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OBJECT INSTANCES [0] - TOPICS - AUTHORS - BOOKS - CHAPTERS - CLASSES - SEE ALSO - SIMILAR TITLES

TOPICS
SEE ALSO


AUTH

BOOKS
Amrita_Gita
Infinite_Library
Introduction_To_The_Middle_Way__Chandrakirti's_Madhyamakavatara_with_Commentary_by_Dzongsar_Jamyang_Khyentse_Rinpoche
Isha_Upanishad
Self_Knowledge
The_Fundamental_Wisdom_of_the_Middle_Way__Ngrjuna's_Mlamadhyamakakrik

IN CHAPTERS TITLE
1.08_-_Adhyatma_Yoga

IN CHAPTERS CLASSNAME

IN CHAPTERS TEXT
00.03_-_Upanishadic_Symbolism
0.00_-_INTRODUCTION
01.03_-_Mystic_Poetry
01.03_-_Yoga_and_the_Ordinary_Life
02.02_-_Rishi_Dirghatama
1.01_-_Hatha_Yoga
1.01_-_SAMADHI_PADA
1.02_-_IN_THE_COMPANY_OF_DEVOTEES
1.02_-_Karma_Yoga
1.02_-_SADHANA_PADA
1.02_-_Taras_Tantra
1.031_-_Intense_Aspiration
1.03_-_Japa_Yoga
1.03_-_YIBHOOTI_PADA
1.040_-_Re-Educating_the_Mind
1.04_-_ADVICE_TO_HOUSEHOLDERS
1.04_-_Nada_Yoga
1.053_-_A_Very_Important_Sadhana
1.056_-_Lack_of_Knowledge_is_the_Cause_of_Suffering
1.057_-_The_Four_Manifestations_of_Ignorance
1.05_-_Bhakti_Yoga
1.05_-_Hymns_of_Bharadwaja
1.06_-_Raja_Yoga
1.075_-_Self-Control,_Study_and_Devotion_to_God
1.07_-_A_Song_of_Longing_for_Tara,_the_Infallible
1.07_-_Jnana_Yoga
1.07_-_Raja-Yoga_in_Brief
1.08_-_Adhyatma_Yoga
1.08_-_The_Gods_of_the_Veda_-_The_Secret_of_the_Veda
1.09_-_Kundalini_Yoga
1.10_-_Mantra_Yoga
1.1.2_-_Commentary
1.12_-_The_Significance_of_Sacrifice
1.13_-_Posterity_of_Dhruva
1.13_-_THE_MASTER_AND_M.
1.14_-_INSTRUCTION_TO_VAISHNAVS_AND_BRHMOS
1.16_-_WITH_THE_DEVOTEES_AT_DAKSHINESWAR
1.18_-_M._AT_DAKSHINESWAR
1.18_-_The_Divine_Worker
1.19_-_Equality
1.19_-_THE_MASTER_AND_HIS_INJURED_ARM
1.19_-_The_Victory_of_the_Fathers
1.21_-_A_DAY_AT_DAKSHINESWAR
1.23_-_FESTIVAL_AT_SURENDRAS_HOUSE
1.240_-_1.300_Talks
1.240_-_Talks_2
1.25_-_ADVICE_TO_PUNDIT_SHASHADHAR
1.300_-_1.400_Talks
1.439
1.450_-_1.500_Talks
18.04_-_Modern_Poems
1.dd_-_As_many_as_are_the_waves_of_the_sea
1.dd_-_So_priceless_is_the_birth,_O_brother
1.dd_-_The_Creator_Plays_His_Cosmic_Instrument_In_Perfect_Harmony
1.rt_-_Brahm,_Viu,_iva
2.01_-_AT_THE_STAR_THEATRE
2.01_-_On_Books
2.01_-_The_Yoga_and_Its_Objects
2.02_-_Brahman,_Purusha,_Ishwara_-_Maya,_Prakriti,_Shakti
2.03_-_The_Supreme_Divine
2.04_-_ADVICE_TO_ISHAN
2.05_-_Apotheosis
2.05_-_The_Divine_Truth_and_Way
2.06_-_WITH_VARIOUS_DEVOTEES
2.10_-_THE_MASTER_AND_NARENDRA
2.14_-_AT_RAMS_HOUSE
2.1.4_-_The_Lower_Vital_Being
2.15_-_CAR_FESTIVAL_AT_BALARMS_HOUSE
2.15_-_Reality_and_the_Integral_Knowledge
2.17_-_December_1938
2.17_-_THE_MASTER_ON_HIMSELF_AND_HIS_EXPERIENCES
2.19_-_THE_MASTER_AND_DR._SARKAR
27.02_-_The_Human_Touch_Divine
30.09_-_Lines_of_Tantra_(Charyapada)
3.2.07_-_Tantra
33.13_-_My_Professors
3.4.03_-_Materialism
36.07_-_An_Introduction_To_The_Vedas
3.7.1.09_-_Karma_and_Freedom
39.08_-_Release
3_-_Commentaries_and_Annotated_Translations
4.16_-_The_Divine_Shakti
9.99_-_Glossary
BOOK_II._--_PART_II._THE_ARCHAIC_SYMBOLISM_OF_THE_WORLD-RELIGIONS
BOOK_I._--_PART_I._COSMIC_EVOLUTION
BOOK_I._--_PART_III._SCIENCE_AND_THE_SECRET_DOCTRINE_CONTRASTED
BOOK_I._--_PART_II._THE_EVOLUTION_OF_SYMBOLISM_IN_ITS_APPROXIMATE_ORDER
r1912_07_13
r1913_12_22
r1913_12_24
r1914_04_08
r1914_04_11
r1919_08_05
Sayings_of_Sri_Ramakrishna_(text)
SB_1.1_-_Questions_by_the_Sages
Talks_026-050
Talks_176-200
Talks_500-550
Talks_With_Sri_Aurobindo_1
Talks_With_Sri_Aurobindo_2

PRIMARY CLASS

SIMILAR TITLES
Adhy
Adhyatmayoga
Introduction To The Middle Way Chandrakirti's Madhyamakavatara with Commentary by Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche
The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way Ngrjuna's Mlamadhyamakakrik

DEFINITIONS


TERMS STARTING WITH

adhyaksa ::: presiding person or presence; he who seated over all in the supreme ether oversees things, views and controls them from above.

adhyaks.atva (adhyakshatwa) ::: the status of the Divine Being "as the adhyaksatva adhyaks.a, he who seated over all in the supreme ether over-sees things, views and controls them from above".

adhyaropa ::: imposition.

adhyaropa ::: superimposition. adhyaropa

adhyaropa. ::: the superimposition of something unreal on something real &

adhyaropita ::: superimposed. adhyaropita

adhyasa. ::: superimposition or false attribution of properties of one thing on another thing

adhyāsaya

adhyAsaya. (T. lhag bsam; C. zhengzhi xin; J. shojiki no shin, K. chongjik sim 正直心). In Sanskrit, "determination" or "resolution"; a term used especially to describe the commitment of the BODHISATTVA to liberate all beings from suffering. In the Tibetan mind-training (BLO SBYONG) tradition, the bodhisattva's resolute commitment is the last in a series of six causes (preceded by recollecting that all beings have been one's mother, recollecting their kindness, wishing to repay them, love, and compassion), which culminate in BODHICITTA or BODHICITTOTPADA. See also XINXIN.

adhyatmacetasa ::: [by means of] a spiritual consciousness. [Gita 3.30]

adhyatma-jivana ::: the spiritual life.

adhyatma-sastra (Adhyatma-shastra) ::: science and art of spiritual living.

adhyatma-sukham ::: spiritual happiness.

adhyatma ::: the spiritual, everything that has to do with the highest existence [atman] in us; the principle of the self in Nature.

adhyatma. ::: the supreme Self

adhyātmavidyā

adhyatma vidya. ::: study of the Self

adhyAtmavidyA. (T. nang rig pa; C. neiming; J. naimyo; K. naemyong 内明). In Sanskrit, "inner knowledge," viz. knowledge of the three trainings (TRIsIKsA) and the two stages (UTPATTIKRAMA and NIsPANNAKRAMA) of TANTRA; the term is sometimes used to refer to knowledge of Buddhist (as opposed to non-Buddhist) subjects.

adhyatmayoga ::: spiritual yoga.

ADHYATMA YOGA. ::: The principle of adhyātma yoga is, in knowledge, the realisation of all things that we see or do not see but are aware of, - men, things, ourselves, events, gods, titans, angels, - as one divine Brahman, and in action and attitude, an absolute self-surrender to the Paratpara Purusha, the transcendent, infinite and universal Personality who is at once personal and impersonal, finite and infinite, self-limiting and illimitable, one and many, and informs with his being not only the Gods above, but man and the worm and the cold below.

adhyatmika (Adhyatmic) ::: [spiritual].

adhyatmika &

adhyaya. :::chapter; section

adhyaya ::: chapter.

Adhyaksha: Agent; supervisor.

AdhyardhasatikāprajNāpāramitāsutra/PrajNāpāramitānayasatapaNcasatikā

AdhyardhasatikAprajNApAramitAsutra/PrajNApAramitAnayasatapaNcasatikA. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i tshul brgya lnga bcu pa; C. Shixiang bore boluomi jing/Bore liqu fen; J. Jisso hannya haramitsukyo/Hannya rishubun; K. Silsang panya paramil kyong/Panya ich'wi pun 實相般若波羅蜜經/般若理趣分). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred and Fifty Lines." The basic verses (in Sanskrit) and a commentary describing the ritual accompanying its recitation (originally in Khotanese), are found together as two YOGA class tantras, the srīparmAdhya (T. Dpal mchog dang po) and srīvajramandalAlaMkAra (T. Dpal rdo rje snying po rgyan). In Japan, AMOGHAVAJRA's version of the text (called the Rishukyo) came to form an integral part of the philosophy and practice of the Japanese Shingon sect (SHINGONSHu).

Adhyaropa: Illusory attribution; superimposition; false attribution; one thing is mistaken for another; qualities of one are transferred to another; qualities of the Self arf transferred to the body.

Adhyaropa (Sanskrit) Adhyāropa [from adhi above, over + āropa superimposition from ā-rup to confound, disturb] Usually, erroneous deduction. In Vedantic philosophy, a wrong attribution or misconception, e.g., to conceive of silver as being innate in mother-of-pearl, the sheen common to both being an adhyaropa. The mind in its absorption in the unreal (avidya, “ignorance”) superimposes a world of duality and plurality on the real — on Brahman — and as a result there is a multiplicity of confusing and often conflicting goals.

Adhyaropita: Fictitiously ascribed.

Adhyasa, Adhyasika (Sanskrit) Adhyāsa, Adhyāsika [from adhi above, over + the verbal root as to throw, cast; throwing over or casting upon] Misconception or erroneous attribution, the significance being that the mind casts upon facts, which are misunderstood, certain mistaken notions; hence false or erroneous attribution. Equivalent to adhyaropa.

Adhyasa: Superimposition or reflection of the attributes of one thing on another thing.

Adhyasta astitva: Reflected existence.

Adhyasta: Falsely-cognised thing.

Adhyatma-jnana (Sanskrit) Adhyātma-jñāna [from adhi over, superior + ātman self + jñāna knowledge from the verbal root jnā to know, understand] Knowledge of the supreme self, equivalent to adhyatma-vidya.

Adhyatman (Sanskrit) Adhyātman [from adhi over, above + ātman self] The supreme or original self, equivalent to paramatman (cf BG 7:29; 8:3).

Adhyatman: (Skr. adhi, over and atman, s.v.) A term for the Absolute which gained popularity with the reading of the Bhagavad Gita (cf. 8.3) and which Ralph Waldo Emerson rendered appropriately "Oversoul" (cf. his essay The Oversoul). -- K.F.L.

Adhyatma: Sanskrit for Supreme Spirit.

Adhyatma Sastra: Spiritual science.

