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Liber_71_-_The_Voice_of_the_Silence_-_The_Two_Paths_-_The_Seven_Portals

The_Anapanasati_Sutta__A_Practical_Guide_to_Mindfullness_of_Breathing_and_Tranquil_Wisdom_Meditation

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the Noble Eightfold Path

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abhisamaya. (T. mngon rtogs; C. xianguan; J. genkan; K. hyon'gwan 現觀). In Sanskrit and PAli, "comprehension," "realization," or "penetration"; a foundational term in Buddhist soteriological theory, broadly referring to training that results in the realization of truth (satyAbhisamaya; P. saccAbhisamaya). This realization most typically involves the direct insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvary AryasatyAni) but may also be used with reference to realization of the twelvefold chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA), the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA), the thirty-seven wings of enlightenment (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA), etc., thus making all these doctrines specific objects of meditation. The PAli PAtISAMBHIDAMAGGA discusses forty-four specific kinds of abhisamaya, all related to basic doctrinal lists. In the SARVASTIVADA abhidharma, abhisamaya occurs on the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), through a "sequential realization" (anupurvAbhisamaya) of sixteen moments of insight into the four noble truths. This gradual unfolding of realization was rejected by the THERAVADA school and was strongly criticized in HARIVARMAN's *TATTVASIDDHI, both of which advocated the theory of instantaneous realization (ekaksanAbhisamaya). In the YOGACARA school of MAHAYANA, abhisamaya is not limited to the path of vision, as in the SarvAstivAda school, but also occurs on the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA) that precedes the path of vision through the abhisamayas of thought, faith, and discipline, as well as on the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA) through two abhisamayas associated with wisdom and an abhisamaya associated with the ultimate path (NIstHAMARGA). The term comes to be associated particularly with the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, attributed to MAITREYANATHA, which sets forth the various realizations achieved on the "HĪNAYANA" and MAHAYANA paths. In the eight chapters of this text are delineated eight types of abhisamaya, which subsume the course of training followed by both sRAVAKAs and BODHISATTVAs: (1) the wisdom of knowing all modes (SARVAKARAJNATA), (2) the wisdom of knowing the paths (MARGAJNATA), (3) the wisdom of knowing all phenomena (SARVAJNATA), (4) manifestly perfect realization of all (the three previous) aspects (sarvAkArAbhisambodha), (5) the summit of realization (murdhAbhisamaya; see MuRDHAN), (6) gradual realization (anupurvAbhisamaya), (7) instantaneous realization (ekaksanAbhisamaya), and (8) realization of the dharma body, or DHARMAKAYA (dharmakAyAbhisambodha).

advesa. (P. adosa; T. zhe sdang med pa; C. wuchen; J. mushin; K. mujin 無瞋). In Sanskrit, "absence of ill will" or "absence of hatred." One of the forty-six mental concomitants (CAITTA) according to the VAIBHAsIKA-SARVASTIVADA school of ABHIDHARMA, one of the fifty-one according to the YOGACARA school and one of the fifty-two in the PAli ABHIDHAMMA, "absence of ill will" is the opposite of "ill will" or "aversion" (DVEsA). The SARVASTIVADA exegetes posited that this mental quality accompanied all wholesome activities, and it is therefore classified as one of the ten omnipresent wholesome factors (KUsALAMAHABHuMIKA). "Absence of ill will" is listed as one of the three wholesome faculties (KUsALAMuLA), is one of the states of mind comprising right intention (SAMYAKSAMKALPA) in the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGIKAMARGA), and is traditionally presumed to be a precondition for the cultivation of loving-kindness (MAITRĪ).

ahiMsA. (T. 'tshe ba med pa; C. buhai; J. fugai; K. purhae 不害). In Sanskrit and PAli, "absence of harmful intentions," "harmlessness," "noninjury," or "nonviolence." The religious ideal and ethical injunction of "harmlessness" toward all living beings was shared in some fashion by several of the Indian sRAMAnA traditions, including the Buddhists as well as the JAINAs, who made it a central tenet of their religion. Some of the corollaries of this idea included the precept against killing, the injunction to refrain from physically and verbally abusing sentient beings, and vegetarianism. The Jainas were especially stringent in their interpretation of "harmlessness" toward all living creatures, demanding strict vegetarianism from their followers in order to avoid injuring sentient creatures, a requirement that the Buddha rejected when his rival in the order, DEVADATTA, proposed it in his list of austerities (see DHUTAnGA). The Buddha's view was that monks were a "field of merit" (PUnYAKsETRA) for the laity and should accept all offerings made to them, including meat, unless the monk knew that the animal had been killed specifically to feed him, for example. The voluntary vegetarianism that is now prevalent in both MahAyAna Buddhism and wider Indian Hindu culture is almost certainly a result of Jaina influence and constitutes that religion's most enduring contribution to Indian religion. Buddhism treated "absence of harmful intentions" as one of the forty-six mental factors (CAITTA) according to the SARVASTIVADA-VAIBHAsIKA school of ABHIDHARMA, one of the fifty-one according to the YOGACARA school, and one of the fifty-two CETASIKAs in the PAli ABHIDHAMMA. It is the opposite of "harmful intention" or "injury" (VIHIMSA, and is sometimes seen written as avihiMsA) and one of the states of mind comprising right intention (S. samyaksaMkalpa; P. sammAsankappa) in the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGIKAMARGA). "Absence of harmful intentions" is also traditionally taken to be a precondition for the cultivation of "compassion" (KARUnA). See VIHIMSA.

alobha. (T. ma chags pa; C. wutan; J. muton; K. mut'am 無貪). In Sanskrit and PAli, "absence of craving" or "absence of greed"; one of the most ubiquitous of moral virtues (KUsALA), which serves as an antidote to the KLEsA of desire and as the foundation for progress on the path. Alobha is one of the forty-six mental factors (CAITTA) according to the SARVASTIVADA school and the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA, one of the fifty-one according to the YOGACARA school, and one of the fifty-one of the PAli abhidhamma. "Absence of craving" is the opposite of "craving" or "greed" (LOBHA). The SarvAstivAda ABHIDHARMA system posited that this mental quality accompanied all wholesome activities, and therefore lists it as the seventh of the ten major omnipresent wholesome factors (KUsALAMAHABHuMIKA). Absence of craving is listed as one of the so-called three roots of virtue (KUsALAMuLA), one of the states of mind comprising right intention (SAMYAKSAMKALPA) in the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA), and is traditionally taken to be the precondition for the cultivation of equanimity (UPEKsA).

