained.
I first thought the only way was to quit
As I tried again, I no longer have guilt.

Many of the bravest decisions I made,
I made, when my life was about to fade.
I was frustrated and ripe to sink.
But then I strive to release the ink.

Many of the longest journeys I started,
I started, having no resource; money parted
I relied on God my creator all dawn long
And at dusk He gave me a new song.

Many of the hardest questions I tackled,
I tackled, when I was heckled.
They were very troublesome to settle
But I make it happen little by little

Yet, it was not I, but the Lord Jesus
The saviour who gives me success.
In Him, through Him and by Him
I have the liberty to do everything with vim.

I don’t want to enjoy this liberty alone.
You too must step out of your comfort zone.
It’s not easy, but you can do it anyway.
Jesus is the life, the truth and the way. ~ Israelmore Ayivor,
27:I did it the hard way ( a poem)
            
Many of the big dreams I dreamt,
I dreamt, when I met a failed attempt.
Life taught me to believe that
Great ideas can start from a wretched hut.
Many of the strongest steps I took,
I took, when I was given the fiercest look.
My passion pokes me to understand
That people’s mockeries, I can withstand.
Many of the fastest speeds I gained,
I gained when I was bitterly stained.
I first thought the only way was to quit
As I tried again, I no longer have guilt.
Many of the bravest decisions I made,
I made, when my life was about to fade.
I was frustrated and ripe to sink.
But then I strive to release the ink.
Many of the longest journeys I started,
I started, having no resource; money parted
I relied on God my creator all dawn long
And at dusk He gave me a new song.
Many of the hardest questions I tackled,
I tackled, when I was heckled.
They were very troublesome to settle
But I make it happen little by little
Yet, it was not I, but the Lord Jesus
The saviour who gives me success.
In Him, through Him and by Him
I have the liberty to do everything with vim.
I don’t want to enjoy this liberty alone.
You too must step out of your comfort zone.
It’s not easy, but you can do it anyway.
Jesus is the life, the truth and the way.
            
Israelmore Ayivor ~ Israelmore Ayivor,
28:INTENSITY A Summary Intensity is the driving force behind the strong reactions of the spirited child. It is the invisible punch that makes every response of the spirited child immediate and strong. Managed well, intensity allows spirited children a depth and delight of emotion rarely experienced by others. Its potential to create as well as wreak havoc, however, makes it one of the most challenging temperamental traits to learn to manage. Intense spirited kids need to hear: You do everything with zest, vim, vigor, and gusto. You are enthusiastic, expressive, and full of energy. Your intensity can make you a great athlete, leader, performer, etc. Things can frustrate you easily. Being intense does not mean being aggressive. Teaching tips: Help your child learn to notice her growing intensity before it overwhelms her. Provide activities that soothe and calm, such as warm baths, stories, and quiet imaginative play. Use humor to diffuse intense reactions. Protect her sleep. Make time for exercise. Teach your child that time-out is a way to calm herself. If you are intense too: Do not fear your child’s intensity. Diffuse your own intensity before you step in to help your child. Take deep breaths, step away from the situation, get the sleep you need, or ask for help to cope with your own intensity. Review in your own mind the messages you were given about intensity. Dump those that negate the value of intensity or leave you feeling powerless. ~ Mary Sheedy Kurcinka,
29:Quod siquis dicat, Ergone populus tyrannicae crudelitati & furori jugulum semper praebebit? Ergone multitude civitates suas fame, ferro, & flamma vastari, seque, conjuges, & liberos fortunae ludibrio & tyranni libidini exponi, inque omnia vitae pericula omnesque miserias & molestias a rege deduci patientur? Num illis quod omni animantium generi est a natura tributum, denegari debet, ut sc. vim vi repellant, seseq; ab injuria, tueantur? Huic breviter responsum sit, Populo universo negari defensionem, quae juris naturalis est, neque ultionem quae praeter naturam est adversus regem concedi debere. Quapropter si rex non in singulares tantum personas aliquot privatum odium exerceat, sed corpus etiam reipublicae, cujus ipse caput est, i.e. totum populum, vel insignem aliquam ejus partem immani & intoleranda saevitia seu tyrannide divexet; populo, quidem hoc casu resistendi ac tuendi se ab injuria potestas competit, sed tuendi se tantum, non enim in principem invadendi: & restituendae injuriae illatae, non recedendi a debita reverentia propter acceptam injuriam. Praesentem denique impetum propulsandi non vim praeteritam ulciscenti jus habet. Horum enim alterum a natura est, ut vitam scilicet corpusque tueamur. Alterum vero contra naturam, ut inferior de superiori supplicium sumat. Quod itaque populus malum, antequam factum sit, impedire potest, ne fiat, id postquam factum est, in regem authorem sceleris vindicare non potest: populus igitur hoc amplius quam privatus quispiam habet: quod huic, vel ipsis adversariis judicibus, excepto Buchanano, nullum nisi in patientia remedium superest. Cum ille si intolerabilis tyrannus est (modicum enim ferre omnino debet) resistere cum reverentia possit, Barclay contra Monarchom. 1. iii. c. 8. ~ John Locke,
30:De dentro da taverna, com passo apressado, veio ao seu encontro uma negra suja, carapinha desgrenhada, com um caco de pente atravessado no alto da cabeça, calçando umas remendadas chinelas de tapete. Estava meio embriagada. Cassi espantou-se com aquele conhecimento; fazendo um ar de contrariedade, perguntou amuado:

— Que é que você quer?

A negra, bamboleando, pôs as mãos nas cadeiras e fez com olhar de desafio:

— Então, você não me conhece mais, "seu canaia"? Então você não "si" lembra da Inês, aquela crioulinha que sua mãe criou e você...

Lembrou-se, então, Cassi, de quem se tratava. Era a sua primeira vítima, que sua mãe, sem nenhuma consideração, tinha expulsado de casa em adiantado estado de gravidez. Reconhecendo-a e se lembrando disso, Cassi quis fugir. A rapariga pegou-o pelo braço:

— Não fuja, não, "seu" patife! Você tem que "ouvi" uma "pouca" mas de "sustança".

A esse tempo, já os freqüentadores habituais do lugar tinham acorrido das tascas e hospedarias e formavam roda, em torno dos dois. Havia homens e mulheres, que perguntavam:

— O que há, Inês?

— O que te fez esse moço?

Cassi estava atarantado no meio daquelas caras antipáticas de sujeitos afeitos a brigas e assassinatos.

— Eu não conheço essa mulher. Juro...

— "Muié", não! - fez a tal Inês, gingando. - Quando você "mi" fazia "festa", "mi" beijava e "mi" abraçava, eu não era "muié", era outra coisa, seu "cosa" ruim!

Um negro esguio, de olhar afoito, com um ar decidido de capoeira, interveio:

— Mas, Inês, quem é afinal esse moço?

— É o "home qui mi" fez mal; que "mi" desonrou, "mi pois" nesta "disgraça".

— Eu! - exclamou Cassi.

— Sim! Você "memo", "seu" caradura! "Mi alembro" bem... Foi até no quarto de sua mãe... Estava arrumando a casa.

Uma outra mulher, mas esta branca, com uns lindos cabelos castanhos, em que se viam lêndeas, comentou:

— É sempre assim. Esses "nhonhôs gostosos" desgraçam a gente, deixam a gente com o filho e vão-se. A mulher que se fomente... Malvados!

Cassi ouvia tudo isso sem saber que alvitre tornar. Estava amarelo e olhava, por baixo das pálpebras, todas as faces daquele ajuntamento. Esperava a polícia, um socorro qualquer. A preta continuava:

— Você sabe onde "tá" teu "fio"? "Tá" na detenção, fique você sabendo. "Si" meteu com ladrão, é "pivete" e foi "pra chacr’a". Eis aí que você fez, "seu marvado", "home mardiçoado". Pior do que você só aquela galinha-d'angola de "tua" mãe, "seu" sem-vergonha!