Adhyatma-vidya (Sanskrit) Adhyātma-vidyā [from adhi over, above + ātman self + vidyā knowledge from the verbal root vid to know, perceive, learn] Knowledge of the supreme atman or self; used interchangeably with adhyatma-jnana.

Adhyatma Vidya: Science of the Self.

Adhyatmavit: Knower of the Inner Self

Adhyatmika-duhkha (Sanskrit) Ādhyātmika-duḥkha [from adhi above + ātman self; duḥkha trouble, difficulty from dush to be defiled] The first of the three kinds of klesa (affliction) or worldly pain (cf VP 6:5). Those arising from oneself, generally classed as bodily ailments (headaches, fevers, diseases, etc.), but more properly those pains or troubles originating from mental and other inner causes such as weakness of will, vagrant and misleading emotions, and imperfect mentation, which lead to physical ailments. The other two klesas are adhibhautika and adhidaivika.

Adhyatmika: Pertaining to the Atman.

Adhyatmika (Sanskrit) Ādhyātmika [from adhi above + ātman self] Relating to the supreme self or atman; more abstractly, pertaining to original atman.

Adhyatmika Vidya: Science of Self.

Adhyavasaya: The determining function of the Buddhi or the intellect.

Adhyaya (Sanskrit) Adhyāya [from adhi over, above + the verbal root i to go, move] A chapter, division, or section of a book; the adhyayas or divisions of music are eight in number.


TERMS ANYWHERE

14. MADHYAMAKA (vol. 30, nos. 1564-1578), e.g.,

(1-4) the four absorptions of the realm of subtle materiality (S. dhyāna/rupāvacaradhyāna; T. bsam gtan bzhi; C. sichan/ding 四禪/定)

1. first absorption (S. prathamadhyāna; T. bsam gtan dang po; C. chuchan 初禪)

2. power of superior aspiration (S. adhyāsayabala; T. lhag bsam pa'i stobs; C. zengshang shenxin li 增上深心力)

2. second absorption (S. dvitīyadhyāna; T. bsam gtan gnyis pa; C. erchan 二禪)

2. without perceiving inward form [viz., one's own physical body], one sees outward forms [of the realm of subtle materiality] (S. adhyātmarupasamjNī bahirdhā rupāni pasyati; T. nang gzugs med par 'du shes las phyi rol gyi gzugs rnams la lta ba'i rnam thar; C. nei wusexiang guan waise 無色想觀外色)

3. third absorption (S. tṛtīyadhyāna; T. bsam gtan gsum pa; C. sanchan 三禪)

4. fourth absorption (S. caturthadhyāna; T. bsam gtan bzhi pa; C. sichan 四禪)

4. Madhyamaka (Dbu ma pa; C. Zhongguan 中觀)

(5-8) the four absorptions of the immaterial realm (S. ārupyāvacaradhyāna; T. gzhugs med bzhi; C. si wuse ding 四無色定)

5. inner knowledge (S. adhyātmavidyā; T. nang gi rig pa; C. neiming 內明)

abhibhvAyatana. (P. abhibhAyatana; T. zil gyis gnon pa'i skye mched; C. shengchu; J. shosho; K. sŭngch'o 勝處). In Sanskrit, "sphere of sovereignty" or "station of mastery"; eight stages of transcendence over the sense spheres (AYATANA), which are conducive to the development of meditative absorption (DHYANA). By recognizing from various standpoints that material forms are external, one trains oneself to let go of attachments to material objects and focus exclusively on the meditation subject. The standard list of eight is as follows. When one perceives forms internally (viz., on one's own person), one sees forms external to oneself that are (1) limited and beautiful or ugly (viz., pure and impure colors) or (2) unlimited, and beautiful or ugly, and masters them so that one is aware that one knows and sees them; when one does not perceive forms internally, one sees external forms that are (3) limited or (4) unlimited. When one does not perceive forms internally, one sees external forms that are (5) blue, (6) yellow, (7) red, or (8) white and masters them so that one is aware that one knows and sees them. In the PAli meditative literature, the earth and the color devices (KASInA) are said to be especially conducive to developing these spheres of sovereignty. Progress through these spheres weans the mind from its attraction to the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU) and thus encourages the advertence toward the four meditative absorptions (DHYANA; RuPAVACARADHYANA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU), wherein the mind becomes temporarily immune to sensory input and wholly absorbed in its chosen object of meditation.

abhutaparikalpa. (T. yang dag pa ma yin pa'i kun tu rtog pa/kun rtog; C. xuwang fenbie; J. komo funbetsu; K. homang punbyol 妄分別). In Sanskrit, "false imagining" or "construction of what is unreal"; a pivotal YogAcAra term describing the tendency of the dependent (PARATANTRA) nature (SVABHAVA) to project false constructions of a reality that is bifurcated between self and others. Sentient beings mistakenly assume that what has been constructed through consciousness has a static, unchanging reality. This process inserts into the perceptual process an imaginary bifurcation (VIKALPA) between perceiving subject (grAhaka) and perceived object (grAhya) (see GRAHYAGRAHAKAVIKALPA), which is the basis for a continued proliferation of such mental constructions. This subject-object dichotomy is then projected onto all sensory experience, resulting in the imagined (PARIKALPITA) nature (svabhAva). By relying on these false imaginings to construct our sense of what is real, we inevitably subject ourselves to continued suffering (DUḤKHA) within the cycle of birth-and-death (SAMSARA). The term figures prominently in MAITREYNATHA's MADHYANTAVIBHAGA ("Separating the Middle from the Extremes") and VASUBANDHU's commentary on the treatise, the MadhyAntavibhAgabhAsya.

Acariya. (S. AcArya, Thai, AchAn; T. slob dpon; C. asheli; J. ajari; K. asari 阿闍梨). In PAli, "teacher." A monk takes an Acariya if he has lost his preceptor (P. upajjhAya; S. UPADHYAYA) and is still in need of guidance (nissaya, S. NIsRAYA). A preceptor is said to be lost when he goes away, disrobes, dies, joins another religion, or has expelled the monk under his guidance for wrongdoing. To act as an Acariya, a monk must possess the same qualifications as required of an upajjhAya; namely, he must be competent in DHARMA and VINAYA and be of at least ten years standing in the order since his own ordination. The monk taken under the guidance of the Acariya is called his ANTEVASIKA, or pupil. The relationship between teacher and pupil is compared to that of father and son. The teacher is enjoined to teach dhamma and vinaya to his pupil and to supply him with all necessary requisites, such as robes (see TRICĪVARA) and alms bowl (PATRA). He should tend to him if he is ill and discipline him if he commits wrongdoing. If the pupil should begin to entertain doubts about the dispensation or his abilities to practice, the teacher must try to dispel them. If the pupil should commit a grave offense against the rules of the SAMGHA, the teacher is to prevail upon him to go before the saMgha to seek expiation. If the pupil misbehaves or is disobedient, the teacher is enjoined to expel him. But if the pupil shows remorse and asks forgiveness, the teacher is to take him again under guidance. A monk ceases to be an Acariya when he goes away, dies, disrobes, changes religion, or expels his pupil. See also ACARYA.

AcArya. (P. Acariya; Thai AchAn; T. slob dpon; C. asheli; J. ajari; K. asari 阿闍梨). In Sanskrit, "teacher" or "master"; the term literally means "one who teaches the AcAra (proper conduct)," but it has come into general use as a title for religious teachers. In early Buddhism, it refers specifically to someone who teaches the supra dharma and is used in contrast to the UPADHYAYA (P. upajjhAya) or "preceptor." (See ACARIYA entry supra.) The title AcArya becomes particularly important in VAJRAYANA Buddhism, where the officiant of a tantric ritual is often viewed as the vajra master (VAJRACARYA). The term has recently been adopted by Tibetan monastic universities in India as a degree (similar to a Master of Arts) conferred upon graduation. In Japan, the term refers to a wise teacher, saint, holy person, or a wonder-worker who is most often a Buddhist monk. The term is used by many Japanese Buddhist traditions, including ZEN, TENDAI, and SHINGON. Within the Japanese Zen context, an ajari is a formal title given to those who have been training for five years or more.

Acintyastava. (T. Bsam gyis mi khyab par bstod pa). In Sanskrit, "In Praise of the Inconceivable One"; an Indian philosophical work by the MADHYAMAKA master NAGARJUNA written in the form of a praise for the Buddha. In the Tibetan tradition, there are a large number of such praises (called STAVAKAYA) in contrast to the set of philosophical texts (called YUKTIKAYA) attributed to NAgArjuna. Among these praise works, the Acintyastava, LOKATĪTASTAVA, NIRAUPAMYASTAVA, and PARAMARTHASTAVA are extant in Sanskrit and are generally accepted to be his work; these four works together are known as the CATUḤSTAVA. It is less certain that he is the author of the DHARMADHATUSTAVA or DHARMADHATUSTOTRA ("Hymn to the Dharma Realm") of which only fragments are extant in the original Sanskrit. The Acintyastava contains fifty-nine stanzas, many of which are addressed to the Buddha. The first section provides a detailed discussion of why dependently originated phenomena are empty of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHAVA); this section has clear parallels to the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA. The forty-fifth verse makes reference to the term PARATANTRA, leading some scholars to believe that NAgArjuna was familiar with the LAnKAVATARASuTRA. The second section describes wisdom (JNANA); the third section sets forth the qualities of the true dharma (SADDHARMA); the fourth and final section extols the Buddha as the best of teachers (sASTṚ).

Adepts in genuine archaic astrology know the peculiar qualities of the various stars and the influences they shed around them, and therefore likewise on earth and man; the tattered remnants of this knowledge have been handed down to modern astrologers. One branch concerns worship of the genii of the stars, the star-angels or -rishis especially — because of a certain occult mystery — the seven of the Great Bear. All entities, whether worlds or men, have each its own parent-star or mahadhyani-buddha; but this does not refer to the dominant star in merely natal astrology. There is an analogy and intimate connection between the celestial hierarchies of orbs and the hierarchies of human principles, for every star we see is one globe of a chain of six or eleven other star-globes, just as our earth is one globe of a planetary chain. Thus our sun is the visible representative of a solar or stellar chain, of which only the most physicalized, concreted globe is visible to us as our day-star. Every star or sun is the imbodiment of a conscious living being, pursuing its own pathways of destiny, and most intimately bound together not only with its own planetary family but with all the other stars and suns in the galaxy to which it belongs. This fact was the real basis of the wide diffusion of what is popularly called sun worship.

adhamapurusa. (T. skyes bu chung ngu; C. xiashi; J. geshi; K. hasa 下士). In Sanskrit, "person of lesser capacity"; the lowest in a threefold classification of religious practitioners, together with madhyapurusa ("person of average capacity") and MAHAPURUsA ("person of great capacity"). The person of lesser capacity seeks only happiness in SAMSARA, wishing to be reborn as a human (MANUsYA) or a divinity (DEVA) in the next life. The three categories of persons are most famously set forth in ATIsA's BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA and, deriving from that text, in the LAM RIM literature in Tibet. See also TRĪNDRIYA; MṚDVINDRIYA; TĪKsnENDRIYA.

Adhidaiva, Adhidaivata (Sanskrit) Adhidaiva, Adhidaivata [from adhi over, above, superior + deva god] The original or primordial deity; also the divine agent manifesting through beings and objects. A generalizing term applicable to the divine part of any being; hence to adhyatman or primordial atman (cf BG 7:29-30; 8:3).