Aryashtangamarga (Sanskrit) Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga [from ārya holy, noble + aṣṭa eight + aṅga limb, division + mārga path, way from the verbal root mṛg to seek, strive to attain, investigate] Holy eight-limbed way; in Buddhism the Noble Eightfold Path enunciated by Gautama Buddha as the fourth of the Four Noble Truths (chattari aryasatyani). Consistent practice of aryashtangamarga leads the disciple ultimately to perfect wisdom, love, and liberation from samsara (the round of repetitive births and deaths). The Eightfold Path is enumerated as: 1) samyagdrishti (right insight); 2) samyaksamkalpa (right resolve); 3) samyagvach (right speech); 4) samyakkarmantra (right action); 5) samyagajiva (right living); 6) samyagvyayama (right exertion); 7) samyaksmriti (right recollection); and 8) samyaksamadhi (right concentration). See also ARIYA ATTHANGIKA MAGGA (for Pali equivalents)

AryAstAngamArga. (P. ariyAtthangikamagga; T. 'phags lam yan lag brgyad; C. bazhengdao; J. hasshodo; K. p'alchongdo 八正道). In Sanskrit, "noble eightfold path"; the path (MARGA) that brings an end to the causes of suffering (DUḤKHA); the fourth of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvAry AryasatyAni). This formulation of the Buddhist path to enlightenment appears in what is regarded as the Buddha's first sermon after his enlightenment, the "Setting Forth the Wheel of Dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), in which he sets forth a middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the extremes of asceticism and sensual indulgence. That middle way, he says, is the eightfold path, which, like the four truths, he calls "noble" (ARYA); the term is therefore commonly rendered as "noble eightfold path." However, as in the case of the four noble truths, what is noble is not the path but those who follow it, so the compound might be more accurately translated as "eightfold path of the [spiritually] noble." Later in the same sermon, the Buddha sets forth the four noble truths and identifies the fourth truth, the truth of the path, with the eightfold path. The noble eightfold path is comprised of (1) right views (SAMYAGDṚstI; P. sammAditthi), which involve an accurate understanding of the true nature of things, specifically the four noble truths; (2) right intention (SAMYAKSAMKALPA; P. sammAsankappa), which means avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent and promoting loving-kindness and nonviolence; (3) right speech (SAMYAGVAC; P. sammAvAcA), which means refraining from verbal misdeeds, such as lying, backbiting and slander, harsh speech and abusive language, and frivolous speech and gossip; (4) right action or right conduct (SAMYAKKARMANTA; P. sammAkammanta), which is refraining from physical misdeeds, such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct; (5) right livelihood (SAMYAGAJĪVA; P. sammAjīva), which entails avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, selling weapons, selling animals for slaughter, dealing in intoxicants or poisons, or engaging in fortune-telling and divination; (6) right effort (SAMYAGVYAYAMA; P. sammAvAyAma), which is defined as abandoning unwholesome states of mind that have already arisen, preventing unwholesome states that have yet to arise, sustaining wholesome states that have already arisen, and developing wholesome states that have yet to arise; (7) right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI; P. sammAsati), which means to maintain awareness of the four foundations of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHANA), viz., body, physical sensations, the mind, and phenomena; and (8) right concentration (SAMYAKSAMADHI; P. sammAsamAdhi), which is one pointedness of mind. ¶ The noble eightfold path receives less discussion in Buddhist literature than do the four noble truths (of which they are, after all, a constituent). Indeed, in later formulations, the eight factors are presented not so much as a prescription for behavior but as eight qualities that are present in the mind of a person who has understood NIRVAnA. The eightfold path may be reduced to a simpler, and more widely used, threefold schema of the path that comprises the "three trainings" (TRIsIKsA) or "higher trainings" (adhisiksA) in morality (sĪLA; P. sīla; see ADHIsĪLAsIKsA), concentration (SAMADHI, see ADHISAMADHIsIKsA), and wisdom (PRAJNA; P. paNNA; see ADHIPRAJNAsIKsA). In this schema, (1) right views and (2) right intention are subsumed under the training in higher wisdom (adhiprajNAsiksA); (3) right speech, (4) right conduct, and (5) right livelihood are subsumed under higher morality (adhisīlasiksA); and (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right concentration are subsumed under higher concentration (adhisamAdhisiksA). According to the MADHYANTAVIBHAGA, a MAHAYANA work attributed to MAITREYANATHA, the eightfold noble path comprises the last set of eight of the thirty-seven constituents of enlightenment (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA), where enlightenment (BODHI) is the complete, nonconceptual awakening achieved during the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA). After that vision, following the same pattern as the Buddha, right view is the perfect understanding of the vision, and right intention is the articulation of the vision that motivates the teaching of it. Right mindfulness, right effort, and right concentration correspond respectively to the four types of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHANA), four efforts (PRAHAnA), and four ṚDDHIPADA ("legs of miraculous attainments," i.e., samAdhi) when they are perfect or right (samyak), after the vision of the four noble truths.