Cassi fez um movimento de repulsa e que a rapariga não perdeu.

— "Oie" - disse ela, para os circunstantes -; ele diz que não é o tal. Agora "memo se acusou-se", quando chamei a ratazana da mãe dele de galinha-d'angola... É uma "marvada", essa mãe dele - uma "véia" cheia de "imposão" de inglês. Inglês, que inglês...

Soltou uma inconveniência, acompanhada de um gesto despudorado, provocando uma gargalhada geral. Cassi continuava mudo, transido de medo; e a pobre desclassificada emendava:

— "Tu" é "mao", mas tua mãe é pior. Quando ela descobriu "qui" eu "tava" com "fio" na barriga, "mi pois" pela porta afora, sem pena, sem dó "di" eu não "tê pronde í". E o "fio" era neto dela e ela "mi" tinha criado... Vim da roça... Ah! Meu Deus! Se não fosse uma amiga, tinha posto o "fio" fora, na rua, que era serviço... Deus perdoe a "tua" mãe o que "mi" fez "i" a meu "fio", "fio" deste "qui tá i", também, Deus lhe perdoe!

E a pobre negra abaixou-se para apanhar a barra da saia enlameada, a fim de enxugar as lágrimas com que chorava o seu triste destino, talvez mais que o dela, o do seu miserável filho, que, antes dos dez anos, já travara conhecimento com a Casa de Detenção... ~ Lima Barreto,
31:Steinli Von Slang
I.
DER watchman look out from his tower
Ash de Abendgold glimmer grew dim,
Und saw on de road troo de Gauer
Ten shpearmen coom ridin to him:
Und he schvear: 'May I lose my next bitter,
Und denn mit der Teufel go hang!
If id isn't dat pully young Ritter,
De hell-drivin Steinli von Slang.
'De vorldt nefer had any such man,
He vights like a sturm in its wrath:
You may call me a recular Dutchman,
If he arn't like Goliath of Gath.
He ish big ash de shiant O'Brady,
More ash sefen feet high on a string,
Boot he can't vin de hearts of my lady,
De lofely Plectruda von Sling.'
De lady make welcome her gast in,
Ash he shtep to de dop of de shtair,
She look like an angel got lost in
A forest of audumn-prown hair.
Und a bower-maiden said ash she tarried:
'I wish I may bust mit a bang!
If id isn't a shame she ain't married
To der her-re-liche Steinli von Slang!'
He pows to de cround fore de lady,
Vhile his vace ish ash pale ash de tead;
Und she vhispers oonto him a rede
Ash mit arrow point accents, she said:
'You hafe long dimes peen dryin to win me,
You hafe vight, and mine braises you sing,
Boot I'm 'fraid dat de notion aint in me,
De Lady Plectruda von Sling.
'Boot brafehood teserves a reward, sir;
153
Dough you've hardly a chost of a shanse.
Sankt Werolf! medinks id ish hard, sir,
I should allaweil lead you dis dance.'
Like a bees vhen it it booz troo de clofer,
Dese murmurin accents she flang,
Vhile singin, a stingin her lofer,
Der woe-moody Ritter von Slang.
'Boot if von ding you do, I'll knock under,
Our droples moost endin damit
Und if you pull troo it,- by donder!
I'll own myself euchred, und bit.
I schvear py de holy Sanct Chlody!
Py mine honor-und avery ding!
You may hafe me-soul, puttons und pody,
Mit de whole of Plectruda von Sling.'
'Und dish ish de test of your power:Vhile ve shtand ourselfs round in a row,
You moost roll from de dop of dis tower,
Down shdairs to de valley pelow.
Id ish rough and shteep ash my virtue:'
(Mit schwanenshweet accents she sang
'Tont try if you dinks id vill hurt you,
Mine goot liddle Ritter von Slang.'
An Moormoor arosed mong de beoples;
In fain tid she doorn in her shkorn,
Der vatchman on dop of de shdeeples
Plowed a sorryfool doon on his horn.
Ash dey look down de dousand-foot treppe,
Dey schveared dey vouldt pass on de ding,
Und not roll down de firstest tam steppe
For a hoondred like Fraulein von Sling.
II.
'Twas audumn. De dry leafs vere bustlin
Und visperin deir elfin wild talk,
Vhen shlow, mit his veet in dem rustlin,
Herr Steinli coomed out for a walk.
Wild dooks vly afar in de gloamin,
154
He hear a vaint gry vrom de gang;
Und vished he vere off mit dem roamin:
De heart-wounded Ritter Von Slang.
Und ash he vent musin und shbeakin,
He se, shoost ahead in his vay,
In sinkular manner a streakin,
A strange liddle bein, in cray,
Who toorned on him quick mit a holler,
Und cuttin a dwo bigeon ving,
Cried, 'Say, can you change me a thaler,
Oh, guest of de Lady von Sling?'
De knight vas a goot-nadured veller,
(De peggars all knowed him at sight,)
So he forked out each groschen und heller,
Dill he fix de finances aright.
Boot shoost ash de liddle man vent, he,
(Der Ritter,) ashtonished cried 'Dang!'
For id vasn't von thaler boot tventy,
He'd passed on der Ritter von Slang.
O reater! Soopose soosh a vlight in
De vingers of me, or of you,
How we'd toorned on our heels, und gon kitin
Dill no von vos left to pursue!
Good Lort! how we'd froze to de ready!
Boot mit him 'dvas a different ding;
For he vent on de high, moral steady,
Dis lofer of Fraulein von Sling.
Und dough no von vill gife any gredit
To dis part of mine dale, shdill id's drue,
He drafelled ash if he vould dead it,
Dis liddle oldt man to pursue.
Und loudly he after him hollers,
Till de vales mit de cliffers loud rang:
'You hafe gifed me nine-ten too moosh dollars,
Hold Hard!' cried der Ritter von Slang.
De oldt man ope his eyes like a casement,
Und laid a cold hand on his prow,
155
Denn mutter in ootmosdt amazement,
'Vot manner of mordal art dou?
I hafe lifed in dis world a yar tausend,
Und nefer yed met soosh a ding!
Yet you find it hart vork to pe spouse, and
Peloved by de Lady von Sling!
'Und she vant you to roll from de tower
Down shteps to yon rifulet spot.'
(Here de knight, whom amazement o'erbower,
Cried, 'Himmels potz pumpen Herr Gott!')
Boot de oldt veller saidt: 'I'll arrange it,
Let your droples und sorrows co hang!
Und nodings vill coom to derange itPet high on it, Ritter von Slang.
'So get oop dis small oonderstandin,
Dat to-morrow by ten, do you hear?
You'll pe mit your trunk at de landin;
I'll also be dere-nefer fear!
Und I dinks we shall make your young voman
A new kind of meloty sing;
Dat vain, wicked, cruel, unhuman,
Gott-tamnaple Fraulein von Sling.'
De fiolet shdars vere apofe him,
Vhite moths und vhite dofes shimmered round,
All nature seemed seekin to lofe him,
Mit perfume und vision und sound.
De liddle oldt veller hat fanished,
In a harp-like, melotious twang;
Und mit him all sorrow vas panished
Afay from der Steinli von Slang.
III.
Id vas morn, und de vorldt hat assempled
Mid panners und lances und dust,
Boot de heart of de Paroness trempled,
Und ofden her folly she cussed.
For she found dat der Ritter vould do it,
Und 'die or get into de Ring,'
156
Und denn she'd pe cerdain to rue it,
Aldough she vas Lady von Sling.
For no man in Deutschland stood higher
Dan he mit de Minnesing crew,
He vas friendet to Heini von Steier,
Und Wolfram von Eschenbach too.
Und she dinked ash she look from de vinders,
How herzlich his braises dey sang;
'Now dey'll knock my goot name indo flinders,
For killin der Ritter von Slang.'
Boot oh! der goot knight had a Schauer,
Und felt most ongommonly queer,
Vhen he find on de top of de dower
De goblum, pesite him, abbear.
Denn he find he no more could go valkin,
Und shtood, shoost and potrified ding,
Vhile de goblum vent round about talkin,
Und chaffin Plectruda von Sling.
Denn at vonce he see indo de problum,
Und vas stoggered like rats at ids vim:
His soul had gone indo de goblum,
Und de goblum's hat gone indo him.
Und de eyes of de volk vas enchanted,
Dere vas 'glamour' oopon de whole gang;
For dey dinked dat dis veller who ranted
So loose, vas der Ritter von Slang.
Und, Lordt! how he dalked! Oonder heafens
Dere vas nefer soosh derriple witz,
Knockin all dings to sechses and sefens,
Und gifin Plectruda, Dutch fits.
Mein Gott! how he poonished und chaffed her
Like a hell-stingin, devil-born ding;
Vhile de volk lay a-rollin mit laughter
At Fraulein Plectruda von Sling.
De lady grew angry und paler,
De lady grew ratful und red,
She felt some Satanical jailer
157
Hafe brisoned de tongue in her head.
She moost laugh vhen she vant to pe cryin,
Und vas crushed mit de teufelisch clang,
Till she knelt herself, pooty near dyin,
To dis derriple image of Slang.
Denn der goblum shoomp oop to der ceiling
Und trow sommerseds round on de vloor,
Right ofer Plectruda a-kneelin,
Dill she look more a vool dan pefore.
Denn he roll down de shteps light und breezy,
His laughs made it all apout ring;
Ash he shveared dere vas noding more easy
Dan to win a Plectruda von Sling.
Und vhen he cot down to de pottom,
He laugh so to freezen your plood;
Und schwear dat de boomps ash he cot em
Hafe make him feel petter ash good.
Boot, oh! how dey shook at his power,
Vhen he toorned himself roundt mit a bang,
Und roll oop to de dop of de tower,
To change forms mit de oder Von Slang!
Denn all in an insdand vas altered,
Der Steinli vas coom to himself;
Und de sprite, vitch in double sense paltered,
From dat moment acain vas an elf.
Dey shdill dinked dat he vas de person
Who had bobbed oop and down on de ving,
Und knew not who 'tvas lay de curse on
De peaudiful Lady von Sling.
Nun-endlich- Plectruda repented,
Und gazed on der Ritter mit shoy;
In dime to pe married consented,
Und vas plessed mit a peautifool poy.
A dwenty gold biece on his bosom
Vhen geporn vas tiscofered to hang
Mit de inscript-'Dis dime dont refuse em'So endet de tale of Von Slang.
158
~ Charles Godfrey Leland,