Adhidaivika (Sanskrit) Ādhidaivika [from adhi above, over + deva god] Heavenly or shining one, relating to or proceeding from the devas; celestial or spiritual beings or gods, also divine influences. When combined with duhkha (pain) the third of the three kinds of klesa (afflictions) in Hinduism: that proceeding from “divine” agencies or from nature, such as wind, rain, or sunstrokes; also unexpected accidents such as the falling of houses (cf VP 6:5). See also ADHIBHAUTIKA; ADHYATMIKA

adhyaksa ::: presiding person or presence; he who seated over all in the supreme ether oversees things, views and controls them from above.

adhyaks.atva (adhyakshatwa) ::: the status of the Divine Being "as the adhyaksatva adhyaks.a, he who seated over all in the supreme ether over-sees things, views and controls them from above".

adhyaropa ::: imposition.

adhyaropa ::: superimposition. adhyaropa

adhyaropa. ::: the superimposition of something unreal on something real &

adhyaropita ::: superimposed. adhyaropita

adhyasa. ::: superimposition or false attribution of properties of one thing on another thing

adhyAsaya. (T. lhag bsam; C. zhengzhi xin; J. shojiki no shin, K. chongjik sim 正直心). In Sanskrit, "determination" or "resolution"; a term used especially to describe the commitment of the BODHISATTVA to liberate all beings from suffering. In the Tibetan mind-training (BLO SBYONG) tradition, the bodhisattva's resolute commitment is the last in a series of six causes (preceded by recollecting that all beings have been one's mother, recollecting their kindness, wishing to repay them, love, and compassion), which culminate in BODHICITTA or BODHICITTOTPADA. See also XINXIN.

adhyatmacetasa ::: [by means of] a spiritual consciousness. [Gita 3.30]

adhyatma-jivana ::: the spiritual life.

adhyatma-sastra (Adhyatma-shastra) ::: science and art of spiritual living.

adhyatma-sukham ::: spiritual happiness.

adhyatma ::: the spiritual, everything that has to do with the highest existence [atman] in us; the principle of the self in Nature.

adhyatma. ::: the supreme Self

adhyatma vidya. ::: study of the Self

adhyAtmavidyA. (T. nang rig pa; C. neiming; J. naimyo; K. naemyong 内明). In Sanskrit, "inner knowledge," viz. knowledge of the three trainings (TRIsIKsA) and the two stages (UTPATTIKRAMA and NIsPANNAKRAMA) of TANTRA; the term is sometimes used to refer to knowledge of Buddhist (as opposed to non-Buddhist) subjects.

adhyatmayoga ::: spiritual yoga.

ADHYATMA YOGA. ::: The principle of adhyātma yoga is, in knowledge, the realisation of all things that we see or do not see but are aware of, - men, things, ourselves, events, gods, titans, angels, - as one divine Brahman, and in action and attitude, an absolute self-surrender to the Paratpara Purusha, the transcendent, infinite and universal Personality who is at once personal and impersonal, finite and infinite, self-limiting and illimitable, one and many, and informs with his being not only the Gods above, but man and the worm and the cold below.

adhyatmika (Adhyatmic) ::: [spiritual].

adhyatmika &

adhyaya. :::chapter; section

adhyaya ::: chapter.

Agama. (T. lung; C. ahan jing; J. agongyo; K. aham kyong 阿含經). In Sanskrit and PAli, "text" or "scripture"; a general term for received scriptural tradition. The term Agama is commonly paired with two other contrasting terms: Agama and YUKTI (reasoning) are the means of arriving at the truth; Agama and ADHIGAMA (realization) are the two divisions of the BUDDHADHARMA-the verbal or scriptural tradition and that which is manifested through practice. In its Sanskrit usage, the term Agama is also used to refer more specifically to the four scriptural collections of the mainstream tradition (now lost in Sanskrit but preserved in Chinese translation), attributed to the Buddha and his close disciples, which correspond to the four PAli NIKAYAs: (1) DĪRGHAGAMA or "Long Discourses," belonging to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school and corresponding to the PAli DĪGHANIKAYA; (2) MADHYAMAGAMA or "Medium Discourses," associated with the SARVASTIVADA school and corresponding to the PAli MAJJHIMANIKAYA; (3) SAMYUKTAGAMA or "Connected Discourses," belonging to the SarvAstivAda school (with a partial translation perhaps belonging to the KAsYAPĪYA school) and corresponding to the PAli SAMYUTTANIKAYA; and (4) EKOTTARAGAMA or "Numerically Arranged Discourses," variously ascribed to the Dharmaguptakas, or less plausibly to the MAHASAMGHIKA school or its PRAJNAPTIVADA offshoot, and corresponding to the PAli AnGUTTARANIKAYA. Despite the similarities in the titles of these collections, there are many differences between the contents of the Sanskrit Agamas and the PAli nikAyas. The KHUDDAKANIKAYA ("Miscellaneous Collection"), the fifth nikAya in the PAli canon, has no equivalent in the extant Chinese translations of the Agamas; such miscellanies, or "mixed baskets" (S. ksudrakapitaka), were however known to have existed in several of the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS, including the Dharmaguptaka, MahAsAMghika, and MAHĪsASAKA.

Aitareya (Sanskrit) Aitareya [from itara other; also from itarā mother of Aitareya] Name of a Brahmana or literary work attached to the Rig-Veda; also of Mahidasa, author of a Brahmana and an Aranyaka. The Aitareya-Brahmana (or Aitareyaka) contains forty adhyayas (sections) in which the duties of a hotri (priest) are enumerated. The Aitareya-Aranyaka consists of five books or aranyakas, the second and third of which are called the Aitareya-Upanishad (although sometimes the last four sections of the second book alone are so designated).

Akankheyyasutta. (C. Yuan jing; J. Gangyo; K. Won kyong 願經). In PAli, "Discourse on What One May Wish," the sixth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as SuTRA no. 105 in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA, and a recension of uncertain affiliation in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARAGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a group of disciples in the JETAVANA grove in the town of sRAVASTĪ. The Buddha describes how a monk who wishes for all good things to come to himself, his fellow monks, and his lay supporters should restrain his sense faculties by seeing danger (ADĪNAVA) in the slightest fault and by abiding by the dictates of the disciplinary codes (PRATIMOKsA). This restraint will allow him to develop morality (sĪLA), meditative concentration (SAMADHI), and liberating wisdom (PRAJNA), leading to the destruction of the contaminants (ASRAVAKsAYA).

AkutobhayA. (T. Ga las 'jigs med). In Sanskrit, "Fearless," the abbreviated title of the Mulamadhyamakavṛtti-akutobhayA, a commentary on NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA. In Tibet, the work has traditionally been attributed to NAgArjuna himself, but scholars doubt that he is the author of this commentary on his own work, in part because the commentary cites the CATUḤsATAKA of ARYADEVA, who was NAgArjuna's disciple. In places, the work is identical to the commentary of BUDDHAPALITA. Regardless of the authorship, the work is an important commentary on NAgArjuna's most famous work. In China, the commentary of Qingmu (*Pingala?), an influential work in the SAN LUN ZONG, is closely related to the AkutobhayA.

Alagaddupamasutta. (C. Alizha jing; J. Aritakyo; K. Arit'a kyong 阿梨經). In PAli, "Discourse on the Simile of the Snake," the twenty-second sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SarvAstivAda recension appears as the 200th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA, and the similes of the snake and of the raft are the subjects of independent sutras in an unidentified recension in the EKOTTARAGAMA). The discourse was preached by the Buddha at SAvatthi (sRAVASTĪ), in response to the wrong view (MITHYADṚstI) of the monk Arittha. Arittha maintained that the Buddha taught that one could enjoy sensual pleasures without obstructing one's progress along the path to liberation, and remained recalcitrant even after the Buddha admonished him. The Buddha then spoke to the assembly of monks on the wrong way and the right way of learning the dharma. In his discourse, he uses several similes to enhance his audience's understanding, including the eponymous "simile of the snake": just as one could be bitten and die by grasping a poisonous snake by the tail instead of the head, so too will using the dharma merely for disputation or polemics lead to one's peril because of one's wrong grasp of the dharma. This sutta also contains the famous "simile of the raft," where the Buddha compares his dispensation or teaching (sASANA) to a makeshift raft that will help one get across a raging river to the opposite shore: after one has successfully crossed that river by paddling furiously and reached solid ground, it would be inappropriate to put the raft on one's head and carry it; similarly, once one has used the dharma to get across the "raging river" of birth and death (SAMSARA) to the "other shore" of NIRVAnA, the teachings have served their purpose and should not be clung to.

AlayavijNAna. (T. kun gzhi rnam par shes pa; C. alaiyeshi/zangshi; J. arayashiki/zoshiki; K. aroeyasik/changsik 阿賴耶識/藏識). In Sanskrit, "storehouse consciousness" or "foundational consciousness"; the eighth of the eight types of consciousness (VIJNANA) posited in the YOGACARA school. All forms of Buddhist thought must be able to uphold (1) the principle of the cause and effect of actions (KARMAN), the structure of SAMSARA, and the process of liberation (VIMOKsA) from it, while also upholding (2) the fundamental doctrines of impermanence (ANITYA) and the lack of a perduring self (ANATMAN). The most famous and comprehensive solution to the range of problems created by these apparently contradictory elements is the AlayavijNAna, often translated as the "storehouse consciousness." This doctrinal concept derives in India from the YOGACARA school, especially from ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU and their commentators. Whereas other schools of Buddhist thought posit six consciousnesses (vijNAna), in the YogAcAra system there are eight, adding the afflicted mind (KLIstAMANAS) and the AlayavijNAna. It appears that once the SarvAstivAda's school's eponymous doctrine of the existence of dharmas in the past, present, and future was rejected by most other schools of Buddhism, some doctrinal solution was required to provide continuity between past and future, including past and future lifetimes. The alAyavijNAna provides that solution as a foundational form of consciousness, itself ethically neutral, where all the seeds (BIJA) of all deeds done in the past reside, and from which they fructify in the form of experience. Thus, the AlayavijNAna is said to pervade the entire body during life, to withdraw from the body at the time of death (with the extremities becoming cold as it slowly exits), and to carry the complete karmic record to the next rebirth destiny. Among the many doctrinal problems that the presence of the AlayavijNAna is meant to solve, it appears that one of its earliest references is in the context not of rebirth but in that of the NIRODHASAMAPATTI, or "trance of cessation," where all conscious activity, that is, all CITTA and CAITTA, cease. Although the meditator may appear as if dead during that trance, consciousness is able to be reactivated because the AlayavijNAna remains present throughout, with the seeds of future experience lying dormant in it, available to bear fruit when the person arises from meditation. The AlayavijNAna thus provides continuity from moment to moment within a given lifetime and from lifetime to lifetime, all providing the link between an action performed in the past and its effect experienced in the present, despite protracted periods of latency between seed and fruition. In YogAcAra, where the existence of an external world is denied, when a seed bears fruit, it bifurcates into an observing subject and an observed object, with that object falsely imagined to exist separately from the consciousness that perceives it. The response by the subject to that object produces more seeds, either positive, negative, or neutral, which are deposited in the AlayavijNAna, remaining there until they in turn bear their fruit. Although said to be neutral and a kind of silent observer of experience, the AlayavijNAna is thus also the recipient of karmic seeds as they are produced, receiving impressions (VASANA) from them. In the context of Buddhist soteriological discussions, the AlayavijNAna explains why contaminants (ASRAVA) remain even when unwholesome states of mind are not actively present, and it provides the basis for the mistaken belief in self (Atman). Indeed, it is said that the klistamanas perceives the AlayavijNAna as a perduring self. The AlayavijNAna also explains how progress on the path can continue over several lifetimes and why some follow the path of the sRAVAKA and others the path of the BODHISATTVA; it is said that one's lineage (GOTRA) is in fact a seed that resides permanently in the AlayavijNAna. In India, the doctrine of the AlayavijNAna was controversial, with some members of the YogAcAra school rejecting its existence, arguing that the functions it is meant to serve can be accommodated within the standard six-consciousness system. The MADHYAMAKA, notably figures such as BHAVAVIVEKA and CANDRAKĪRTI, attacked the YogAcAra proponents of the AlayavijNAna, describing it as a form of self, which all Buddhists must reject. ¶ In East Asia, the AlayavijNAna was conceived as one possible solution to persistent questions in Buddhism about karmic continuity and about the origin of ignorance (MOHA). For the latter, some explanation was required as to how sentient beings, whom many strands of MAHAYANA claimed were inherently enlightened, began to presume themselves to be ignorant. Debates raged within different strands of the Chinese YogAcAra traditions as to whether the AlayavijNAna is intrinsically impure because of the presence of these seeds of past experience (the position of the Northern branch of the Chinese DI LUN ZONG and the Chinese FAXIANG tradition of XUANZANG and KUIJI), or whether the AlayavijNAna included both pure and impure elements because it involved also the functioning of thusness, or TATHATA (the Southern Di lun school's position). Since the sentient being has had a veritable interminable period of time in which to collect an infinity of seeds-which would essentially make it impossible to hope to counteract them one by one-the mainstream strands of YogAcAra viewed the mind as nevertheless tending inveterately toward impurity (dausthulya). This impurity could only be overcome through a "transformation of the basis" (AsRAYAPARAVṚTTI), which would completely eradicate the karmic seeds stored in the storehouse consciousness, liberating the bodhisattva from the effects of all past actions and freeing him to project compassion liberally throughout the world. In some later interpretations, this transformation would then convert the AlayavijNAna into a ninth "immaculate consciousness" (AMALAVIJNANA). See also DASHENG QIXIN LUN.

anandamaya asura ::: the sadhyadeva (mind raised to the plane of anandamaya ananda) of the asura type, who evolves in the eleventh and twelfth manvantaras of the sixth pratikalpa.