bodhipAksikadharma. [alt. -paksa-; -paksika-] (P. bodhipakkhiyadhamma; T. byang chub kyi phyogs kyi chos; C. puti fen/sanshiqi daopin; J. bodaibun/sanjushichidobon; K. pori pun/samsipch'il top'um 菩提分/三十七道品). In Sanskrit, "factors pertaining to awakening" or "wings of awakening." There are thirty-seven factors pertaining to enlightenment (saptatriMsad bodhipAksikA dharmAḥ), a conflation of seven distinct lists of practices: (1-4) the four foundations of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHANA, P. SATIPAttHANA), (5-8) the four right efforts or abandonments (SAMYAKPRADHANA, P. sammApadhAna), (9-12) the four requisites of supranormal power (ṚDDHIPADA, P. iddhipAda), (13-17) the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA), (18-22) the five mental powers (BALA), (23-29) the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA, P. bojjhanga), and (30-37) the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA). This comprehensive list is said to encompass the entire teachings of the Buddha and may constitute one of, if not the, earliest examples in Buddhist literature of "matrices" (MATṚKA; P. mAtikA), the dharma lists that were the foundation of the ABHIDHARMA. As additional psychic characteristics associated with meditative states were added to this original list of bodhipAksikadharmas, the various factors listed in these mAtṛkA came to be considered an exhaustive accounting of the "elements of reality" (DHARMA).

cakra. (P. cakka; T. 'khor lo; C. lun; J. rin; K. yun 輪). In Sanskrit, "wheel," "disc," or "circle"; a frequent symbol used to represent various aspects of Buddhism, from the Buddha, to the DHARMA, to Buddhist notions of kingship. When the Buddha first taught his new religion, it is said that he "turned the wheel of dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA) and the eight-spoked "wheel of dharma" (DHARMACAKRA) is subsequently used as a symbol for both the teachings as well as the person who rediscovered and enunciated those teachings. The ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA explains that the noble eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA) is like a wheel because it is similar in terms of the hub that is the support of the wheel, the spokes, and the containment rim. Right speech, action, and livelihood are like the hub, because they are the training in morality that provides support for concentration (DHYANA) and wisdom (PRAJNA). Right view, thought, and effort are like spokes, because they are the training in wisdom. Right mindfulness and concentration are like the rim because the spokes of right view and so forth provide the objective support (ALAMBANA) in a one-pointed manner in dependence on them. The dharmacakra appears in some of the earliest Buddhist art, often as an iconographic symbol standing in for the Buddha himself. The sign of a thousand-spoked wheel on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet is one of the thirty-two major marks of a great man (MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA), which is said to adorn the body of both a Buddha and a "wheel-turning emperor" (CAKRAVARTIN), his secular counterpart. A cakravartin's power is said to derive from his wheel of divine attributes, which rolls across different realms of the earth, bringing them under his dominion. The realm of SAMSARA is sometimes depicted iconographically in the form of a wheel, known as the "wheel of existence" (BHAVACAKRA), with a large circle divided into the six realms of existence (sAdGATI), surrounded by an outer ring representing the twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA). ¶ The term cakra is also important in Buddhist TANTRA, especially in ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA. According to various systems of tantric physiognomy, a central channel (AVADHuTĪ) runs from either the tip of the genitals or the base of the spine to either the crown of the head or the point between the eyebrows, with a number of "wheels" (cakra) along its course. In one of the systems, these wheels are located at the point between the eyebrows, the crown of the head, the throat, the heart, the navel, the base of the spine, and the opening of the sexual organ. Running parallel to the central channel to the right and left are two channels, both smaller in diameter, the LALANA and the RASANA. It is said that the right and left channels wrap around the central channel, forming knots at the cakras. Much tantric practice is devoted to techniques for loosening these knots in order to allow the winds (PRAnA) or energies that course through the other channels to flow freely and enter into the central channel. The cakras themselves are essential elements in this practice and other tantric meditative practices, with seed syllables (BĪJA), spells (MANTRA), deities, and diagrams (MAndALA) visualized at their center. The cakras themselves are often described as open lotus blossoms, with varying numbers of petals in different colors.

Culavedallasutta. (C. Fale biqiuni jing; J. Horaku bikunikyo; K. Pomnak piguni kyong 法樂比丘尼經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on Points of Doctrine"; the forty-fourth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 210th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; the entire discourse is also subsumed in the Tibetan translation of samathadeva's commentary to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA), expounded by the nun DhammadinnA (S. DHARMADINNA) to her former husband, the householder VisAkha, at the Veluvana (S. VEnUVANAVIHARA) bamboo grove in RAjagaha (S. RAJAGṚHA). VisAkha approached DhammadinnA and questioned her concerning a number of points of doctrine preached by the Buddha. These questions included: what is the nature of this existing body (P. sakkAya; S. satkAya); what is its origin (SAMUDAYA), its cessation (NIRODHA), and the path (P. magga; S. MARGA) leading to its cessation; how does wrong view concerning this body (P. sakkAyaditthi; S. SATKAYADṚstI) arise and how is it removed; what is the noble eightfold path; what is concentration (SAMADHI); what are bodily, verbal, and mental formations; what is the attainment of cessation (nirodha); what is sensation (VEDANA); what are the underlying tendencies with regard to pleasant, painful, and neutral sensations and how should these be overcome; and what are the counterparts of pleasant, painful, and neutral sensations. DhammadinnA answered all of the questions put to her to the satisfaction of the householder VisAkha-proving why the Buddha considered her foremost among his nun disciples in the gift of preaching.