IN CHAPTERS [25/25]



   5 Integral Yoga
   2 Poetry
   1 Yoga
   1 Hinduism


   7 Sri Aurobindo
   3 Nolini Kanta Gupta


   2 Essays On The Gita
   2 Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin


03.04 - Towardsa New Ideology, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 02, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
   And India is pre-eminently fitted to discover this pattern of spiritual values and demonstrate how our normal lifeindividual and collectivecan be moulded and built according to that pattern. It has been India's special concern throughout the millenaries of her history to know and master the one thing needful (tamevaikam jnatha tmnam any vaco vimucatha), knowing which one knows all (tasmin vijte sarvam vijtam). She has made countless experiments in that line and has attained countless achievements. Her resurgence can be justified and can be inevitable only if she secures the poise and position which will enable her to impart to the world this master secret of life, this art of a supreme savoir vivre. A new India in the old way of the nations of the world, one more among the already too many has neither sense nor necessity. Indeed, it would be the denial of what her soul demands and expects to be achieved and done.
   ***

03.12 - TagorePoet and Seer, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 01, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
   Tagore is modern, because his modernism is based upon a truth not local and temporal, but eternal and universal, something that is the very bed-rock of human culture and civilisation. Indeed, Tagore is also ancient, as ancient as the Upanishads. The great truths, the basic realities experienced and formulated by the ancients ring clear and distinct in the core of all his artistic creation. Tagore's intellectual make-up may be as rationalistic and scientific as that of any typical modern man. Nor does he discard the good things (preya)that earth and life offer to man for his banquet; and he does not say like the bare ascetic: any vco vimucatha, "abandon everything else". But even like one of the Upanishadic Rishis, the great Yajnavalkya, he would possess and enjoy his share of terrestrial as well as of spiritual wealthubhayameva. In a world of modernism, although he acknowledges and appreciates mental and vital and physical values, he does not give them the place demanded for them. He has never forgotten the one thing needful. He has not lost the moorings of the soul. He has continued to nestle close to the eternal verities that sustain earth and creation and give a high value and purpose to man's life and creative activity.
   In these iconoclastic times, we are liable, both in art and in life, to despise and even to deny certain basic factors which were held to be almost indispensable in the old world. The great triads the True, the Beautiful and the Good, or God, Soul and Immortalityare of no consequence to a modernist mind: these mighty words evoke no echo in the heart of a contemporary human being. Art and Life meant in the old world something decent, if not great. They were perhaps, as I have already said, framed within narrow limits, certain rigid principles that cribbed and cabined the human spirit in many ways; but they were not anarchic, they obeyed a law, a dharma, which they considered as an ideal, a standard to look up to and even live up to. The modernist is an anarchic being in all ways. He does not care for old-world verities which seem to him mere convention or superstition. Truth and Beauty and Harmony are non-existent for him: if at all they exist they bear a totally different connotation, the very opposite of that which is normally accepted.

1.01f - Introduction, #The Lotus Sutra, #Anonymous, #Various
  The last buddha fathered eight princes before he renounced household life. The rst was called Mati, the second Sumati, the third Anantamati, the fourth Ratimati, the fth was called Vieamati, the sixth vimatisamudghtin, the seventh Ghoamati, and the eighth was called Dharmamati. These eight princes were endowed with dignity and power, and each of them ruled over four great continents. Having heard that their father had renounced household life and obtained highest, complete enlightenment, all of them abandoned their kingdoms and also renounced household life. Each caused the spirit of the Mahayana to arise within him, practiced the pure path of discipline and integrity, and became an expounder of the Dharma. They all planted roots of good merit under many thousands of myriads of buddhas.
  At that time, the Buddha Candrasryapradpa taught the Mahayana sutra called Immeasurable Meanings, the instruction for the bodhisattvas and treasured lore of the buddhas. Having taught this sutra, he sat down
  --
  This Bodhisattva rgarbha will become the next buddha after me. He will be called vimal
  ganetra, a Tathgata, Arhat, Completely Enlightened.
  --
  A buddha named vimal
  ganetra.

1.01 - Hatha Yoga, #Amrita Gita, #Swami Sivananda Saraswati, #Hinduism
  19. Spend half an hour daily in the practice of Asanas and Pranayama. This will give you health, vim, vigour and vitality. This will remove all diseases.
  20. Dhauti (cleansing of stomach with a piece of cloth), Basti (drawing up of water through anus), Neti (cleansing of nostrils with the help of a thread), Nauli (manipulation of the abdominal muscles), Trataka (gazing on an object), Kapalabhati (a kind of Pranayama)are the Shad Kriyas of Hatha Yoga.