Ananganasutta. (C. Huipin jing; J. Ebongyo; K. Yep'um kyong 穢品經). In PAli, "Discourse on Being Unblemished," the fifth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the eighty-seventh sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; there is also an unidentified recension in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARAGAMA); preached by sARIPUTRA to a group of monks in the JETAVANA grove in sRAVASTĪ. sAriputra describes how a monk will become blemished if he succumbs to evil wishes. In this regard, he explains that people are of four types: one who is impure who does not know his impurity, and one who is impure and knows his impurity; one who is pure and does not know his purity, and one who is pure who knows his purity. Of these four, the second of each pair is to be preferred: the one who knows his impurities can strive to remove them so that he dies with his mind undefiled; the one who knows that his mind is pure can continue to guard his senses so that he too keeps his mind without blemish until death.

AnantaryamArga. (T. bar chad med lam; C. wujian dao; J. mukendo; K. mugan to 無間道). In Sanskrit, the "immediate path" or "uninterrupted path"; a term that refers to the two-stage process of abandoning the afflictions (KLEsA). In the VAIBHAsIKA path (MARGA) schema, as one proceeds from the third level of the path, the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), to the fifth level, the adept path (AsAIKsAMARGA), the klesa are abandoned in sequence through repeated occasions of yogic direct perception (YOGIPRATYAKsA), which consists of two moments: the first is called the AnantaryamArga (uninterrupted path) in which the specific klesa or set of klesas is actively abandoned, followed immediately by a second moment, the path of liberation (VIMUKTIMARGA), which is the state of having been liberated from the klesa. A similar description is found in YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA presentations of the path.

anAtman. (P. anattA; T. bdag med; C. wuwo; J. muga; K. mua 無我). In Sanskrit, "no self" or "nonself" or more broadly "insubstantiality"; the third of the "three marks" (TRILAKsAnA) of existence, along with impermanence (ANITYA) and suffering (DUḤKHA). The concept is one of the key insights of the Buddha, and it is foundational to the Buddhist analysis of the compounded quality (SAMSKṚTA) of existence: since all compounded things are the fruition (PHALA) of a specific set of causes (HETU) and conditions (PRATYAYA), they are therefore absent of any perduring substratum of being. In the sutra analysis of existence, the "person" (PUDGALA) is said to be a product of five aggregates (SKANDHA)-materiality (RuPA), physical sensations (VEDANA), perception (SAMJNA), impulses (SAMSKARA), and consciousness (VIJNANA)-which together comprise the totality of the individual's physical, mental, and emotional existence. What in common parlance is called the person is a continuum (SAMTANA) imputed to the construction of these aggregates, but when these aggregates are separated at the time of death, the person also simultaneously vanishes. This relationship between the person and the skandhas is clarified in the MILINDAPANHA's famous simile of the chariot: a chariot is composed of various constituent parts, but if that chariot is broken down into its parts, there is no sense of "chariot" remaining. So it is with the person and his constituent parts, the skandhas. The Buddha is rigorously against any analysis of phenomena that imputes the reality of a person: when a questioner asks him, "Who senses?," for example, the Buddha rejects the question as wrongly conceived and reframes it in terms of conditionality, i.e., "With what as condition does sensation occur?" ("Sensory contact" [SPARsA] is the answer.) Buddhism thus rejects any notion of an eternal, perduring soul that survives death, or which transmigrates from lifetime to lifetime; rather, just as we can impute a conventional continuity to the person over one lifetime, so can this same continuity be imputed over several lifetimes. The continuum of karmic action and reaction ensures that the last moment of consciousness in the present life serves as the condition for the first moment of consciousness in the next. The next life is therefore neither the same as nor different from the preceding lifetime; instead, it is causally related to it. For this reason, any specific existence, or series of existences, is governed by the causes and conditions that create it, rendering life fundamentally beyond our attempts to control it (another connotation of "nonself") and thus unworthy as an object of attachment. Seeing this lack of selfhood in compounded things generates a sense of "danger" (ADĪNAVA) that catalyzes the aspiration to seek liberation (VIMOKsA). Thus, understanding this mark of anAtman is the crucial antidote (PRATIPAKsA) to ignorance (AVIDYA) and the key to liberation from suffering (duḥkha) and the continuing cycle of rebirth (SAMSARA). Although the notion of anAtman is applied to the notion of a person in mainstream Buddhism, in the PRAJNAPARAMITA scriptures and the broader MAHAYANA tradition the connotation of the term is extended to take in the "nonself of phenomena" (DHARMANAIRATMYA) as well. This extension may be a response to certain strands of the mainstream tradition, such as SARVASTIVADA (lit. the "Teaching That All [Dharmas] Exist"), which considered dharmas (i.e., the five skandhas and so on) to be factors that existed in reality throughout all three time periods (TRIKALA) of past, present, and future. In order to clarify that dharmas have only conventional validity, the MahAyAna posited that they also were anAtman, although the nature of this lack of self was differently understood by the YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA schools.

antagrAhadrsti. (T. mthar 'dzin gyi lta ba; C. bianjian; J. henken; K. pyon'gyon 邊見). In Sanskrit, "extreme views"; one of the five major types of (wrong) views (DṚstI), along with the view that there is a perduring self, or soul (SATKAYADṚstI); fallacious views (MITHYADṚstI); the attachment to views (DṚstIPARAMARsA); and attachment to rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA). "Extreme views" refers specifically to the mistaken notion that there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next, or to the self as being annihilated at death and thus not subject to rebirth. The former view is called the extreme of eternalism (sAsVATADṚstI; P. sassataditthi); the latter, the extreme of annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI; P. ucchedaditthi). The Buddhist middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between these two extremes posits that there is no permanent, perduring soul (countering eternalism), and yet there is karmic continuity from one lifetime to the next (countering annihilationism).

antevAsika. [alt. antevAsī] (T. nye gnas; C. jinzhu dizi; J. gonju deshi; K. kŭnju cheja 近住弟子). In PAli and Sanskrit, a "pupil" who dwells with a teacher. A monk who loses his preceptor (P. upajjhAya; S. UPADHYAYA) while still in need of "guidance" (P. NISSAYA; S. NIsRAYA) must seek instruction and training under another qualified master. This new master is called the ACARIYA (S. ACARYA), or "teacher," and the monk is then designated an antevAsika, or "pupil." The same relationship pertains between the antevAsika and the Acariya as between a *SARDHAVIHARIN (P. saddhivihArika) and an upajjhAya, and it is described as being like that of a son and father. Accordingly, the pupil is required to serve the daily needs of his teacher, by, for example, providing him with water, washing and preparing his robes and alms bowl, cleaning his residence, accompanying him on journeys, attending him when he is sick, and so forth. As part of his responsibilities toward the teacher, if the teacher should begin to entertain doubts about the doctrine or his ability to practice, the pupil is to try to dispel them. If the teacher should commit a grave offense against the rules of the saMgha, the pupil is supposed to try to prevail upon his teacher to go before the saMgha to receive its judgment. An antevAsika requires the permission of his Acariya to attend to others, to accompany others on alms round (PIndAPATA), to seek instruction from others, etc. The antevAsika is required to seek pardon from his Acariya for any wrongdoing, and may be expelled for bad behavior. A fully ordained monk (P. bhikkhu; S. BHIKsU) must remain under the guidance (nissaya) of either his upajjhAya or an Acariya or for a minimum of five years from the time of his ordination. A monk may be required to live under nissaya for a longer period, or for his whole life, if he is unable to become competent in DHARMA and VINAYA.

AnumAnasutta. (C. Biqiu qing jing; J. Bikushokyo; K. Pigu ch'ong kyong 比丘請經). In PAli, "Discourse on Inference," the fifteenth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the eighty-ninth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA). The sutra was preached by MAHAMAUDGALYAYANA (P. MahAmoggallAna) to a large group of monks at SuMsumAragiri in the Bhagga country. MahAmaudgalyAyana enumerates sixteen faults that make it difficult for a monk to be admonished by his teachers or fellow monks, such as evil wishes, conceit, deceit, anger, resentment, stubbornness, defensiveness, and prevarication. Should a monk discover any of these negative traits within himself, he should strive to remove them.

anumAna. (T. rjes su dpag pa; C. biliang; J. hiryo; K. piryang 比量). In Sanskrit and PAli, "inference." In Buddhist logic and epistemology, inference is considered to be one of the two forms of valid knowledge (PRAMAnA), along with direct perception (PRATYAKsA). Inference allows us to glean knowledge concerning objects that are not directly evident to the senses. In the Buddhist logical traditions, inferences may be drawn from logical signs (HETU, LInGA): e.g., there is a fire on the mountain (SADHYA), because there is smoke (SADHANA), like a stove (SAPAKsA), unlike a lake (VIPAKsA).

anupalabdhi. [alt. anupalambha] (T. mi dmigs pa / dmigs med; C. bukede; J. fukatoku; K. pulgadŭk 不可得). In Sanskrit, "unascertainable," "noncognition," or "non-observation," describing the peculiar type of cognition inherent in enlightenment, in which perception occurs without any bifurcation between subject and object in the case of YOGACARA or without any perception or "observation" of intrinsic existence (SVABHAVA) in the case of MADHYAMAKA and is thus freed from any kind of false dichotomization. This type of perception is therefore "unascertainable," viz., freed from conventional types of cognition and thus "noncognition."

AriyapariyesanAsutta. (C. Luomo jing; J. Ramakyo; K. Rama kyong 羅摩經). In PAli, "Discourse on the Noble Quest"; the twenty-sixth sutta (SuTRA) in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA, also known as the PAsarAsisutta (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 204th SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); preached by the Buddha to an assembly of monks at the hemitage of the brAhmana Rammaka in the town of sRAVASTĪ. The Buddha explains the difference between noble and ignoble quests and recounts his own life as an example of striving to distinguish between the two. Beginning with his renunciation of the householder's life, he tells of his training under two meditation masters, his rejection of this training in favor of austerities, and ultimately his rejection of austerities in order to discover for himself his own path to enlightenment. The Buddha also relates how he was initially hesitant to teach what he had discovered, but was convinced to do so by the god BRAHMA SAHAMPATI, and how he then converted the "group of five" ascetics (PANCAVARGIKA) who had been his companions while he practiced austerities. There is an understated tone of the narrative, devoid of the detail so familiar from the biographies. There is no mention of the opulence of his youth, no mention of his wife, no mention of the chariot rides, no description of the departure from the palace in the dead of night, no mention of MARA. Instead, the Buddha states, "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and went forth from the home life into homelessness." Although the accounts of his study with other meditation masters assume a sophisticated system of states of concentration, the description of the enlightenment itself is both simple and sober, portrayed as the outcome of long reflection rather than as an ecstatic moment of revelation.

arthakriyA. (T. don byed nus pa; C. liyi; J. riyaku; K. iik 利益). In Sanskrit, "efficiency" or "capable of functioning"; a term used to describe the capacity of impermanent phenomena to produce effects. ArthakriyA as "actions that bring spiritual benefit to others," is also sometimes listed as one of the four means of conversion (SAMGRAHAVASTU), in place of the more typical arthacaryA (actions that benefit others, i.e., helpfulness). The term is also important in YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA philosophy in describing conventional truths (SAMVṚTISATYA), which, although empty of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHAVA), are nonetheless able to perform a function. Thus, for example, although the water in a mirage and the water in a glass are both empty of intrinsic nature, the water in a glass is nonetheless conventionally existent because it can perform the function of slaking thirst.