Dhammacakkappavattanasutta. (S. Dharmacakrapravartanasutra; T. Chos 'khor bskor ba'i mdo; C. Zhuan falun jing; J. Tenboringyo; K. Chon pomnyun kyong 轉法輪經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Turning the Wheel of the DHARMA"; often referred to as GAUTAMA Buddha's "first sermon," delivered after his enlightenment to the "group of five" (PANCAVARGIKA; bhadravargīya), at the Deer Park (P. Migadāya; S. MṚGADĀVA) in ṚsIPATANA near SĀRNĀTH. In its Pāli version, the discourse appears in the MAHĀVAGGA section of the VINAYA, which recounts the founding of the dispensation, rather than in the suttapitaka (S. SuTRAPItAKA). (A separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears in the Chinese translation of the SAMYUKTĀGAMA; there is also an early Chinese translation by AN SHIGAO that circulated independently.) Following his enlightenment, the Buddha considered who might be able to comprehend what he had experienced and remembered the "group of five" ascetics, with whom he had previously engaged in self-mortification practices (TAPAS). Although initially reticent to receive Gautama because he had abandoned his asceticism and had become "self-indulgent," they soon relented and heard Gautama relate his realization of the deathless state. Their minds now pliant, the Buddha then "set rolling the wheel of the dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), which is the first enunciation of his liberation. In the sermon, the Buddha advocates a middle way (P. majjhimapatipadā; S. MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between sensual indulgence and self-mortification, and equates the middle way to the noble eightfold path (P. ariyātthangikamagga; S. ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). He follows with a detailed account of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, the full knowledge and vision (P. Nānadassana; S. JNĀNADARsANA) of which leads to liberation. While listening to the discourse, ĀJNĀTAKAUndINYA (P. ANNātakondaNNa) understood the principle of causation-that all things produced will also come to an end-and achieved the first level of sanctity, that of stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA). He was the first disciple to take ordination (UPASAMPADĀ) as a monk (P. BHIKKHU; S. BHIKsU), following the simple "come, monk" formula (P. ehi bhikkhu; S. EHIBHIKsUKĀ): "Come, monk, the dharma is well proclaimed; live the holy life for the complete ending of suffering." Soon afterward, he was followed into the order by the rest of the "group of five" monks. The site where the first sermon was delivered-the Deer Park (Mṛgadāva) in Ṛsipatana (P. Isipatana), the modern Sārnāth, near Vārānasī-subsequently became one of the four major Buddhist pilgrimage sites (MAHĀSTHĀNA) in India.

dharmacakrapravartana. (P. dhammacakkappavattana; T. chos 'khor bskor ba; C. zhuan falun; J. tenborin; K. chon pomnyun 轉法輪). In Sanskrit, "turning the wheel of the DHARMA"; a term used generally to describe the Buddha's teaching; specifically, it refers the Buddha's first sermon, delivered at the Deer Park (S. MṚGADĀVA) in ṚsIPATANA, the modern SĀRNĀTH, as described in the Pāli DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA (S. Dharmacakrapravartanasutra), when he first declared the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) and the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). As Buddhist doctrine expanded exponentially in size and complexity, Buddhists were hard put to explain the apparent divergences in the teachings found in various recensions of the sutras. In order to account for the critical differences in these sutra explications of the Buddhist teachings, different traditions began to suggest that the Buddha had actually "turned the wheel of the dharma" more than one time. Certain perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras refer to the Buddha's teaching of the perfection of wisdom as the second turning of the wheel of dharma. The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA posits that the Buddha actually turned the wheel of the dharma three separate times, a description that came to figure prominently in MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature: the first, called CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA, when he taught the four noble truths of the HĪNAYĀNA traditions; the second, called the ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel of signlessness"), when he taught the emptiness (suNYATĀ) doctrine as understood by the MADHYAMAKA school; and a third, the *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel possessed of good differentiation"), when he taught the Yogācāra TRISVABHĀVA doctrine. The SaMdhinirmocanasutra claims that the teachings of the first two dharma-wheels were provisional (NEYĀRTHA), while the third was definitive (NĪTĀRTHA). This threefold taxonomy of the Buddhist teachings was one of the most influential hermeneutical schema (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI) created in the Mahāyāna and elicited extensive commentary in India, Tibet, and East Asia. Proponents of the Madhyamaka, who identified the second wheel with the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRAs, claimed to the contrary that the second wheel was definitive and the first and third were provisional.

Kassapasīhanādasutta. (S. KāsyapasiMhanādasutra; C. Luoxing fanzhi jing; J. Ragyobonjikyo; K. Nahyong pomji kyong 倮形梵志經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Lion's Roar of Kassapa"; the eighth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the twenty-fifth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA), preached by the Buddha to the naked ascetic Acela Kassapa at UjuNNa in the Kannakattha deer park. Acela Kassapa approaches the Buddha and inquires whether it is true that he reviles all ascetic practices (see TAPAS) or whether this is a misrepresentation of his teachings. The Buddha states that he does not revile ascetic practices but that the proper course of action for mendicants is to follow the noble eightfold path (P. ariyātthangikamagga; S. ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). Acela Kassapa inquires about the efficacy of numerous ascetic practices engaged in by mendicants of the time. The Buddha responds that, even should one follow all of these practices scrupulously but still not be perfect in morality (sīlasampadā), in mentality (cittasampadā), and in wisdom (paNNāsampadā), he will not be a true ascetic (samana; sRAMAnA) or a true brāhmana; only when one has attained the destruction of the contaminants (āsavakkhāya; ĀSRAVAKsAYA), or arahantship (see ARHAT), will one be so recognized. The Buddha then explains in detail Buddhist practice and the attainments, beginning with taking refuge in the three jewels (S. RATNATRAYA) of the Buddha, the dhamma, and the sangha, observing the precepts, renouncing the world to become a Buddhist monk, and controlling the senses with mindfulness (sati; SMṚTI), to cultivating the four meditative absorptions (JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) and developing the six higher knowledges or superpowers (abhiNNā; ABHIJNĀ) that culminate in the destruction of the contaminants. The sutta concludes by noting that, upon hearing the discourse, Acela Kassapa entered the Buddhist order and in due course attained arahantship.