1.02 - To Zen Monks Kin and Koku, #Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin, #unset, #Zen
  This letter, in which Hakuin declines an invitation to lecture on the vimalakirti Sutra, can be dated from internal evidence to 1729. As one of very few letters that can be dated confidently to Hakuin's forties, it gives us a rare glimpse of Shin-ji during the early years of Hakuin's residency. Neither
  Kin or Koku, nor the name of the temple issuing the invitation to Hakuin, have been identified, although the temple was no doubt located close by, probably in Suruga Province.
  Note that Hakuin initially refers to the vimalakirti Sutra as the Beyond Comprehension Sutra, using one of the vimalakirti Sutra's chapter titles.
  MY HUMBLEST APPRECIATION for the letter Brother Rai recently delivered to me containing your request to conduct a lecture meeting on the Beyond Comprehension Sutra, together with the list of expected participants. While I seriously doubt you can rely on a shuffling jackass to perform like a thorough-bred stallion, or hope for an old crow to start caroling like a celestial phoenix, I am nonetheless sincerely grateful that you even remembered this boorish rustic and thought it worthwhile to make a sincere effort to assist in his upbringing. I have no doubt that you were inspired by a deep aspiration to promote the teaching of the Dharma.
  --
  More to the point, even after scrutinizing my heart from corner to corner, I am unable to come up with a single notion that I could communicate to participants at such a lecture meeting, much less hold forth on the vimilakirti Sutra's wonderful teaching of nonduality. In view of this, and after repeated and agonizing self-examination, I am afraid I have no choice but to decline the high honor you have sought to bestow upon me. Even as I write this, my eyes are wet with tears and my body drenched in a thick, shame-induced sweat. Certainly there is no lack of veteran priests in your own area, any one of whom I am sure would be capable of carrying out the task you propose.
  Asking your forgiveness in this matter, I am, yours truly, [Hakuin]

1.03 - To Layman Ishii, #Beating the Cloth Drum Letters of Zen Master Hakuin, #unset, #Zen
   a The word chambers (hj), normally the quarters of a head priest, also alludes to the room where the great Layman vimalakirti taught. An annotation states that the room may have been Ishii's teahouse. b Chij khai, the second of three kinds of "leakage" posited by Tung-shan Liang-chieh, in which the student, while trying to rid himself of delusory thoughts, still remains within the realm of dualism
  (The Eye of Men and Gods, ch. 3). c That is, a shippei, or black-lacquered bamboo stick. d A false makeshift seal carved from melon rind.
  --
  2. "Not even Buddhas and patriarchs can cure misunderstanding as gross as this. Every day these people seek out places of peace and quiet, but they're dead otters today, they'll be dead otters tomorrow, they'll be dead otters even after endless kalpas have passed. Utterly useless to themselves or to anyone else. The Buddha compared people like this to mangy foxes. Angulimala despised them as people with the intelligence of earthworms. vimalakirti placed them among the blasted buds and rotten seeds. They are the ones Ch'ang-sha said were unable to leap from the tip of a hundred-foot pole, the ones Lin-chi said lived at the bottom of a deep black pit" (Oradegama; Zen Master Hakuin,
  115).

1.06 - The Ascent of the Sacrifice 2 The Works of Love - The Works of Life, #The Synthesis Of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   aware of in himself and finds all around him and has to struggle and combat incessantly to be rid of their grip and dislodge the long-entrenched mastery they have exercised over his own being as over the environing human existence. The difficulty is great; for their hold is so strong, so apparently invincible that it justifies the disdainful dictum which compares human nature to a dog's tail, - for, straighten it never so much by force of ethics, religion, reason or any other redemptive effort, it returns in the end always to the crooked curl of Nature. And so great is the vim, the clutch of that more agitated Life-Will, so immense the peril of its passions and errors, so subtly insistent or persistently invasive, so obstinate up to the very gates of Heaven the fury of its attack or the tedious obstruction of its obstacles that even the saint and the Yogin cannot be sure of their liberated purity or their trained self-mastery against its intrigue or its violence. All labour to straighten out this native crookedness strikes the struggling will as a futility; a flight, a withdrawal to happy Heaven or peaceful dissolution easily finds credit as the only wisdom and to find a way not to be born again gets established as the only remedy for the dull bondage or the poor shoddy delirium or the blinded and precarious happiness and achievement of earthly existence.
  A remedy yet there should be and is, a way of redress and a chance of transformation for this troubled vital nature; but for that the cause of deviation must be found and remedied at the heart of Life itself and in its very principle, since Life too is a power of the Divine and not a creation of some malignant

1.07 - Hui Ch'ao Asks about Buddha, #The Blue Cliff Records, #Yuanwu Keqin, #Zen
  This saying is taken from the vimalakirtinirdesa scripture, in
  which context it should be read, "Since they have no wounds,

1.11 - Works and Sacrifice, #Essays On The Gita, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  I cannot think that mithyacara means a hypocrite. How is a man a hypocrite who inflicts on himself so severe and complete a privation? He is mistaken and deluded, vimud.hatma, and his acara, his formally regulated method of self-discipline, is a false and vain method, - this surely is all that the Gita means.
  Works and Sacrifice

1.12 - Dhruva commences a course of religious austerities, #Vishnu Purana, #Vyasa, #Hinduism
  [9]: The Vaimānika devas, the deities who travel in vimānas, 'heavenly cars,' or rather 'moving spheres.'
  [10]: The text says merely ###; the commentator says, 'perhaps formerly so called;' ###. We have already remarked that some Purāṇas so denominate her.

1.19 - Equality, #Essays On The Gita, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Gita, however, admits and makes room for this movement; it allows as a recoiling starting-point the perception of the defects of the world-existence, birth and disease and death and old age and sorrow, the historic starting-point of the Buddha, janmamr.tyu-jara-vyadhi-duh.kha-dos.anudarsanam, and it accepts the effort of those whose self-discipline is motived by a desire for release, even in this spirit, from the curse of age and death, jara-maran.a-moks.aya mam asritya yatanti ye. But that, to be of any profit, must be accompanied by the sattwic perception of a higher state and the taking delight and refuge in the existence of the Divine, mam asritya. Then the soul by its recoil comes to a greater condition of being, lifted beyond the three gunas and free from birth and death and age and grief, and enjoys the immortality of its self-existence, janma-mr.tyu-jara-duh.khair vimukto
  'mr.tam asnute. The tamasic unwillingness to accept the pain and effort of life is indeed by itself a weakening and degrading thing, and in this lies the danger of preaching to all alike the gospel of asceticism and world-disgust, that it puts the stamp of a tamasic weakness and shrinking on unfit souls, confuses their understanding, buddhibhedam janayet, diminishes the sustained aspiration, the confidence in living, the power of effort which the soul of man needs for its salutary, its necessary rajasic struggle to master its environment, without really opening to it - for it is yet incapable of that - a higher goal, a greater endeavour, a mightier victory. But in souls that are fit this tamasic recoil may serve a useful spiritual purpose by slaying their rajasic attraction, their eager preoccupation with the lower life which prevents the sattwic awakening to a higher possibility. Seeking then for a refuge in the void they have created, they are able to hear the divine call, "O soul that findest thyself in this transient and unhappy world, turn and put thy delight in Me," anityam asukham lokam imam prapya bhajasva mam.

1.439, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
  Shiyali. He left the boy on the bank of the sacred tank and went in to bathe. As he dipped in the water the boy, not finding his father, began to cry out. Immediately Siva and Parvati appeared in a vimana. Siva told Parvati to feed the boy with her milk. So she drew out milk in a cup and handed it to the boy. He drank it and was happy.
  The father as he came out of the water saw the boy smiling and with streaks of milk round his lips. So he asked the boy what happened to him. The boy did not answer. He was threatened and the boy sang songs. They were hymns in praise of Siva who appeared before him.