ArupyadhAtu. [alt. in S. and P. arupadhAtu] (T. gzugs med pa'i khams; C. wuse jie; J. mushikikai; K. musaek kye 無色界). In Sanskrit, "immaterial" or "formless" "realm"; the highest of the three realms of existence (TRAIDHATUKA) within SAMSARA, along with the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU) and the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU). The heavens of the immaterial realm are comprised of four classes of divinities (DEVA) whose existence is entirely mental, no longer requiring even a subtle material foundation for their ethereal states of mind: (1) the sphere of infinite space (AKAsANANTYAYATANA); (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness (VIJNANANANTYAYATANA); (3) the sphere of nothing whatsoever or absolute nothingness (AKINCANYAYATANA); (4) the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNANASAMJNAYATANA, see also BHAVAGRA). Rebirth in these different spheres is based on mastery of the corresponding four immaterial meditative absorptions (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA) in previous lives. Because they have transcended all materiality, the beings here retain only the subtlest form of the last four aggregates (SKANDHA). For a detailed description, see DEVA.

ArupyarAga. (P. aruparAga; T. gzugs med pa'i 'dod chags; C. wuse tan; J. mushikiton; K. musaek t'am 無色貪). In Sanskrit, "craving for immaterial existence"; the seventh of ten "fetters" (SAMYOJANA) that keep beings bound to the cycle of rebirth (SAMSARA). ArupyarAga is the desire to be reborn as a divinity (DEVA) in the immaterial realm (ARuPYADHATU), where beings are composed entirely of mentality and are perpetually absorbed in the meditative bliss of the immaterial absorptions or attainments (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA). Craving for immaterial existence is permanently eliminated upon attaining the stage of a worthy one (ARHAT), the fourth and highest degree of Buddhist sanctity (ARYAPUDGALA) in the mainstream schools.

ArupyAvacaradhyAna. (P. arupAvacarajhAna; T. gzugs med na spyod pa'i bsam gtan; C. wusejie ding; J. mushikikaijo; K. musaekkye chong 無色界定). In Sanskrit, "meditative absorption associated with the immaterial realm"; equivalent to S. ArupyadhyAna (q.v. DHYANA) and synonymous with "immaterial attainment" (arupasamApatti). One of two broad varieties of DHYANA or meditative absorption; the other being RuPAVACARADHYANA (P. rupAvacarajhAna) or meditative absorption belonging to the realm of subtle materiality. In both cases, dhyAna refers to the attainment of single-pointed concentration of the mind on an ideational object of meditation. ArupyAvacaradhyAna is described as accessible only to those who have already mastered the fourth absorption of the realm of subtle materiality, and is itself merely a refinement of that state. In the immaterial absorptions, the "object" of meditation is gradually attenuated until the meditator abides in the sphere of infinite space (S. AKAsANANTYAYATANA; P. AkAsAnaNcAyatana). In the second immaterial absorption, the meditator sets aside infinite space and abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness (S. VIJNANANANTYAYATANA; P. viNNAnAnaNcAyatanta). In the third immaterial absorption, one sets aside the perception of infinite consciousness and abides in the sphere of nothingness (S. AKINCANYAYATANA; P. AkiNcaNNAyatana). In the fourth immaterial absorption, one sets aside the perception of nothingness and abides in the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (S. NAIVASAMJNANASAMJNAYATANA; P. nevasaNNAnAsaNNAyatana). Mastery of any of the absorptions of the immaterial realm can result in rebirth as a divinity (DEVA) within the corresponding plane in the immaterial realm (ArupyAvacara or ARuPYADHATU); see ANINJYAKARMAN. See also KAMMAttHANA.

Aryadeva. (T. 'Phags pa lha; C. Tipo; J. Daiba; K. Cheba 提婆). While traditional sources are often ambiguous, scholars have identified two Aryadevas. The first Aryadeva (c. 170-270 CE) was an important Indian philosopher, proponent of MADHYAMAKA philosophy, and a direct disciple of the Madhyamaka master NAGARJUNA. According to traditional accounts, he was born to a royal family in Sri Lanka. Renouncing the throne at the time of his maturity, he instead sought monastic ordination and met NAgArjuna at PAtALIPUTRA. After his teacher's death, Aryadeva became active at the monastic university of NALANDA, where he is said to have debated and defeated numerous brahmanic adherents, eventually converting them to Buddhism. He is the author of the influential work CATUḤsATAKA ("The Four Hundred"). He is also said to be the author of the *sATAsASTRA (C. BAI LUN), or "The Hundred Treatise," counted as one of the "three treatises" of the SAN LUN ZONG of Chinese Buddhism, together with the Zhong lun ("Middle Treatise," i.e., MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA) and SHI'ERMEN LUN ("Twelve [Chapter] Treatise"), both attributed to NAgArjuna. The *satasAstra is not extant in Sanskrit or Tibetan, but is preserved only in Chinese. ¶ The second Aryadeva [alt. AryadevapAda; d.u.] trained in yogic practices under the tantric master NAgArjuna at NAlandA. In the Tibetan tradition, this Aryadeva is remembered for his great tantric accomplishments, and is counted among the eighty-four MAHASIDDHAs under the name Karnari or Kanheri. His important tantric works include the CaryAmelapakapradīpa ("Lamp that Integrates the Practices") and Cittavisuddhiprakarana [alt. CittAvaranavisuddhiprakarana] ("Explanation of Mental Purity").

AryAstAngamArga. (P. ariyAtthangikamagga; T. 'phags lam yan lag brgyad; C. bazhengdao; J. hasshodo; K. p'alchongdo 八正道). In Sanskrit, "noble eightfold path"; the path (MARGA) that brings an end to the causes of suffering (DUḤKHA); the fourth of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvAry AryasatyAni). This formulation of the Buddhist path to enlightenment appears in what is regarded as the Buddha's first sermon after his enlightenment, the "Setting Forth the Wheel of Dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), in which he sets forth a middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the extremes of asceticism and sensual indulgence. That middle way, he says, is the eightfold path, which, like the four truths, he calls "noble" (ARYA); the term is therefore commonly rendered as "noble eightfold path." However, as in the case of the four noble truths, what is noble is not the path but those who follow it, so the compound might be more accurately translated as "eightfold path of the [spiritually] noble." Later in the same sermon, the Buddha sets forth the four noble truths and identifies the fourth truth, the truth of the path, with the eightfold path. The noble eightfold path is comprised of (1) right views (SAMYAGDṚstI; P. sammAditthi), which involve an accurate understanding of the true nature of things, specifically the four noble truths; (2) right intention (SAMYAKSAMKALPA; P. sammAsankappa), which means avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent and promoting loving-kindness and nonviolence; (3) right speech (SAMYAGVAC; P. sammAvAcA), which means refraining from verbal misdeeds, such as lying, backbiting and slander, harsh speech and abusive language, and frivolous speech and gossip; (4) right action or right conduct (SAMYAKKARMANTA; P. sammAkammanta), which is refraining from physical misdeeds, such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct; (5) right livelihood (SAMYAGAJĪVA; P. sammAjīva), which entails avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as selling slaves, selling weapons, selling animals for slaughter, dealing in intoxicants or poisons, or engaging in fortune-telling and divination; (6) right effort (SAMYAGVYAYAMA; P. sammAvAyAma), which is defined as abandoning unwholesome states of mind that have already arisen, preventing unwholesome states that have yet to arise, sustaining wholesome states that have already arisen, and developing wholesome states that have yet to arise; (7) right mindfulness (SAMYAKSMṚTI; P. sammAsati), which means to maintain awareness of the four foundations of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHANA), viz., body, physical sensations, the mind, and phenomena; and (8) right concentration (SAMYAKSAMADHI; P. sammAsamAdhi), which is one pointedness of mind. ¶ The noble eightfold path receives less discussion in Buddhist literature than do the four noble truths (of which they are, after all, a constituent). Indeed, in later formulations, the eight factors are presented not so much as a prescription for behavior but as eight qualities that are present in the mind of a person who has understood NIRVAnA. The eightfold path may be reduced to a simpler, and more widely used, threefold schema of the path that comprises the "three trainings" (TRIsIKsA) or "higher trainings" (adhisiksA) in morality (sĪLA; P. sīla; see ADHIsĪLAsIKsA), concentration (SAMADHI, see ADHISAMADHIsIKsA), and wisdom (PRAJNA; P. paNNA; see ADHIPRAJNAsIKsA). In this schema, (1) right views and (2) right intention are subsumed under the training in higher wisdom (adhiprajNAsiksA); (3) right speech, (4) right conduct, and (5) right livelihood are subsumed under higher morality (adhisīlasiksA); and (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, and (8) right concentration are subsumed under higher concentration (adhisamAdhisiksA). According to the MADHYANTAVIBHAGA, a MAHAYANA work attributed to MAITREYANATHA, the eightfold noble path comprises the last set of eight of the thirty-seven constituents of enlightenment (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA), where enlightenment (BODHI) is the complete, nonconceptual awakening achieved during the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA). After that vision, following the same pattern as the Buddha, right view is the perfect understanding of the vision, and right intention is the articulation of the vision that motivates the teaching of it. Right mindfulness, right effort, and right concentration correspond respectively to the four types of mindfulness (SMṚTYUPASTHANA), four efforts (PRAHAnA), and four ṚDDHIPADA ("legs of miraculous attainments," i.e., samAdhi) when they are perfect or right (samyak), after the vision of the four noble truths.

asaiksamArga. (T. mi slob lam; C. wuxuedao; J. mugakudo; K. muhakto 無學道). In Sanskrit, "the path of the adept" (lit. "the path where there is nothing more to learn" or "the path where no further training is necessary"); the fifth of the five-path schema (PANCAMARGA) used in both SARVASTIVADA ABHIDHARMA and the YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA schools of MAHAYANA. It is the equivalent of the path of completion (NIstHAMARGA) and is synonymous with asaiksapatha. With the consummation of the "path of cultivation" (BHAVANAMARGA), the adept (whether following the sRAVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, or BODHISATTVA path) achieves the "adamantine-like concentration" (VAJROPAMASAMADHI), which leads to the permanent destruction of even the subtlest and most persistent of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA), resulting in the "knowledge of cessation" (KsAYAJNANA) and in some presentations an accompanying "knowledge of nonproduction" (ANUTPADAJNANA), viz., the knowledge that the fetters are destroyed and can never again recur. Because the adept now has full knowledge of the eightfold path (ARYAstAnGAMARGA) and has achieved full liberation (VIMOKsA) as either an ARHAT or a buddha, he no longer needs any further instruction-thus he has completed the "path where there is nothing more to learn."

asaMjNika. (P. asaNNa; T. 'du shes med pa; C. wuxiang tian; J. musoten; K. musang ch'on 無想天). In Sanskrit, "free from discrimination," or "nonperception"; according to some systems, one of the heavens of the fourth meditative absorption (DHYANA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU; see RuPAVACARADHYANA). In the PAli tradition, it is one of the seven heavens of the fourth dhyAna; in Sanskrit sources, in some cases, it is considered a ninth heaven of the fourth dhyAna, and in other cases, it is considered to be a region of the BṚHATPHALA heaven. It is a place of rebirth for those who, during their lifetimes as humans, have cultivated the trance of nonperception (ASAMJNASAMAPATTI), a state of meditative trance in which there is no mental activity; it is compared to dreamless sleep. During their long lifetime in this heaven, these divinities have a slight perception of having been born there and then have no other thoughts, sensations, or perceptions until the end of their period of rebirth in that heaven. Such beings are called asaNNasatta ("unconscious beings") in PAli. This particular state is often described as the attainment of non-Buddhist ascetics, who mistake it for the state of liberation (VIMOKsA).