Mahādeva. (T. Lha chen; C. Mohetipo; J. Makadaiba; K. Mahajeba 摩訶提婆). An Indian monk of questionable historicity, credited with the infamous "five theses" (paNcavastuni). Mahādeva appears in numerous accounts of the early centuries of the Buddhist order, but the various reports of dates, his affiliation, and his character are contradictory. Although extolled in some accounts, the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ recounts that he had sexual relations with his mother; that he murdered his father, his mother, and several ARHATs; and that his cremation fire was fueled by dog excrement. Some accounts make him a participant at the second Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, SECOND), said to have occurred a century after the Buddha's death, which resulted in the schism of the SAMGHA into the conservative STHAVIRANIKĀYA and the more liberal MAHĀSĀMGHIKA. However, the chief point of controversy there seems to have been ten relatively minor rules of discipline, the most serious of which was the prohibition against monks and nuns handling gold or silver. If Mahādeva was a historical figure, it is more likely that he was involved in a later schism that occurred within the MahāsāMghika, as a result of which the followers of Mahādeva formed the CAITYA subsect. The theses attributed to Mahādeva challenge the authority of the arhat. Although there is a lack of consistency in the various renditions of the five theses, according to one widely repeated version, the five are (1) arhats are subject to erotic dreams and nocturnal emissions; (2) arhats retain a subtle form of ignorance, called the "unafflicted ignorance" (AKLIstĀJNĀNA), which prevents them from knowing the names of people, trees, grasses, and which road to take without being told; (3) arhats are therefore subject to doubt; (4) arhats thus must rely on others for corroboration, including on the question of whether they have achieved enlightenment; (5) entry into the path can be achieved simply by attaining the first DHYĀNA, becoming a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), and exclaiming "Oh suffering" (rather than by the more protracted method of the noble eightfold path). These theses, which are widely reported, reflect the MahāsāMghika attack on the arhat ideal, and presumably the Sthaviranikāya conception thereof. When these charges were leveled, and by whom, is unclear. In some accounts, Mahādeva was himself subject to each of these faults (reflecting on his transgression, he cried out "Oh suffering" in the night and later sought to deceive those who heard him by explaining that he had been contemplating the first of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS) and stated the five theses to protect his own claim to being an arhat.

Mahālisutta. In Pāli, the "Discourse to Mahāli"; the sixth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (there is no equivalent recension in the Chinese translations of the ĀGAMAs); preached by the Buddha to the Licchavi chief Mahāli at the Kutāgārasālā in Vesāli (S. VAIsĀLĪ). Mahāli tells the Buddha that the ascetic Sunakkhatta claimed to be able to see heavenly forms but was not able to hear heavenly sounds. Mahāli asks whether such attainments are possible, whereupon the Buddha explains how through meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) they indeed can be developed. He further explains to Mahāli that these supernatural powers are not the reason why people join the Buddhist order, but rather to attain the four degrees of sanctity, namely, those stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA), once-returner (P. sakadagāmi; S. SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (P. anāgāmi; S. ANĀGĀMIN), and arahant (S. ARHAT). These are to be attained by following the noble eightfold path (P. ariyātthangikamagga; see S. AstĀnGIKAMĀRGA). The question is then raised as to whether the soul and body are the same or different. This leads to another discussion of Buddhist practice and attainments, beginning with taking refuge in the three jewels, observing the precepts, renouncing the world to become a Buddhist monk, and controlling the senses with mindfulness (P. sati; S. SMṚTI), to cultivating the four meditative absorptions (P. jhāna; S. dhyāna), and developing the six superknowledges (P. abhiNNā; S. ABHIJNĀ), which culminate in enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

samyagājīva. (P. sammājīva; T. yang dag pa'i 'tsho ba; C. zhengming; J. shomyo; K. chongmyong 正命). In Sanskrit, "right livelihood" or "correct livelihood"; the fifth constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). "Right" (samyak) in this context is interpreted as "resulting in a decrease in the net suffering experienced by oneself and others." Of the three divisions of the eightfold path-morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ)-samyagājīva is the third of the three aspects of moral training. It involves abstention from engaging in occupations that are considered to be incompatible with morality because they bring harm to other beings, either directly or indirectly. Such inappropriate occupations include selling weapons, or working as a butcher, fisherman, or soldier. Right livelihood also involves abstention from any occupation that may cause oneself, or encourage others, to break precepts associated with right speech (SAMYAGVĀC) and right action (SAMYAKKARMĀNTA). For this reason, selling intoxicants is considered to be a breach of right livelihood. The tradition provides examples of wrong livelihoods for both monastics and the laity. In Pāli literature, the BRAHMAJĀLASUTTA and SĀMANNAPHALASUTTA of the DĪGHANIKĀYA list several "wrong livelihoods" for monks. These include performing divination and astrology as well as casting spells. MAHĀYĀNA interpretations stress the absence of absolutes, and the relative merits or demerits of any occupation based on the situation at hand and its value to the larger goal of promoting the welfare of others. In the inversion of categories that is characteristic of much of tantric literature, many of the MAHĀSIDDHAs are involved in professions that do not constitute right livelihood according to mainstream Buddhist definitions.

samyagdṛsti. (P. sammāditthi; T. yang dag pa'i lta ba; C. zhengjian; J. shoken; K. chonggyon 正見). Often translated as "right view" or "correct view," the first constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). It is described as the correct understanding of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni); namely, the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path leading to the end of suffering. The last truth is itself the same as the eightfold path. Right view is also identified as the correct understanding of nonself (ANĀTMAN). In the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, right view refers to the understanding of the vision of truth that has just been witnessed, the unique formulation of the inexpressible in the mind of the awakened one who has just emerged from equipoise (SAMĀHITA).

samyagvāc. (P. sammāvācā; T. yang dag pa'i ngag; C. zhengyu; J. shogo; K. chongo 正語). In Sanskrit, "right speech" or "correct speech," the third constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), described as refraining from the four types of unwholesome verbal action: viz., lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous prattle. See KARMAPATHA.

samyagvyāyāma. (P. sammāvāyāma; T. yang dag pa'i rtsol ba; C. zhengjingjin; J. shoshojin; K. chongjongjin 正精進). In Sanskrit, "right effort" or "correct effort"; the sixth constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), which is divided into four progressive endeavors: (1) preventing the arising of unwholesome (AKUsALA) mental states that have not yet arisen, (2) continuing to abandon unwholesome mental states that have already arisen, (3) generating wholesome (KUsALA) mental states that have not yet arisen, and (4) continuing to cultivate wholesome mental states that have already arisen. These wholesome mental states are characterized by mindfulness (SMṚTI), energy (VĪRYA), rapture (PRĪTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and equanimity (UPEKsĀ), with the emphasis on energy or vigor (vīrya), here called effort (vyāyāma). In a more technical sense, as the sixth constituent of the eightfold noble path as set forth in the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, and parts of the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, samyagvyāyāma is the right effort required to eliminate the specific sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that are to be abandoned on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). The same force, required right from the start of the development of the path to enlightenment, is systematized as the four pradhāna (effort) or PRAHĀnA (abandonments). Like smṛti and samādhi (see ṚDDHIPĀDA), effort is singled out for special treatment because of its importance at all stages of the path. The word SAMYAKPRADHĀNA (correct effort) is synonymous with samyakvyāyāma when it describes pradhāna that is fully developed. See also SAMYAKPRADHĀNA.