1956-09-05 - Material life, seeing in the right way - Effect of the Supermind on the earth - Emergence of the Supermind - Falling back into the same mistaken ways, #Questions And Answers 1956, #The Mother, #Integral Yoga
    A principle of dark and dull inertia is at its [lifes] base; all are tied down by the body and its needs and desires to a trivial mind, petty desires and emotions, an insignificant repetition of small worthless functionings, needs, cares, occupations, pains, pleasures that lead to nothing beyond themselves and bear the stamp of an ignorance that knows not its own why and whither. This physical mind of inertia believes in no divinity other than its small earth-gods; it aspires perhaps to a greater fort, order, pleasure, but asks for no uplifting and no spiritual deliverance. At the centre we meet a stronger Will of life with a greater gusto, but it is a blinded Daemon, a perverted spirit and exults in the very elements that make of life a striving turmoil and an unhappy imbroglio. It is a soul of human or Titanic desire clinging to the garish colour, disordered poetry, violent tragedy or stirring melodrama of the mixed flux of good and evil, joy and sorrow, light and darkness, heady rapture and bitter torture. It loves these things and would have more and more of them or, even when it suffers and cries out against them, can accept or joy in nothing else; it hates and revolts against higher things and in its fury would trample, tear or crucify any diviner Power that has the presumption to offer to make life pure, luminous and happy and snatch from its lips the fiery brew of that exciting mixture. Another Will-in-Life there is that is ready to follow the ameliorating ideal Mind and is allured by its offer to extract some harmony, beauty, light, nobler order out of life, but this is a smaller part of the vital nature and can be easily overpowered by its more violent or darker duller yoke-comrades; nor does it readily lend itself to a call higher than that of the Mind unless that call defeats itself, as Religion usually does, by lowering its demand to conditions more intelligible to our obscure vital nature. All these forces the spiritual seeker grows aware of in himself and finds all around him and has to struggle and combat incessantly to be rid of their grip and dislodge the long-entrenched mastery they have exercised over his own being as over the environing human existence. The difficulty is great; for their hold is so strong, so apparently invincible that it justifies the disdainful dictum which pares human nature to a dogs tail,for, straighten it never so much by force of ethics, religion, reason or any other redemptive effort, it returns in the end always to the crooked curl of Nature. And so great is the vim, the clutch of that more agitated Life-Will, so immense the peril of its passions and errors, so subtly insistent or persistently invasive, so obstinate up to the very gates of Heaven the fury of its attack or the tedious obstruction of its obstacles that even the saint and the Yogin cannot be sure of their liberated purity or their trained self-mastery against its intrigue or its violence.
    Sri Aurobindo, The Synthesis of Yoga, SABCL, Vol. 20, pp. 160-61

1.hcyc - 59 - Two monks were guilty of murder and carnality (from The Shodoka), #unset, #Anonymous, #Various
   English version by Robert Aitken Original Language Chinese Two monks were guilty of murder and carnality. Their leader, Upali, had the light of a glow-worm; He just added to their guilt. vimalakirti cleared their doubts at once As sunshine melts the frost and snow. <
1.rb - Sordello - Book the Fifth, #Browning - Poems, #Robert Browning, #Poetry
  "Of vimmercato, to the carroch's clang
  "Yonder! The Leagueor trick of turning Strength

2.01 - Mandala One, #Vedic and Philological Studies, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  (3) To the Angiras seers thou hast uncovered the pen of the cows and wast to Atri the finder of the path amid the hundred doors and even in sleep thou broughtest to vimada the treasure when thou madest dance thy adamant bolt in the battle while he shone with light.
  (4) And thou hast uncovered the veiling lids of the waters and held on the mountain the bountiful treasure. O Indra, when thou slewest the Coverer, the Serpent by thy might, then thou madest the Sun to climb up into heaven for sight.

2.18 - The Evolutionary Process - Ascent and Integration, #The Life Divine, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  This movement of evolution, of a progressive self-manifestation of the Spirit in a material universe, has to make its account at every step with the fact of the involution of consciousness and force in the form and activity of material substance. For it proceeds by an awakening of the involved consciousness and force and its ascent from principle to principle, from grade to grade, from power to power of the secret Spirit, but this is not a free transference to a higher status. The law of action, the force of action of each grade or power in its emergence is determined, not by its own free, full and pure law of nature or vim of energy, but partly by the material organisation provided for it and partly by its own status, achieved degree, accomplished fact of consciousness which it has been able to impose upon Matter.
  Its effectivity is in some sort made up of a balance between the actual extent of this evolutionary emergence and the countervailing extent to which the emergent power is still enveloped, penetrated, diminished by the domination and continuing grip of the Inconscience. Mind as we see it is not mind pure and free, but mind clouded and diminished by an enveloping nescience, mind labouring and struggling to deliver knowledge out of that nescience. All depends upon the more or less involved or more or less evolved condition of consciousness, - quite involved in inconscient matter, hesitating on the verge between involution and conscious evolution in the first or non-animal forms of life in matter, consciously evolving but greatly limited and hampered in mind housed in a living body, destined to be fully evolved by the awakening of the supermind in the embodied mental being and nature.

2 - Other Hymns to Agni, #Hymns to the Mystic Fire, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  14 Or, vimada, the rapturous one, coming carries to thee, O Fire, his thinking mind, to
  thee his words and his right thinkings, brings etc.

32.12 - The Evolutionary Imperative, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 07, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
   The difficulty is enormous: we admitted that more than half the way - and the most arduous part of it - remains to be negotiated. Man is only half-willing; his will must be whole and entire, pointed towards that single consummation. All other preoccupations that divert, he must eschew - anya vaco vimucatha.That is what is expected of him. If that will comes in, all is assured: things will move at a quick and yet smooth tempo. If, on the contrary, that fails or even delays too long, even then the thing will be done, for such is the fate decreed, the fiat of the inmost Divine at Nature's heart. Only, because of the outward resistance the path will be made harder and the travail more painful. A grim toll will be demanded, a violent eruption instead of a happy flowering. That is exactly how revolutions occur in human society and geological cataclysms in physical Nature. The hardening and contraction of the outer crust of earth increases in proportion to the inner heat and pressure. Likewise on the human level, the red seed of the French Revolution was planted the very day when the Valois autocrat declared his divine right of kingship. In Russia, Lenin's antithesis was posited along with Peter the Great's thesis.
   A similar fateful crisis - a much greater one - faces humanity today. Shall humanity yield totally and itself become the new being, through a travail more or less safe and happy? Or shall it be foolish and intransigent - incapable, in other words - and not do the right thing, thus inviting the catastrophe that might otherwise have been averted? For the New Being, the Superman, will be born, whether breaking the mould that humanity is or reshaping it into the new pattern.

DS3, #unset, #Anonymous, #Various
  beings. Thus, we have been liberated countless times. The vimalakirti Sutra says, All beings have
  already been liberated. They do not need to be liberated again. (4) Every time someone is

Talks 500-550, #unset, #Anonymous, #Various
  Shiyali. He left the boy on the bank of the sacred tank and went in to bathe. As he dipped in the water the boy, not finding his father, began to cry out. Immediately Siva and Parvati appeared in a vimana. Siva told Parvati to feed the boy with her milk. So she drew out milk in a cup and handed it to the boy. He drank it and was happy.
  The father as he came out of the water saw the boy smiling and with streaks of milk round his lips. So he asked the boy what happened to him. The boy did not answer. He was threatened and the boy sang songs. They were hymns in praise of Siva who appeared before him.

Talks With Sri Aurobindo 2, #Talks With Sri Aurobindo, #unset, #Zen
  PURANI: Moreover, after demilitarisation it has to be seen how much vim
  is left in them.

The Act of Creation text, #The Act of Creation, #Arthur Koestler, #Psychology
  1, Histoire de V Invention de vimprimerie par les Monuments, ed. Hofer, Paris 1840.
  2, Mysterium Cosmographicum, Preface. 3, Ibid. 4, Opera Omnia, Vol. XIII, pp. 33 fT.
  --
  Hofer, ed., Histoire de V Invention de vimprimerie par les Monuments. Paris, 1840.
  VON Holst, E., in Naturwiss., 25, 1937.