asaMkhyeyakalpa. (P. asankheyyakappa; T. bskal pa grangs med pa; C. asengqi jie; J. asogiko; K. asŭnggi kop 阿僧祇劫). In Sanskrit, "incalculable eon" or "infinite eon." The longest of all KALPAs is named "incalculable" (ASAMKHYA); despite its name, it has been calculated by dedicated Buddhist scholiasts as being the length of a mahAkalpa (itself, eight intermediate kalpas in duration) to the sixtieth power. The BODHISATTVA path leading to buddhahood is presumed to take not one but three "incalculable eons" to complete, because the store of merit (PUnYA), knowledge (JNANA), and wholesome actions (KUsALA-KARMAPATHA) that must be accumulated by a bodhisattva in the course of his training is infinitely massive. Especially in the East Asian traditions, this extraordinary period of time has been taken to mean that practice is essentially interminable, thus shifting attention from the goal to the process of practice. For example, the AVATAMSAKASuTRA's statement that "at the time of the initial arousal of the aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPADA), complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI) is already achieved" has been interpreted in the East Asian HUAYAN ZONG to imply that enlightenment is in fact achieved at the very inception of religious training-a realization that renders possible a bodhisattva's commitment to continue practicing for three infinite eons. In YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA presentations of the path associated with the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, the three incalcuable eons are not considered infinite, with the bodhisattva's course divided accordingly into three parts. The first incalcuable eon is devoted to the paths of accumulation (SAMBHARAMARGA) and preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA); the second incalculable eon devoted to the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA) and the first seven bodhisattva stages (BHuMI); and the third incalculable eon devoted to the eighth, ninth, and tenth stages.

Asanga. (T. Thogs med; C. Wuzhao; J. Mujaku; K. Much'ak 無著) (c. 320-c. 390 CE). a.k.a. Arya Asanga, Indian scholar who is considered to be a founder of the YOGACARA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism. In the Tibetan tradition, he is counted as one of the "six ornaments of JAMBUDVĪPA" ('dzam gling rgyan drug), together with VASUBANDHU, NAGARJUNA and ARYADEVA, and DIGNAGA and DHARMAKĪRTI. Born into a brAhmana family in Purusapura (modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan), Asanga originally studied under SARVASTIVADA (possibly MAHĪsASAKA) teachers but converted to the MahAyAna later in life. His younger brother was the important exegete Vasubandhu; it is said that he was converted to the MahAyAna by Asanga. According to traditional accounts, Asanga spent twelve years in meditation retreat, after which he received a vision of the future buddha MAITREYA. He visited Maitreya's abode in TUsITA heaven, where the bodhisattva instructed him in MahAyAna and especially YogAcAra doctrine. Some of these teachings were collected under the name MaitreyanAtha, and the Buddhist tradition generally regards them as revealed by Asanga through the power of the future buddha. Some modern scholars, however, have posited the existence of a historical figure named MAITREYANATHA or simply Maitreya. Asanga is therefore associated with what are known as the "five treatises of MaitreyanAtha" (the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, the DHARMADHARMATAVIBHAGA, the MADHYANTAVIBHAGA, the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA, and the RATNAGOTRAVIBHAGA). Asanga was a prolific author, composing commentaries on the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA and the VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA. Among his independent treatises, three are particularly important. The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA sets forth the categories of the ABHIDHARMA from a YogAcAra perspective. The MAHAYANASAMGRAHA is a detailed exposition of YogAcAra doctrine, setting forth such topics as the ALAYAVIJNANA and the TRISVABHAVA as well as the constituents of the path. His largest work is the compendium entitled YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA. Two of its sections, the sRAVAKABHuMI and the BODHISATTVABHuMI, circulated as independent works, with the former important for its exposition of the practice of DHYANA and the latter for its exposition of the bodhisattva's practice of the six PARAMITA; the chapter on sĪLA is particularly influential. These texts have had a lasting and profound impact on the development of Buddhism, especially in India, Tibet, and East Asia. Among the great figures in the history of Indian Buddhism, Asanga is rare for the breadth of his interests and influence, making significant contributions to philosophy (as the founder of YogAcAra), playing a key role in TATHAGATAGARBHA thought (through the RatnagotravibhAga), and providing significant expositions of Buddhist practice (in the YogAcArabhumi).

asceticism. (S. duskaracaryA; P. dukkarakArikA; T. dka' ba spyod pa; C. kuxing; J. kugyo; K. kohaeng 苦行). Derived from the Greek term askesis, "to exercise"; the performance of austerities, both mental and physical, for the purpose of attaining enlightenment (BODHI) and, in certain cases, special powers or knowledges (ABHIJNA). The basic Buddhist attitude toward asceticism, as found in the narrative surrounding the life of the Buddha, has been a negative one, particularly with regard to those practices associated with physical torment, such as fasting. The Buddha himself is said to have once practiced asceticism with five fellow ascetics in the forest of URUVILVA, only to eventually abandon it for the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between sensual indulgence and mortification of the flesh. Ascetic practices nevertheless continued to be important in the various Buddhist traditions, as attested to by the life stories of the teachers MI LA RAS PA (Milarepa), BODHIDHARMA, and HAKUIN EKAKU to name but a few. See also DUsKARACARYA; DHUTAnGA; TAPAS.

AsokAvadAna. (T. Ku nA la'i rtogs pa brjod pa; C. Ayu wang zhuan; J. Aiku o den; K. Ayuk wang chon 阿育王傳). In Sanskrit, "The Story of Asoka," a text belonging to the category of "edifying tales" (AVADANA), which narrates the major events in the life of King AsOKA of the Indian Mauryan dynasty. The work focuses primarily on Asoka's conversion to Buddhism, his subsequent support of the DHARMA and monastic community (SAMGHA), his visits to the major sites of the Buddha's life (MAHASTHANA), and his construction of STuPAs. It also records the transmission of the Buddhist teachings by five early teachers: MAHAKAsYAPA, ANANDA, MADHYANTIKA, sAnAKAVASIN, and UPAGUPTA. The AsokAvadAna relates that, in a previous life, Asoka (then a small boy named Jaya) placed a handful of dirt in the Buddha's begging bowl (PATRA). The Buddha predicted that one hundred years after his passage into nirvAna, the child would become a DHARMARAJA and CAKRAVARTIN named Asoka. As emperor, Asoka becomes a devout Buddhist and righteous king, renowned for collecting the relics (sARĪRA) of the Buddha from eight (or in one version, seven of eight) stupas and redistributing them in 84,000 stupas across his realm. Parts of the Sanskrit text have been preserved in the DIVYAVADANA, and the entire work is extant in Chinese. Only the KunAla chapter of the AsokAvadAna was rendered into Tibetan, in the eleventh century, by PadmAkaravarman and RIN CHEN BZANG PO.

"As soon as we become aware of the Self, we are conscious of it as eternal, unborn, unembodied, uninvolved in its workings: it can be felt within the form of being, but also as enveloping it, as above it, surveying its embodiment from above, adhyaksa; it is omnipresent, the same in everything, infinite and pure and intangible for ever. This Self can be experienced as the Self of the individual, the Self of the thinker, doer, enjoyer, but even so it always has this greater character; its individuality is at the same time a vast universality or very readily passes into that, and the next step to that is a sheer transcendence or a complete and ineffable passing into the Absolute. The Self is that aspect of the Brahman in which it is intimately felt as at once individual, cosmic, transcendent of the universe. The realisation of the Self is the straight and swift way towards individual liberation, a static universality, a Nature-transcendence. At the same time there is a realisation of Self in which it is felt not only sustaining and pervading and enveloping all things, but constituting everything and identified in a free identity with all its becomings in Nature. Even so, freedom and impersonality are always the character of the Self. There is no appearance of subjection to the workings of its own Power in the universe, such as the apparent subjection of the Purusha to Prakriti. To realise the Self is to realise the eternal freedom of the Spirit.” The Life Divine

“As soon as we become aware of the Self, we are conscious of it as eternal, unborn, unembodied, uninvolved in its workings: it can be felt within the form of being, but also as enveloping it, as above it, surveying its embodiment from above, adhyaksa; it is omnipresent, the same in everything, infinite and pure and intangible for ever. This Self can be experienced as the Self of the individual, the Self of the thinker, doer, enjoyer, but even so it always has this greater character; its individuality is at the same time a vast universality or very readily passes into that, and the next step to that is a sheer transcendence or a complete and ineffable passing into the Absolute. The Self is that aspect of the Brahman in which it is intimately felt as at once individual, cosmic, transcendent of the universe. The realisation of the Self is the straight and swift way towards individual liberation, a static universality, a Nature-transcendence. At the same time there is a realisation of Self in which it is felt not only sustaining and pervading and enveloping all things, but constituting everything and identified in a free identity with all its becomings in Nature. Even so, freedom and impersonality are always the character of the Self. There is no appearance of subjection to the workings of its own Power in the universe, such as the apparent subjection of the Purusha to Prakriti. To realise the Self is to realise the eternal freedom of the Spirit.” The Life Divine

astAnta. (T. mtha' brgyad; C. babu; J. happu; K. p'albul 八不). In Sanskrit, "eight extremes," an important term in the MADHYAMAKA school, referring to eight qualities of which all phenomena are said to be empty (see suNYATA). The eight (in four pairs) are cessation and production, annihilation and permanence, coming and going, and difference and sameness. The locus classicus for the list is the opening passage of NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA, which reads, "Homage to the perfect Buddha, best of teachers, who taught that what is dependently arisen has no cessation and no production, no annihilation and no permanence, no coming and no going, no difference and no sameness, is free of elaborations and is at peace." See also BABU.

astavimoksa. (P. atthavimokkha; T. rnam par thar pa brgyad; C. ba jietuo; J. hachigedatsu; K. p'al haet'al 八解脱). In Sanskrit, "eight liberations"; referring to a systematic meditation practice for cultivating detachment and ultimately liberation (VIMOKsA). There are eight stages in the attenuation of consciousness that accompany the cultivation of increasingly deeper states of meditative absorption (DHYANA). In the first four dhyAnas of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPAVACARADHYANA), the first three stages entail (1) the perception of materiality (RuPA) in that plane of subtle materiality (S. rupasaMjNin, P. rupasaNNī), (2) the perception of external forms while not perceiving one's own form (S. arupasaMjNin, P. arupasaNNī), and (3) the developing of confidence through contemplating the beautiful (S. subha, P. subha). The next five stages transcend the realm of subtle materiality to take in the four immaterial dhyAnas (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA) and beyond: (4) passing beyond the material plane with the idea of "limitless space," one attains the plane of limitless space (AKAsANANTYAYATANA); (5) passing beyond the plane of limitless space with the idea of "limitless consciousness," one attains the plane of limitless consciousness (VIJNANANANTYAYATANA); (6) passing beyond the plane of limitless consciousness with the idea that "there is nothing," one attains the plane of nothingness (AKINCANYAYATANA); (7) passing beyond the plane of nothingness, one attains the plane of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNANASAMJNAYATANA); and (8) passing beyond the plane of neither perception nor nonperception, one attains the cessation of all perception and sensation (SAMJNAVEDAYITANIRODHA). ¶ The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA and YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA give an explanation of the first three of the eight vimoksas within the larger context of bodhisattvas who compassionately manifest shapes, smells, and so on for the purpose of training others. Bodhisattvas who have reached any of the nine levels (the RuPADHATU, the four subtle-materiality DHYANAs, and four immaterial attainments) engage in this type of practice. In the first vimoksa, they destroy "form outside," i.e., those in the rupadhAtu who have not destroyed attachment to forms (to their own color, shape, smell, and so on) cultivate detachment to the forms they see outside. (Other bodhisattvas who have reached the first dhyAna and so on do this by relaxing their detachment for the duration of the meditation.) In the second vimoksa, they destroy the "form inside," i.e., they cultivate detachment to their own color and shape. (Again, others who have reached the immaterial attainments and have no attachment to their own form relax that detachment for the duration of the meditation.) In the third, they gain control over what they want to believe about forms by meditating on the relative nature of beauty, ugliness, and size. They destroy grasping at anything as having an absolute pleasant or unpleasant identity, and perceive them all as having the same taste as pleasant, or however else they want them to be. These texts finally give an explanation of the remaining five vimoksas, "to loosen the rope of craving for the taste of the immaterial levels."