samyakkarmānta. (P. sammākammanta; T. yang dag pa'i las kyi mtha'; C. zhengye; J. shogo; K. chongop 正業). In Sanskrit, lit. "correct ends of actions," commonly translated as "right action" or "correct action" and is the fourth constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). Of the three divisions of the eightfold path-morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ)-samyakkarmānta is the second of the three types of moral training. It is described as refraining from the three unwholesome physical actions of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Thus three of the five most fundamental Buddhist precepts (PANCAsĪLA) are encompassed by samyakkarmānta (the other two being abstinence from false speech and abstinence from intoxicants). Action is considered to be particularly significant in the Buddhist tradition because it is understood to be a product of mental volition (CETANĀ). Various schools variously interpret the nuances of right action. For example, East Asian Buddhism has generally concluded that meat-eating inevitably causes animals to suffer and is therefore inconsistent with samyakkarmānta, even though meat-eating is not specifically proscribed in the mainstream Buddhist VINAYAs.

samyaksamādhi. (P. sammāsamādhi; T. yang dag pa'i ting nge 'dzin; C. zhengding; J. shojo; K. chongjong 正定). In Sanskrit, "right concentration" or "correct concentration," the eighth constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). It is defined generally as the concentration of the mind on wholesome objects. When fully developed, such concentration results in the attainment of the four levels of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU). In this context, two types of samyaksamādhi are described. The first, called mundane, or LAUKIKA, is associated with all forms of ordinary concentration up to and including the four stages of dhyāna. The second type is associated with the attainment of the four supramundane (LOKOTTARA) paths of the stream-enterer, once-returner, nonreturner, and arhat.

samyaksaMkalpa. (P. sammāsankappa; T. yang dag pa'i rtog pa; C. zhengsiwei; J. shoshiyui; K. chongsayu 正思惟). In Sanskrit, "right attitude" or "right intention"; the second constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), described as the intention to avoid thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent, and to promote loving-kindness and nonviolence. Alternatively, it is the mental articulation or conceptualization (SAMKALPA) of the content of the inexpressible vision of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS that occurs on the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and that motivates one to teach it to others; SAMYAGDṚstI (right view) is, by contrast, the nonconceptual understanding of that content.

samyaksmṛti. (P. sammāsati; T. yang dag pa'i dran pa; C. zhengnian; J. shonen; K. chongnyom 正念). In Sanskrit, "right mindfulness" or "correct mindfulness," the seventh constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). It is defined as the full development of the cultivation of the four foundations of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA) on the body (KĀYA; KĀYĀNUPAsYANĀ), sensations (VEDANĀ), mind (CITTA), and various factors (DHARMA).

SaMyuttanikāya. (S. SaMyuktāgama; T. Yang dag par ldan pa'i lung; C. Za ahan jing; J. Zoagongyo; K. Chap aham kyong 雜阿含經). In Pāli, "Collection of Related Discourses" (or in its nineteenth-century translation Book of Kindred Sayings); the third of the five divisions of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA and corresponds roughly to the SAMYUKTĀGAMA of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA and KĀsYAPĪYA schools, which is now extant only in its Chinese translations. The Pāli recension is comprised of some 2,872 individual suttas. Because of questions as to what constitutes a sutta in this case (some are only one sentence in length), enumerations of the number of suttas in the various saMyutta/saMyukta collections vary widely, from just under three thousand to over seven thousand (the longer of the two Chinese recensions contains 1,362 sutras). The SaMyuttanikāya is divided into five chapters, or vaggas, which are subdivided into fifty-six saMyuttas, arranged largely by subject matter. The collection derives its title from this classificatory system. The five vaggas are devoted to: (1) verses (sagātha), suttas that in the majority of cases contain verses; (2) causation (NIDĀNA), suttas that deal primarily with epistemology and psychology; (3) the aggregates (P. khandha, S. SKANDHA) on the five aggregates; (4) the six sense-fields (P. salāyatana, S. sAdĀYATANA), dealing with the six sources of consciousness; and (5) the great division (mahāvagga), which contains suttas on the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), the states of concentration (DHYĀNA), the establishments of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA), and other important doctrines.