The Anapanasati Sutta A Practical Guide to Mindfullness of Breathing and Tranquil Wisdom Meditation, #unset, #Anonymous, #Various
  author class:Venerable U vimalaramsi
  class:sutra
  --
  by the Venerable U vimalaramsi
  Copyright 1995 by the author
  --
   vimalaramsi, (Bhante vimala), is a thirty plus year
  meditator who spent over twenty years following the
  --
  Bhante vimalaramsi brings these teachings to life
  using simple clear wording. To study with Bhante vimala is
  a refreshing rediscovery of our inherent altruistic joy and an
  --
  Bhante vimalaramsi's Background
  Bhante vimalaramsi became a Buddhist monk in 1986
  because of his keen interest in meditation. He went to
  --
  Bhante vimalaramsi then began to study the original
  texts and practice meditation according to these texts. After
  --
  their students. Bhante vimalaramsi came back to the U.S. in
  1998 and has been teaching meditation throughout the

The Poems of Cold Mountain, #Cold Mountain, #Han-shan, #Zen
    5. Asked to define the bodhisattva's door beyond duality, vimilakirti remained silent, while Manjushri exclaimed, "Just so! Without letters or words is the true door beyond duality!" ( vimilakirti Sutra: 9) John Blofeld thought the last line refers to Lao-tzu's "wordless teaching:' (Taoteching: 2)
    6. In addition to their calendar of lunar months, the Chinese divide the year into twentyfour solar periods of fifteen days each. Mang-chung (Grain Ears) fifteen days before the summer solstice, and Li-ch'iu (Autumn Begins) forty-five days after the solstice. In the last line, the sky's absence prevents the traveler from establishing his bearings.

WORDNET



--- Overview of noun vim

The noun vim has 2 senses (no senses from tagged texts)
                    
1. energy, vim, vitality ::: (a healthy capacity for vigorous activity; "jogging works off my excess energy"; "he seemed full of vim and vigor")
2. energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim ::: (an imaginative lively style (especially style of writing); "his writing conveys great energy"; "a remarkable muscularity of style")


--- Synonyms/Hypernyms (Ordered by Estimated Frequency) of noun vim

2 senses of vim                            

Sense 1
energy, vim, vitality
   => good health, healthiness
     => physical condition, physiological state, physiological condition
       => condition, status
         => state
           => attribute
             => abstraction, abstract entity
               => entity

Sense 2
energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim
   => liveliness, life, spirit, sprightliness
     => animation, spiritedness, invigoration, brio, vivification
       => activeness, activity
         => trait
           => attribute
             => abstraction, abstract entity
               => entity


--- Hyponyms of noun vim

2 senses of vim                            

Sense 1
energy, vim, vitality
   => juice
   => qi, chi, ch'i, ki

Sense 2
energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim
   => vitality, verve


--- Synonyms/Hypernyms (Ordered by Estimated Frequency) of noun vim

2 senses of vim                            

Sense 1
energy, vim, vitality
   => good health, healthiness

Sense 2
energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim
   => liveliness, life, spirit, sprightliness




--- Coordinate Terms (sisters) of noun vim

2 senses of vim                            

Sense 1
energy, vim, vitality
  -> good health, healthiness
   => wholeness, haleness
   => energy, vim, vitality
   => bloom, blush, flush, rosiness
   => freshness, glow
   => radiance
   => sturdiness
   => condition, shape

Sense 2
energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim
  -> liveliness, life, spirit, sprightliness
   => pertness
   => airiness, delicacy
   => alacrity, briskness, smartness
   => energy, muscularity, vigor, vigour, vim
   => elan
   => esprit
   => breeziness, jauntiness
   => irrepressibility, buoyancy
   => high-spiritedness
   => exuberance, enthusiasm, ebullience
   => pep, peppiness, ginger