asubhabhAvanA. (P. asubhabhAvanA; T. mi sdug pa bsgom pa; C. bujing guan; J. fujokan; K. pujong kwan 不淨觀). In Sanskrit, the "contemplation on the impure" or "foul"; a set of traditional topics of meditation (see KAMMAttHANA) that were intended to counter the affliction of lust (RAGA), develop mindfulness (SMṚTI; P. SATI) regarding the body, and lead to full mental absorption (DHYANA). In this form of meditation, "impure" or "foul" is most often used to refer either to a standardized list of thirty-one or thirty-two foul parts of the body or to the various stages in the decay of a corpse. In the case of the latter, for example, the meditator is to observe nine or ten specific types of putrefaction, described in gruesome detail in the Buddhist commentarial literature: mottled discoloration of the corpse (vinīlakasaMjNA), discharges of pus (vipuyakasaMjNA), decaying of rotten flesh (vipadumakasaMjNA), bloating and tumefaction (vyAdhmAtakasaMjNA), the exuding of blood and the overflow of body fluids (vilohitakasaMjNA), infestation of worms and maggots (vikhAditakasaMjNA), the dissolution of flesh and exposure of bones and sinews (viksiptakasaMjNA), the cremated remains (vidagdhakasaMjNA), and the dispersed skeletal parts (asthisaMjNA). The KAyagatAsatisutta of the MAJJIHIMANIKAYA includes the contemplation of the impure within a larger explanation of the contemplation of one's body with mindfulness (KAYANUPAsYANA; see also SMṚTYUPASTHANA); before the stages in the decay of the corpse, it gives the standardized list of thirty-one (sometimes thirty-two) foul parts of the body: the head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, tendons, bones, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, large intestines, small intestines, gorge, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin-oil, saliva, mucus, fluid in the joints, and urine. These parts are chosen specifically because they will be easily visualized, and may have been intended to be the foul opposites of the thirty-two salutary marks of the great man (MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA). The Chinese tradition also uses a contemplation of seven kinds of foulness regarding the human body in order to counter lust and to facilitate detachment. (1) "Foulness in their seeds" (C. zhongzi bujing): human bodies derive from seminal ejaculate and, according to ancient medicine, mother's blood. (2) "Foulness in their conception" (C. shousheng bujing): human bodies are conceived through sexual intercourse. (3) "Foulness in their [gestational] residence" (C. zhuchu bujing): human bodies are conceived and nurtured inside the mother's womb. (4) "Foulness in their nutriments" (C. shidan bujing): human bodies in the prenatal stage live off and "feed on" the mother's blood. (5) "Foulness in their delivery" (C. chusheng bujing): it is amid the mess of delivery, with the discharge of placenta and placental water, that human bodies are born. (6) "Foulness in their entirety" (C. jüti bujing): human bodies are innately impure, comprising of innards, excrement, and other foul things underneath a flimsy skin. (7) "Foulness in their destiny" (C. jiujing bujing): human bodies are destined to die, followed by putrid infestation, decomposition, and utter dissolution. There is also a contemplation on the nine bodily orifices (C. QIAO), which are vividly described as constantly oozing pus, blood, secretions, etc. ¶ As contemplation on foulness deepens, first an eidetic image (S. udgrahanimitta, P. UGGAHANIMITTA), a perfect mental reproduction of the visualized corpse, is maintained steadily in mind; this is ultimately followed by the appearance of the representational image (S. pratibhAganimitta, P. PAtIBHAGANIMITTA), which the VISUDDHIMAGGA (VI.66) describes as a perfectly idealized image of, for example, a bloated corpse as "a man with big limbs lying down after eating his fill." Continued concentration on this representational image will enable the meditator to access up to the fourth stage of the subtle-materiality dhyAnas (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA). After perfecting dhyAna, this meditation may also be used to develop wisdom (PRAJNA) through developing increased awareness of the reality of impermanence (ANITYA). Foulness meditation is ritually included as part of the THERAVADA ordination procedure, during which monks are taught the list of the first five of the thirty-two foul parts of the body (viz., head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, and skin) in order to help them ward off lust.

Asvajit. (P. Assaji; T. Rta thul; C. Ashuoshi; J. Asetsuji; K. Asolsi 阿示). The fifth of the five ascetics (PANCAVARGIKA), along with AJNATAKAUndINYA (P. ANNAtakondaNNa), BHADRIKA (P. Bhaddiya), VAsPA (P. Vappa), and MAHANAMAN (P. MahAnAma), who practiced austerities with GAUTAMA prior to his enlightenment. Subsequently, when Gautama abandoned the severe asceticism they had been practicing in favor of the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD), Asvajit and his companions became disgusted with Gautama's backsliding and left him, going to the ṚsIPATANA (P. Isipatana) deer park, located in the northeast of VArAnasī. After the Buddha's enlightenment, however, the Buddha sought them out to teach them the first sermon, the DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA (P. DHAMMACAKKAPAVATTANASUTTA); while listening to this sermon, Asvajit achieved the first stage of awakening or "opening of the dharma eye" (DHARMACAKsUS), becoming a stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNA), and was immediately ordained as a monk using the informal EHIBHIKsUKA, or "come, monk," formula. Five days later, the Buddha then preached to the group of five new monks the second sermon, the *AnAtmalaksanasutra (P. ANATTALAKKHAnASUTTA), which led to Asvajit's becoming a worthy one (ARHAT). It was through an encounter with Asvajit that sARIPUTRA and MAHAMAUDGALYAYANA, the Buddha's two chief disciples, were initially converted. SAriputra witnessed Asvajit's calm demeanor while gathering alms in the city of RAJAGṚHA. Impressed, he approached Asvajit and asked who his teacher was and what were his teachings. In response, Asvajit said that he was new to the teachings and could offer only the following summary: "Of those phenomena produced through causes, the TathAgata has proclaimed their causes and also their cessation. Thus has spoken the great renunciant." His description, which came to known as the YE DHARMA (based on its first two words of the summary), would become perhaps the most commonly repeated statement in all of Buddhist literature. Upon hearing these words, sAriputra attained the stage of stream-entry (see SROTAAPANNA), and when he repeated what he heard to his friend MaudgalyAyana, he also did so. The two then agreed to become the Buddha's disciples. According to PAli sources, Asvajit once was approached by the ascetic Nigantha Saccaka, who inquired of the Buddha's teachings. Asvajit explained the doctrine of nonself (ANATMAN) with a summary of the Anattalakkhanasutta, which the Buddha had taught him. Convinced that he could refute that doctrine, Nigantha Saccaka challenged the Buddha to a debate and was vanquished. The PAli commentaries say that Asvajit intentionally offered only the briefest of explanations of the nonself doctrine as a means of coaxing the ascetic into a direct encounter with the Buddha.

Atisa DīpaMkarasrījNAna. (T. A ti sha Mar me mdzad dpal ye shes) (982-1054). Indian Buddhist monk and scholar revered by Tibetan Buddhists as a leading teacher in the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet. His name, also written as Atisha, is an ApabhraMsa form of the Sanskrit term atisaya, meaning "surpassing kindness." Born into a royal family in what is today Bangladesh, Atisa studied MAHAYANA Buddhist philosophy and TANTRA as a married layman prior to being ordained at the age of twenty-nine, receiving the ordination name of DīpaMkarasrījNAna. After studying at the great monasteries of northern India, including NALANDA, ODANTAPURĪ, VIKRAMAsĪLA, and SOMAPURA, he is said to have journeyed to the island of Sumatra, where he studied under the CITTAMATRA teacher Dharmakīrtisrī (also known as guru Sauvarnadvīpa) for twelve years; he would later praise Dharmakīrtisrī as a great teacher of BODHICITTA. Returning to India, he taught at the Indian monastic university of VIKRAMAsĪLA. Atisa was invited to Tibet by the king of western Tibet YE SHES 'OD and his grandnephew BYANG CHUB 'OD, who were seeking to remove perceived corruption in the practice of Buddhism in Tibet. Atisa reached Tibet in 1042, where he initially worked together with the renowned translator RIN CHEN BZANG PO at THO LING monastery in the translation of PRAJNAPARAMITA texts. There, he composed his famous work, the BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA, or "Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment," an overview of the MahAyAna Buddhist path that served as a basis for the genre of literature known as LAM RIM ("stages of the path"). He spent the remaining twelve years of his life in the central regions of Tibet, where he formed his principal seat in Snye thang (Nyetang) outside of LHA SA where he translated a number of MADHYAMAKA works into Tibetan. He died there and his relics were interred in the SGROL MA LHA KHANG. Atisa and his chief disciples 'BROM STON RGYAL BA'I 'BYUNG GNAS and RNGOG LEGS PA'I SHES RAB are considered the forefathers of the BKA' GDAMS PA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. In Tibet, he is commonly known by the honorific title Jo bo rje (Jowoje), "the Superior Lord."

AtthakanAgarasutta. (C. Bacheng jing; J. Hachijokyo; K. P'alsong kyong 八城經). In PAli, "Discourse to the Man from Atthaka"; the fifty-second sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as SuTRA no. 217 in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); preached by the Buddha's attendant ANANDA to the householder Dasaka of Atthaka at BeluvagAmaka near VesAlī (VAIsALĪ). According to the PAli recension, a merchant from the town (nAgara) of Atthaka named Dasaka approaches Ananda and asks him if there was any one thing that could lead to liberation from bondage. Ananda teaches him the eleven doors of the deathless, by means of which it is possible to attain liberation from bondage. These doors are made up of the four meditative absorptions (JHANA; S. DHYANA), the four BRAHMAVIHARA meditations, and the three immaterial meditations of infinite space (AKAsANANTYAYATANA), infinite consciousness (VIJNANANANTYAYATANA), and nothing-whatsoever (AKINCANYAYATANA). Ananda states that by contemplating the conditioned and impermanent nature of these eleven doors to liberation, one can attain arhatship (see ARHAT) in this life or short of that will attain the stage of a nonreturner (ANAGAMIN), who is destined to be reborn in the pure abodes (sUDDHAVASA), whence he will attain arhatship and final liberation.