sīla. (P. sīla; T. tshul khrims; C. jie; J. kai; K. kye 戒). In Sanskrit, "morality"; those practices whose aim is to restrain nonvirtuous deeds of body and speech, often in conjunction with the keeping of precepts. Morality constitutes one of the three trainings (TRIsIKsĀ), together with SAMĀDHI and PRAJNĀ, and the second of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). In the traditional organization of the constituents of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA) under the rubrics of the three higher trainings (adhisiksā), the "morality group" (sīlaskandha; see ADHIsĪLAsIKsĀ) consists of right speech (S. SAMYAGVĀC; P. sammāvācā), right action (S. SAMYAKKARMĀNTA; P. sammākammanta), and right livelihood (S. SAMYAGĀJĪVA; P. sammājīva). The term also appears in the five precepts, or PANCAsĪLA, the five precepts taken by the Buddhist laity: "I undertake the training rules (sIKsĀPADA) to abstain from" (1) killing living creatures, (2) stealing, (3) sexual misconduct, (4) false speech, and (5) consuming intoxicants. On full- and new-moon days (UPOsADHA), the laity had the option of taking a modified version of these precepts as a sort of temporary renunciation, which are termed the eight precepts (S. see AstĀnGASAMANVĀGATAM UPAVĀSAM; BAGUAN ZHAI). They are (1) not to kill living beings, (2) not to steal, (3) not to engage to sexual activity, (4) not to lie about spiritual attainments, (5) not to use intoxicants, (6) not to eat after twelve noon, (7) not to sing, dance, play music, or attend entertainments and not to wear perfumes, garlands, or cosmetics, (8) not to sleep on high beds. All male novices (sRĀMAnERA) and female novices (sRĀMAnERIKĀ) were required to follow as part of their training the ten precepts (DAsAsĪLA), which were an expansion and enhancement of the five lay precepts (paNcasīla): "I undertake the training rule to abstain from" (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual activity, (4) false speech, (5) intoxicants, (6) eating after midday, (7) dancing, singing, music, and other unseemly forms of entertainment, (8) using garlands, perfumes, and cosmetics to adorn the body, (9) using high and luxurious beds and couches, (10) handling money. In the context of the bodhisattva's perfection of morality (sĪLAPĀRAMITĀ), the meaning of sīla is expanded to encompass the taking and keeping of the bodhisattva precepts (BODHISATTVASAMVARA); see SAMVARA; sĪLAPĀRAMITĀ; sĪLATRAYA.

smṛti. (P. sati; T. dran pa; C. nian; J. nen; K. yom 念). In Sanskrit, "mindfulness" or "memory" and often seen in Western sources in the Pāli equivalency sati; a polysemous term, but commonly used in meditative contexts to refer to the ability to remain focused on a chosen object without forgetfulness or distraction. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA school of ABHIDHARMA lists smṛti as one of a group of five determinative (VINIYATA) mental concomitants (CAITTA), whose function is to aid the mind in ascertaining or determining its object. The five are: aspiration or desire-to-act (CHANDA), determination or resolve (ADHIMOKsA), mindfulness or memory (smṛti), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom or cognition (PRAJNĀ). According to ASAnGA, these five determinative factors accompany wholesome (KUsALA) states of mind, so that if one is present, all are present. Mindfulness is crucial to all types of formal meditative practice because of its role in bringing clarity to the perceptual process; it leaves the mind in a purely receptive state that inhibits the unwholesome responses to sensory stimuli, such as greed, hatred, and delusion. Mindfulness also contributes to control of the mind, by eliminating distraction and helping the meditator gain mastery of his thought processes. Smṛti is also a catalyst of the related term "circumspection" or "introspection" (SAMPRAJANYA) and ultimately of wisdom (PRAJNĀ). As the third of the five spiritual faculties (PANCENDRIYA), smṛti helps to balance faith (sRADDHĀ) and wisdom (prajNā)-which could degenerate into blind faith or skepticism, respectively-as well as vigor (VĪRYA) and concentration (SAMĀDHI)-which could degenerate respectively into restlessness and indolence. Smṛti is thus the keystone that ensures the uniform development of all five faculties; for this reason, unlike the other four factors, there can never be too much mindfulness, because it cannot degenerate into a negative state. The emphasis on mindfulness is one of the most distinctive features of Buddhist meditation theory. Consequently, the term appears in numerous lists of virtuous qualities, especially in those pertaining to meditation. For example, in perhaps its most popular usage, right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI) is the seventh of the eight aspects of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). Generally in this context, the cultivation of the "foundations of mindfulness" (SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA) is understood to serve as a basis for the development of liberating wisdom (prajñā). Thus, meditation exercises involving smṛti are often discussed in connection with those related to VIPAsYANĀ, or "insight." In one of the most widely read discourses on mindfulness, the MAHĀSATIPAttHĀNASUTTANTA, the Buddha offers four specific foundations of mindfulness training, namely, on the body (KĀYA), sensations (VEDANĀ), mental states (CITTA), and specific factors (P. dhamma; S. DHARMA). In his Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayanāmatīkā, a commentary on the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"), KAMALAsĪLA lists mindfulness as the third of five "powers" (BALA) that are attained on the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA). In another popular schema, smṛti is listed as the first of seven "limbs of awakening" or factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA); these are seven factors that contribute to enlightenment. See also ANUSMṚTI; SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA; SATIPAttHANASUTTA.

Subhadra. (T. Rab bzang; P. Subhadda; C. Xubatuoluo; J. Shubatsudara; K. Subaltara 須跋陀羅). The last person converted by the Buddha before he passed into PARINIRVĀnA. According to some accounts, he was a 120-year-old brāhmana, according to others, a young ascetic. Hearing that the Buddha would be passing away that night at KUsINAGARĪ, Subhadra went to see the Buddha and asked ĀNANDA for permission to speak with him. Ānanda refused the request three times, saying that the Buddha was weary. The Buddha overheard their conversation and told Subhadra to come forward, saying, "Do not keep out Subhadra. Subhadra may be allowed to see the Tathāgata. Whatever Subhadra will ask of me, he will ask from a desire for knowledge, and not to annoy me, and whatever I may say in answer to his questions, that he will quickly understand." Subhadra began to ask the Buddha about the doctrines of various other teachers, but the Buddha cut him short, explaining that only one who knows the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA) is a true sRAMAnA. Subhadra then asked to be ordained. The Buddha replied that adherents of other sects first had to undergo a probationary period of four months before ordination. When Subhadra announced his willingness to do so, the Buddha waived the requirement and instructed Ānanda to shave the hair and beard of Subhadra. He was then escorted back to the Buddha who ordained him, making him the last person that Buddha personally ordained. The Buddha then gave him a subject of meditation. Walking up and down in the grove, he quickly became an ARHAT and came and sat by the Buddha. According to some accounts, Subhadra felt that he was unworthy to witness the passage of the Buddha into parinirvāna and thus asked the Buddha for permission to die first. The Buddha gave his permission. ¶ Subhadra is also the name of a former barber who entered the order late in life. He always carried a certain animus against the Buddha, because, while Subhadra was still a layman, the Buddha refused to accept a meal that he had prepared for him. After the Buddha's death, Subhadra told monks who were weeping at his passing that they should instead rejoice: since the Buddha would no longer be telling them what they could and could not do, monks would now be free to do as they pleased. MAHĀKĀsYAPA overheard this remark and was said to have been so alarmed by it that he convened what came to be known as the first Buddhist council (SAMGĪTI; see COUNCIL, FIRST) to codify the monastic rules and the Buddha's discourses.