--- Grep of noun vim
vim
viminaria
viminaria denudata
viminaria juncea



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Wikipedia - KietaviM-EM-!kiM-EM-3 gausa -- vegetable grower in Lithuania
Wikipedia - Kristina KliukeviM-DM-^MiM-EM-+tM-DM-^W -- Lithuanian rhythmic gymnast
Wikipedia - Kristina SaltanoviM-DM-^M -- Lithuanian race walker
Wikipedia - Ladislav BeloviM-DM-^M -- Slovak canoeist
Wikipedia - Ladislav MrkviM-DM-^Mka -- Czech actor
Wikipedia - Laiko Vima -- Newspaper in Albania
Wikipedia - Lampronia flavimitrella -- Species of moth
Wikipedia - Laurynas StankeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian economist and politician
Wikipedia - Learning the vi and Vim Editors
Wikipedia - Lenka UdoviM-DM-^Mki -- Serbian theater director
Wikipedia - Leonardas AbramaviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian chess player
Wikipedia - Leonor de Alvim -- Portuguese noblewomen
Wikipedia - Lilijana KozloviM-DM-^M -- Slovenian politician
Wikipedia - Lina ChatkeviM-DM-^MiM-EM-+tM-DM-^W -- Lithuanian ballroom dancer
Wikipedia - Linas Antanas LinkeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian politician
Wikipedia - List of people assassinated by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of VIM Airlines destinations -- Wikipedia list article
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Wikipedia - LM-CM-* Thanh Tong -- Emperor of M-DM-^PM-aM-:M-!i ViM-aM-;M-^Gt (1442-1497) (r. 1460-1497)
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Wikipedia - Lukhumi Chkhvimiani -- Georgian judoka
Wikipedia - Maariv Aravim -- Jewish evening prayer
Wikipedia - Macrothyatira flavimargo -- Species of false owlet moth
Wikipedia - Maksim BahdanoviM-DM-^M -- Belarusian writer
Wikipedia - Manuel C. SobreviM-CM-1as -- Catholic bishop
Wikipedia - Marek KrajM-DM-^MoviM-DM-^M -- Slovak canoeist
Wikipedia - Maria KraM-DM->oviM-DM-^Mova -- Slovak actress
Wikipedia - Marija MakaroviM-DM-^M -- Slovene ethnologist
Wikipedia - Mario FilipoviM-DM-^M -- Slovak sport shooter
Wikipedia - Marius PaM-EM-!keviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian judoka
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Wikipedia - Michal KviM-DM-^Mala -- Czech luger
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Wikipedia - Stanislovas BuM-EM-!keviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian politician
Wikipedia - Stasys EidrigeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian artist
Wikipedia - Stasys MalkeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian politician
Wikipedia - Stevimir Ercegovac -- Croatian shot putter
Wikipedia - Stigmella vimineticola -- Species of moth
Wikipedia - Stojan VidakoviM-DM-^M -- Slovenian windsurfer
Wikipedia - Sunna DaviM-CM-0sdottir -- Icelandic mixed martial artis
Wikipedia - SviM-CM-0 -- Icelandic dish made from sheep's head
Wikipedia - SviM-DM-^Mkova -- Czech meat dish
Wikipedia - Tadas M-EM- uM-EM-!keviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian racewalker
Wikipedia - Tadeja BrankoviM-DM-^M-Likozar -- Slovenian biathlete
Wikipedia - Tatiana M-EM- tefanoviM-DM-^Mova -- Slovak archaeologist and historian
Wikipedia - Teleiodes flavimaculella -- Species of moth
Wikipedia - Tena M-EM- tiviM-DM-^Mic -- Croatian playwright
Wikipedia - Toivo Mikael KivimM-CM-$ki -- Finnish politician
Wikipedia - To Vima
Wikipedia - TrM-aM-;M-^Knh QuM-aM-;M-^Qc ViM-aM-;M-^Gt -- Vietnamese sports shooter
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Wikipedia - UpaviM-aM-9M-#M-aM-9M--a KoM-aM-9M-^Gasana -- A seated forward bending posture in modern yoga
Wikipedia - ValM-DM-^Srijs ZolneroviM-DM-^Ms -- Latvian athlete
Wikipedia - Veronika VadoviM-DM-^Mova -- Slovakian Paralympic shooter
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Wikipedia - Vimalaprabha
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Wikipedia - ViM-aM-;M-^Gt TM-CM-"n -- Political reform organization
Wikipedia - Vimana (architectural feature) -- Tower above the sanctum in Hindu temples
Wikipedia - Vimanarcanakalpa
Wikipedia - Vimana -- Ancient flying palaces or chariots described in Hindu texts and Sanskrit epics
Wikipedia - Vima Takto -- 1st century Kushan emperor
Wikipedia - Vimbai Zimuto -- Zimbabwean artist
Wikipedia - Vimbayi Kajese -- Zimbabwean television presenter
Wikipedia - ViM-CM-0ar GuM-CM-0johnsen -- Icelandic judoka
Wikipedia - ViM-CM-0arr -- Norse deity
Wikipedia - ViM-CM-0ir Reynisson -- Icelandic police officer
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Wikipedia - ViM-DM- -- Municipality of Latvia
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Wikipedia - Vimmerby -- Place in SmM-CM-%land, Sweden
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Wikipedia - Vimperator
Wikipedia - Vim script
Wikipedia - Vimscript
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Wikipedia - Vimuttimagga
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Wikipedia - Vimy Ridge Day -- Canadian holiday
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Wikipedia - Vincentas JakM-EM-!eviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian sculptor
Wikipedia - Virginijus SinkeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian economist
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Wikipedia - Vitalijus SatkeviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian mayor
Wikipedia - Vladas MicheleviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian bishop
Wikipedia - Voldemars Vimba -- Latvian painter
Wikipedia - Vytautas BaceviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian composer
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Wikipedia - Zbignev BalceviM-DM-^M -- Polish-Lithuanian politician
Wikipedia - Zenonas JukneviM-DM-^Mius -- Lithuanian politician
Wikipedia - ZivilM-DM-^W VaiciukeviM-DM-^MiM-EM-+tM-DM-^W -- Lithuanian racewalker
Vimala Thakar ::: Born: April 15, 1921; Died: March 11, 2009;
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Goodreads author - Tuomas_Vimma
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https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Metta_talk_by_Bhante_Vimalaramsi
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Integral World - Excertos do livro Integral Psychology de Ken Wilber, A Espiral do Desenvolvimento
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Dharmapedia - Vimanarcanakalpa
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2 or 3 Things I Know About Her (1967) ::: 6.8/10 -- 2 ou 3 choses que je sais d'elle (original title) -- 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her Poster A day in the life of a Parisian housewife/prostitute, interspersed with musings on the Vietnam War and other contemporary issues. Director: Jean-Luc Godard Writers: Catherine Vimenet (letter), Jean-Luc Godard Stars:
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Sol -- -- - -- 1 ep -- - -- Dementia Music -- Sol Sol -- This video clip is a story of realization. -- A story of a child who has been inheriting a negative legacy of humankind that continuously accumulates in diverse ways. The child keeps carrying the legacy, that is too heavy and too much to bear for her body, feverishly without knowing the real meaning of the act. -- -- Soon, the child starts to act out a vision of knowledge, prayers, courage and curiosity. She realizes that positive power is the best balance towards purification and she should stop carrying on the negativity through a negative attitude. -- -- (Source: Vimeo) -- Music - Jan 12, 2012 -- 269 4.90
Ushinawareta Choushoku -- -- - -- 1 ep -- Original -- Dementia Psychological -- Ushinawareta Choushoku Ushinawareta Choushoku -- A businessman happily goes about his carefully prepared morning routine. One day, this routine is suddenly interrupted. -- ONA - Jan 13, 2015 -- 212 N/A -- -- Buggy Map -- -- - -- 2 eps -- Original -- Dementia -- Buggy Map Buggy Map -- Short animations by Densuke28 simulating video game bugs. The original short was a personal project and was released on his Vimeo page. The following year, a new version of the work was showcased at a museum exhibition on seven different screens, accompanied with a 3D printed model of the character in the short. A forty-nine second clip titled "BUGGY MAP -Exhibition Ver.-" was uploaded to Densuke28's official Vimeo which combines the animations on the multiple screens into one video. -- Special - Dec 9, 2014 -- 210 4.95
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2F-Viminol
ni ja Vimma
Abraxas flavimacula
Acanthogobius flavimanus
Acheux-en-Vimeu
ADIVIMA
Aloa flavimargo
lvaro Alvim