Ten-brel chug-nyi is the Tibetan expression of the causal relations inherent in and affecting peregrinating monads, which bring about manifestation in successive imbodiments; this Buddhist teaching shows a somewhat more elaborate philosophical development in the Tibetan doctrine than elsewhere. Freedom from the entangling relations affecting consciousness is to be found by an earnest and strict following of the Four Noble Truths leading into the Noble Eightfold Path; yet the essence of the religion of the buddhas is in the words of Gautama Buddha: “To cease from all evil or wrong doing; to become enamored of virtue; to cleanse one’s own heart or nature — here is the religion of the Buddhas.” See also NIDANA

trisiksā. (P. tisikkhā; T. bslab pa gsum; C. sanxue; J. sangaku; K. samhak 三學). In Sanskrit, the "three trainings"; three overarching categories of Buddhist practice. First is the training in higher morality (ADHIsĪLAsIKsĀ), which encompasses all forms of restraint of body and speech, including lay and monastic precepts that serve as the foundation for the cultivation of the succeeding stages of concentration and wisdom. Second is the training in higher concentration (ADHISAMĀDHIsIKsĀ, also called adhicitta), which encompasses all forms of meditative practice directed toward the achievement of states of concentration. Third is the training in higher wisdom (ADHIPRAJNĀsIKsĀ), which includes all forms study and reflection that are directed toward developing insight into the true nature of reality. These three trainings are said to subsume all of the constituents of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA): adhiprajNāsiksā comprises the first two constituents, viz., right views (SAMYAGDṚstI) and right intention (SAMYAKSAMKALPA); adhisīlasiksā, the middle three constituents, viz., right speech (SAMYAGVĀC), right action (SAMYAKKARMĀNTA), and right livelihood (SAMYAGĀJĪVA); and adhisamādhisiksā, the last three constituents, viz., right effort (SAMYAGVYĀYĀMA), right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI), and right concentration (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI).

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1:Just as the dawn is the forerunner of the arising of the sun, so true friendship is the forerunner of the arising of the noble eightfold path. ~ Gautama Buddha,

2:This is the entire spiritual life, Ananda, that is, good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship. When a monk has a good friend, a good companion, a good comrade, it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path. ~ Gautama Buddha,

3:So what I’ve done is taken the four noble truths and torqued them into another shape. This reconfiguration enables us to revise the standard understanding of causality that underpins them. So instead of seeing craving as the cause of suffering, and the noble eightfold path as what leads to the end of suffering, I’ve turned that on its head. The experience of dukkha is actually what gives rise to reactivity. And the experience of nirvana is what allows the possibility of another way of life in this world. Now ~ Stephen Batchelor,

4:In bidding for popular support and competing with other cults as a parallel religion, the sangha had been losing ground throughout India since the time of the Guptas. Populist devotional cults emanating from south India (the so-called bhakti movement) were pre-empting Buddhism’s traditional appeal as a refuge from brahman authority and caste prejudice. At the same time a reform movement started by Sankara (788–820), a brahman from Kerala, was reclaiming for a distilled essence of Vedic philosophy (vedanta) the high moral and doctrinal ground previously enjoyed by the Noble Eightfold Path. As a result Buddhism was already largely confined to the peripheral regions of Sind, Kashmir, Nepal, and of course the Pala heartland in eastern India. ~ John Keay,

5:On the basis of its ethical quality, the Buddha distinguishes kamma into two major categories: the unwholesome (akusala) and the wholesome (kusala). Unwholesome kamma is action that is spiritually detrimental to the agent, morally reprehensible, and potentially productive of an unfortunate rebirth and painful results. The criterion for judging an action to be unwholesome is its underlying motives, the “roots” from which it springs. There are three unwholesome roots: greed, hatred, and delusion. From these there arises a wide variety of secondary defilements—states such as anger, hostility, envy, selfishness, arrogance, pride, presumption, and laziness—and from the root defilements and secondary defilements arise defiled actions. Wholesome kamma, on the other hand, is action that is spiritually beneficial and morally commendable; it is action that ripens in happiness and good fortune. Its underlying motives are the three wholesome roots: nongreed, nonhatred, and nondelusion, which may be expressed more positively as generosity, loving-kindness, and wisdom. Whereas actions springing from the unwholesome roots are necessarily bound to the world of repeated birth and death, actions springing from the wholesome roots may be of two kinds, mundane and world-transcending. The mundane (lokiya) wholesome actions have the potential to produce a fortunate rebirth and pleasant results within the round of rebirths. The world-transcending or supramundane (lokuttara) wholesome actions—namely, the kamma generated by developing the Noble Eightfold Path and the other aids to enlightenment—lead to enlightenment and to liberation from the round of rebirths. This is the kamma that dismantles the entire process of karmic causation. ~ Dalai Lama XIV,

Liber 71 - The Voice of the Silence - The Two Paths - The Seven Portals, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction    intelligibility. But, just as in the Noble Eightfold Path, the steps    are concurrent, not consecutive, so, like the Comte de Saint Germain,

The Anapanasati Sutta A Practical Guide to Mindfullness of Breathing and Tranquil Wisdom Meditation, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction   Dhamma and Discipline where the Noble Eightfold Path is   found. Now, Subhadda, in this Dhamma and Discipline   --   enlightenment factors and the Noble Eightfold Path are   described in Mahasakuludayi Sutta, Sutta Number 77,

https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Buddhism#The_Noble_Eightfold_Path

https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path#The_noble_eightfold_path_and_cognitive_psychology

https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Talk:Buddhism/Revised#The_Noble_Eightfold_Path_and_the_middle_way