Alvim
Alvimar de Oliveira Costa
Alvimopan
Anania flavimacularis
Ansuvimab
Artur Alvim
Artur Alvim (So Paulo Metro)
Athis flavimaculata
Atoltivimab/maftivimab/odesivimab
Avim
Avimaia
Avimator
Avimer
Avimta 132
Avimta 88
Avimta 92
Avim (given name)
Avimiled Rivas
Avimimus
Balacra flavimacula
Bamlanivimab
Banco de Desenvolvimento de Angola
Barthlemy Vimont
Baskeleh-ye Boruvim
Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu
Battle of Vimeiro
Battle of Vimeiro order of battle
Battle of Vimory
Battle of Vimy Ridge
Battle of Vimy Ridge order of battle
Battles of Viminacium
Beatriz Pereira de Alvim
Camargo Corra Desenvolvimento Imobilirio
Cambiemos Movimiento Ciudadano
Canadian National Vimy Memorial
Canton of Vimy
Casirivimab/imdevimab
CAVIM
Celeirs, Aveleda e Vimieiro
Central del Movimiento de Trabajadores Costarricenses
Centro de Desenvolvimento Comunitrio Manicor
Centro de Formao e Desenvolvimento dos Trabalhadores da Sade de So Paulo
Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Telecomunicaes
Cesrio Alvim
Cevimeline
CF Vimenor
Choreutis flavimaculata
Communaut de communes du Vimeu Industriel
Communaut de communes du Vimeu Vert
Conasprella viminea
Count of Vimioso
Custdio Alvim Pereira
CvetkoviMaek Agreement
Cynanchum viminale
Danilo Alvim
Darja Vimanov
Delvim Fabiola Brcenas
Desha Vimukthi Janatha Pakshaya
Devimane Ghat
Devimistat
Diogo Antnio Jos Leite Pereira de Melo e Alvim
Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau
Dovima
Ectoedemia flavimacula
Ehud Ben-Tovim
Emmalocera furvimacula
Epacternis flavimedialis
Eriogonum vimineum
Eucalyptus viminalis
Evelyn Byng, Viscountess Byng of Vimy
Fabiana Alvim
Faj dos Vimes
Feuquires-en-Vimeu
Flavimaricola
Francesco Vimercato
Fugitive.vim
Ganga Prasad Vimal
German attack on Vimy Ridge
Gevim
Gluphisia avimacula
Gondomar (So Cosme), Valbom e Jovim
Graeme Vimpani
Gravimeter
Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetry
Hadi-Ruvim
Hapoel Merhavim F.C.
Hara Saabha Vimocchana Perumal Temple
Henrique Alvim Corra
HMS Vimy
Hong K Vim
ICP Vimana
Ingvill Mkestad Bovim
Instituto de Desenvolvimento Tecnolgico
Ivim
Jacky Vimond
Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna
Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau
Joannes Aurifaber (Vimariensis)
John Ivimey
Jonas Savimbi
Joni Savimki
Jos J. de S Freire Alvim
Joseph Ivimey
Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy
Jussi Kivimki
Kavimani Desigavinayagam Pillai
Kelvim Escobar
Ketuvim
Kiryat Anavim
Kivimaa-Moonlight Bay
Kivime, Tallinn
Kivimki
Kivimki Cabinet
Kivimetsn Druidi
KVIM-LP
Lactuca viminea
Lampronia flavimitrella
Learning the vi and Vim Editors
Lehavim
Leigos para o Desenvolvimento
Liga de Desenvolvimento de Basquete
Lignires-en-Vimeu
Linde Ivimey
List of attacks on civilians attributed to the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna
List of Moshavim
List of VIM Airlines destinations
Lucdio Vimaranes
Luciobarbus setivimensis
Luzviminda
Lyciasalamandra flavimembris
Maariv Aravim
Macedonian vimba
Macrothyatira flavimargo
Mchenga flavimanus
Mediavia vimina
Melaleuca viminalis
Melaleuca viminea
Mricourt-en-Vimeu
Microstegium vimineum
Mista'arvim
Monardella viminea
Moshavim Movement
Movima language
Moviment Graffitti
Movimento Italiano Genitori
Moviment Patrijotti Maltin
Movimiento 2D
Movimiento al Socialismo
Movimiento Armado Quintin Lame
Movimiento de Agrupaciones Obreras
Movimiento de Arte y Cultura Latino Americana
Movimiento Demcrata Liberal
Movimiento Independiente Euro Latino
Movimiento Nacional
Movimiento Nacional de Trabajadores Para La Liberacin
Movimiento Nueva Repblica
Movimiento Scout Catlico
Movimiento Scout del Uruguay
Movimiento Socialista de los Trabajadores
Movimiento Unin Soberanista
Movimiento Victoria Ciudadana
Mutated citrullinated vimentin
Mycoalvimia
Nitzavim
Novim
Nusidavimai apie evangelijos prasiplatinim
Odesivimab
Odites flavimaculata
Oegoconia novimundi
Oligostigma flavimarginale
Orders of battle for the German attack on Vimy Ridge
Ovimbundu
Palpita brevimarginata
Panchavimsha Brahmana
Parabuthus brevimanus
Paraivongius flavimanus
Parvimolge
Parvimonas micra
Paulo de Tarso Alvim
Pelvimetry
Phalonidia fulvimixta
Phyllonorycter viminetorum
PJSC VimpelCom
Portal:Judaism/Weekly Torah portion/NitzavimVayelech
Prie o snovima
Prince Svimon of Kartli
Provimi
Pseudopanolis flavimacula
Pushpaka Vimana (1987 film)
Pushpaka Vimana (2017 film)
Pushpaka Vimana (disambiguation)
Pyrausta flavimarginalis
Quercus viminea
Ramakrishna Mission Seva Pratishthan and VIMS
Ramot HaShavim
Rokdim Im Kokhavim
Roland Vimi
R. Ravimohan
R. S. Vimal
Ruvim
Salix viminalis
Samuli Kivimki
Sam Vimes
Saphenista parvimaculana
Sarah Bas Tovim
Savime
Scopula curvimargo
Scopula parvimacula
Semahat Sevim Arsel
Sevim
Sevim elebi-Gottschlich
Sevim Dadelen
Sevim Sinmez Serbest
Sevim Tanrek
Sexy movimiento
Sha'alvim
Shavim
Shio-Mgvime monastery
Shovavim
Slavimo slavno, Slaveni!
Stackhousia viminea
Stigmella vimineticola
Superintendncia do Desenvolvimento da Amaznia
SVIMS - Sri Padmavathi Medical College for Women
Takvim-i Vekayi
Tatjana Kivimgi
Teleiodes flavimaculella
Te slvim, Romnie
Thermoflavimicrobium dichotomicum
Thermogravimetric analysis
The Teaching of Vimalakrti
Thliptoceras fulvimargo
Timo Kivimki
Tivim
Toivo Mikael Kivimki
Torlino Vimercati
To Vima
Triaxomera fulvimitrella
Trichophysetis flavimargo
Trichromia flavimargo
Trivimi Velliste
Tuna, Vimmerby
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Aurea'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Betulaefolia'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Gracilis'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Incisa'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Marginata'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Pendula'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Pulverulenta'
Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Stricta'
User:Kanaujiyavimleshkumar
U Vimala
U. Vimal Kumar
Vimela
Vimela Alajrv
Vimela Mejrv
Valdevimbre
Ventilago viminalis
Vickers VIM
Vickers Vimy
Villa Gallarati Scotti, Vimercate
Vim
Vimaanam
Vimael Machn
VIM Airlines
Vima Kadphises
Vimal
Vimala
Vimala's Curryblossom Cafe
Vimalabai Deshmukh
Vimal (actor)
Vimala Devi
Vimaladharmasuriya
Vimaladharmasuriya II of Kandy
Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy
Vimala (film)
Vimala Hriau
Vimalakirti
Vimalakirti Sutra
Vimalakka
Vimala Menon
Vimala Nagar, Wayanad
Vimalananda
Vimalanatha
Vimala Sharma
Vimala Temple
Vimala Thakar
Vimal Jyothi Engineering College
Vimal Kumar Chordia
Vimal Mundada
Vimal Punjab Deshmukh
Vimal Singh Mahavidyalay
Vima Mic
VIMA Music Awards
Vimana
Vimana (architectural feature)
Vimanam
Vimanapura
Vimanarcanakalpa
Vimnavatthu
Vimana (video game)
Vimanmek Mansion
Vimannagar
VIM antisense RNA 1
Vima Nyingtik
Vimarc
Vima Takto
Vimbai Zimuto
Vimba mirabilis
Vimba vimba
Vimbod i Poblet
Vim (cleaning product)
Vim Comedy Company
Vimcy
Vimnil
Vimentin
Vimentin 3 UTR protein-binding region
Vimeo
Vimeo Livestream
Vimercate
Vimic
Vimieiro
Viminacium
Viminal Hill
Viminaria
Viminol
Vimioso
Vim Karnine
Vimla L. Patel
Vimla Patil
Vimla Verma
Vimleshwar Temple
Vimmerby IF
Vimmerby Municipality
Vimochana Samaram
Vimochanasamaram
Vimodrone
Vimolj, Semi
Vimont
Vimont (electoral district)
Vimont Lake
Vimont, Quebec
Vimose inscriptions
VIMOS-VLT Deep Survey
Vimpelles
Vimperk
VIMS
Vimatikvijaptimtratsiddhi
Vim (text editor)
Vimto
Vimud Sapnaka
Vimukthi
Vimukthi (film)
Vimukthi Jayasundara
Vimy
Vimy Foundation
Vimy Memorial Bridge
Vimy Ridge Day
Violet Vimpany
Viramachaneni Vimla Devi
Vivimed Labs
Vivimi
Vimarje
Voldemrs Vimba
Yeshivat Sha'alvim
Yeter Seviml
ivim po svome
Zvimba District



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authors -- Crowley - Peterson - Borges - Wilber - Teresa - Aurobindo - Ramakrishna - Maharshi - Mother
places -- Garden - Inf. Art Gallery - Inf. Building - Inf. Library - Labyrinth - Library - School - Temple - Tower - Tower of MEM
powers -- Aspiration - Beauty - Concentration - Effort - Faith - Force - Grace - inspiration - Presence - Purity - Sincerity - surrender
difficulties -- cowardice - depres. - distract. - distress - dryness - evil - fear - forget - habits - impulse - incapacity - irritation - lost - mistakes - obscur. - problem - resist - sadness - self-deception - shame - sin - suffering
practices -- Lucid Dreaming - meditation - project - programming - Prayer - read Savitri - study
subjects -- CS - Cybernetics - Game Dev - Integral Theory - Integral Yoga - Kabbalah - Language - Philosophy - Poetry - Zen
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