Atthakavagga. (S. Arthavargīya; C. Yizu jing; J. Gisokukyo; K. Ŭijok kyong 義足經). In PAli, "The Octet Chapter" [alt. "The Chapter on Meaning," as the Chinese translation suggests], an important chapter of the SUTTANIPATA. Based on analysis of the peculiar meters and grammatical formations used in this text, philologists have reached a broad consensus that the Atthakavagga and its companion chapter, the PArAyanavagga, are among the very earliest strata of extant PAli literature and may have existed even during the Buddha's own lifetime. The PAli suttas include citations and exegeses of some of the verses from the Atthakavagga, and the MAHANIDESA, a commentary that covers the text, is accepted as canonical in the PAli canon (tipitaka, S. TRIPItAKA). All this evidence suggests its relative antiquity within the canon. The teachings contained in the chapter seem to suggest an early stratum of Buddhist teachings, prior to their formalization around fixed numerical lists of doctrines. The technical terminology that becomes emblematic of the standardized Buddhist presentation of doctrine is also relatively absent in its verses (GATHA). The Atthakavagga offers a rigorous indictment of the dangers inherent in "views" (P. ditthi; S. DṚstI) and displays a skepticism about religious dogmas in general, seeing them as virulent sources of attachment that lead ultimately to conceit, quarrels, and divisiveness. Some scholars have suggested that the kind of thoroughgoing critique of views presented in the Atthakavagga might have been the prototype of the later MADHYAMAKA logical approach, which sought to demonstrate the fallacies inherent in any philosophical statement. The verses also seem to represent an earlier stage in the evolution of Buddhist institutions, when monks still lived alone in the forest or with small groups of fellow ascetics, rather than in larger urban monasteries. Monks are still referred to as hermits or "seers" (P. isi, S. ṛsi), a generic Indian term for religious recluses, rather than the formal Buddhist term bhikkhu (BHIKsU) as is seen in the prose passages. A two-roll Chinese translation of a Sanskrit or Middle Indic recension of the text was made by ZHI QIAN during the Wu dynasty (c. 223-253 CE).

avacara. (T. spyod pa; C. jieji; J. kaike; K. kyegye 界繫). In Sanskrit and PAli, when used at the end of compound words, means "sphere," "domain," or "realm of existence." In Buddhist cosmology, the term refers to the things that "belong to the sphere" of the three realms of existence (traidhAtukAvacara, see TRAIDHATUKA), which comprise the entire phenomenal universe: the sensuous realm (kAmAvacara or KAMADHATU), the realm of subtle materiality or form (rupAvacara or RuPADHATU), and the immaterial or formless realm (ArupyAvacara or ARuPYADHATU). The three realms of existence taken together comprise all of SAMSARA, the cycle of rebirth, and are the spheres within which beings take rebirth: there are no realms of existence that are unoccupied, and no beings are born anywhere other than in these three spheres. The sensuous realm is the lowest stratum of the universe and contains the following destinies (GATI), in ascending order: denizens of hell, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, demigods (ASURA), and divinities (DEVA). Rebirth in the sensuous realm is the result of past performance of either predominantly unwholesome deeds (in the case of hell denizens, hungry ghosts, animals, and asuras), a mix of unwholesome and wholesome deeds (as with human beings), or predominantly wholesome deeds (the divinities). The beings in the sensuous realm all have a coarser physical constituent. The realm of subtle materiality is occupied by the BRAHMA and other gods, whose minds are perpetually absorbed in one of the four subtle-materiality meditative absorptions (RuPAVACARADHYANA). Rebirth in the realm of subtle materiality is the result of mastery of one or all of these four dhyAnas, and the beings residing there are refined enough that they require only the subtlest of material foundations for their consciousnesses. The immaterial realm is occupied by divinities who are entirely mental, no longer requiring even a subtle-material foundation for their ethereal states of mind. The divinities in the immaterial realm are perpetually absorbed in immaterial trance states, and rebirth there is the result of mastery of one or all of the immaterial dhyAnas (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA).

Avalokitavrata. (T. Spyan ras gzigs brtul zhugs). Indian scholiast of the eighth century CE and successor to BHAVAVIVEKA [alt. Bhavya] in the SVATANTRIKA school of MADHYAMAKA. Avalokitavrata wrote the PrajNApradīpatīkA, an extensive subcommentary to BhAvaviveka's PRAJNAPRADĪPA, his commentary on NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA, in which he defends BhAvaviveka from CANDRAKĪRTI's critiques. That subcommentary is extant only in Tibetan translation.

babu. (J. happu; K. p'albul 八不). In Chinese, "eight extremes" (the Chinese is a free rendering of the Sanskrit AstANTA): the antinomies of production and cessation, eternality and annihilation, sameness and difference, and coming and going, which constitute eight misconceptions of sentient beings. The negation of these eight extremes is a central philosophical and soteriological tenet of the SAN LUN ZONG (the East Asian equivalent of the MADHYAMAKA school) and is adapted from the opening verse of NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA. See also CATUsKOtI.

AdhyardhasatikAprajNApAramitAsutra/PrajNApAramitAnayasatapaNcasatikA. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i tshul brgya lnga bcu pa; C. Shixiang bore boluomi jing/Bore liqu fen; J. Jisso hannya haramitsukyo/Hannya rishubun; K. Silsang panya paramil kyong/Panya ich'wi pun 實相般若波羅蜜經/般若理趣分). In Sanskrit, "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred and Fifty Lines." The basic verses (in Sanskrit) and a commentary describing the ritual accompanying its recitation (originally in Khotanese), are found together as two YOGA class tantras, the srīparmAdhya (T. Dpal mchog dang po) and srīvajramandalAlaMkAra (T. Dpal rdo rje snying po rgyan). In Japan, AMOGHAVAJRA's version of the text (called the Rishukyo) came to form an integral part of the philosophy and practice of the Japanese Shingon sect (SHINGONSHu).

Adhyaropa (Sanskrit) Adhyāropa [from adhi above, over + āropa superimposition from ā-rup to confound, disturb] Usually, erroneous deduction. In Vedantic philosophy, a wrong attribution or misconception, e.g., to conceive of silver as being innate in mother-of-pearl, the sheen common to both being an adhyaropa. The mind in its absorption in the unreal (avidya, “ignorance”) superimposes a world of duality and plurality on the real — on Brahman — and as a result there is a multiplicity of confusing and often conflicting goals.

Adhyasa, Adhyasika (Sanskrit) Adhyāsa, Adhyāsika [from adhi above, over + the verbal root as to throw, cast; throwing over or casting upon] Misconception or erroneous attribution, the significance being that the mind casts upon facts, which are misunderstood, certain mistaken notions; hence false or erroneous attribution. Equivalent to adhyaropa.

Adhyatma-jnana (Sanskrit) Adhyātma-jñāna [from adhi over, superior + ātman self + jñāna knowledge from the verbal root jnā to know, understand] Knowledge of the supreme self, equivalent to adhyatma-vidya.

Adhyatman (Sanskrit) Adhyātman [from adhi over, above + ātman self] The supreme or original self, equivalent to paramatman (cf BG 7:29; 8:3).

Adhyatman: (Skr. adhi, over and atman, s.v.) A term for the Absolute which gained popularity with the reading of the Bhagavad Gita (cf. 8.3) and which Ralph Waldo Emerson rendered appropriately "Oversoul" (cf. his essay The Oversoul). -- K.F.L.

Adhyatma: Sanskrit for Supreme Spirit.

Adhyatma-vidya (Sanskrit) Adhyātma-vidyā [from adhi over, above + ātman self + vidyā knowledge from the verbal root vid to know, perceive, learn] Knowledge of the supreme atman or self; used interchangeably with adhyatma-jnana.

Adhyatmika-duhkha (Sanskrit) Ādhyātmika-duḥkha [from adhi above + ātman self; duḥkha trouble, difficulty from dush to be defiled] The first of the three kinds of klesa (affliction) or worldly pain (cf VP 6:5). Those arising from oneself, generally classed as bodily ailments (headaches, fevers, diseases, etc.), but more properly those pains or troubles originating from mental and other inner causes such as weakness of will, vagrant and misleading emotions, and imperfect mentation, which lead to physical ailments. The other two klesas are adhibhautika and adhidaivika.

Adhyatmika (Sanskrit) Ādhyātmika [from adhi above + ātman self] Relating to the supreme self or atman; more abstractly, pertaining to original atman.

Adhyaya (Sanskrit) Adhyāya [from adhi over, above + the verbal root i to go, move] A chapter, division, or section of a book; the adhyayas or divisions of music are eight in number.

bahirdhA. (P. bahiddhA; T. phyi; C. wai; J. ge; K. oe 外). In Sanskrit, "outer" (also written bAhya); usually paired with "inner" (adhyAtma) and sometimes with a third "both" (ubhaya), particularly in lists of the types of emptiness (suNYATA) in the PRAJNAPARAMITA SuTRAs. Outer refers to the first six external sense-fields (AYATANA, the objects of eye, ear, nose, and so on); inner to the six internal sense-fields (from the eye-to mind-faculties); and both to the inner and outer sense-fields of other persons. The emptiness of these three categories completes the presentation of the emptiness of a person (PUDGALA); it is followed by the demonstration of the emptiness of emptiness itself. See also BAHYARTHA.

bAhyArtha. (T. phyi don; C. waijing; J. gekyo; K. oegyong 外境). In Sanskrit, "external object"; referring specifically to sensory objects (AYATANA) that exist externally to the sensory consciousnesses (VIJNANA) that perceive them; the term is sometimes also seen in Sanskrit as bahirdhArtha. Such objects are knowable because there is some feature or quality (AKARA) that is specific to that particular sense datum. In the MADHYAMAKA school, the conventional existence of external objects is sometimes upheld, although they are said to lack intrinsic nature (SVABHAVA). External objects are built up out of atoms (PARAMAnU), the smallest particles, sometimes compared to a mote of dust. These indivisible atoms serve as building blocks that coalesce to create an external object large enough to have an impact on a sensory faculty (INDRIYA). In his critique of individual atoms in his MADHYAMAKALAMKARA, sANTARAKsITA describes three basic assertions about how this process happens: (1) different atoms are connected with one another; (2) the atoms are surrounded by external atoms of the same class, with interstices in between, each grounding the others' potential; they cohere and do not drift apart because of a reciprocal energy but do not touch each other; (3) there are no interstices at all between the atoms. In the YOGACARA school, external objects are presumed not to exist prior to and separate from the sensory consciousnesses that perceive them, and thus lack any intrinsic reality of their own. VASUBANDHU's VIMsATIKA presents the YogAcAra view that indivisible atoms of any type cannot form gross objects. The YogAcAra refutation is part of a larger project to demonstrate that Buddhist notions of causality are tenable only in the absence of external objects. According to this view, the conscious experience of apparent external objects is in fact the result of residual impressions (VASANA) left by earlier, similar experiences on an eighth consciousness, the storehouse-like subconscious (ALAYAVIJNANA).

Bai lun. [alt. Bo lun]. (J. Hyakuron; K. Paek non 百論). In Chinese, "The Hundred Treatise," a philosophical work attributed to the MADHYAMAKA master ARYADEVA, and counted as one of the "three treatises" of the SANLUN ZONG of Chinese Buddhism. See *sATAsASTRA.

bala. (T. stobs; C. li; J. riki; K. yok 力). In Sanskrit and PAli, "power" or "strength"; used in a variety of lists, including the five powers (the eighteenth to twenty-second of the BODHIPAKsIKADHARMAs, or "thirty-seven factors pertaining to awakening"), the ten powers of a TATHAGATA, the ten powers of a BODHISATTVA, and the ninth of the ten perfections (PARAMITA). The five powers are the same as the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA)-faith (sRADDHA), perseverance (VĪRYA), mindfulness (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMADHI), and wisdom (PRAJNA)-but now fully developed at the LAUKIKAGRADHARMA stage of the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA), just prior to the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA). A tathAgata's ten powers are given in both PAli and Sanskrit sources as the power of the knowledge (jNAnabala) of: (1) what can be and cannot be (sthAnAsthAna), (2) karmic results (karmavipAka), (3) the various dispositions of different beings (nAnAdhimukti), (4) how the world has many and different elements (nAnAdhAtu), (5) the higher (or different) faculties people possess (indriyaparApara), (6) the ways that lead to all destinations (sarvatragAminīpratipad), (7) the defilement and purification of all meditative absorptions (DHYANA), liberations (VIMOKsA), samAdhis, and trances (SAMAPATTI) (sarvadhyAnavimoksasamAdhisamApatti-saMklesavyavadAnavyavasthAna), (8) recollecting previous births (PuRVANIVASANUSMṚTI), (9) decease and birth (cyutyupapatti), and (10) the extinction of the contaminants (ASRAVAKsAYA). Another list gives the Buddha's ten powers as the power of aspiration (Asaya), resolution (ADHYAsAYA), habit (abhyAsa), practice (PRATIPATTI), wisdom (prajNA), vow (PRAnIDHANA), vehicle (YANA), way of life (caryA), thaumaturgy (vikurvana), the power derived from his bodhisattva career, and the power to turn the wheel of dharma (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA). When the MahAyAna six perfections (PARAMITA) are expanded and linked to the ten bodhisattva stages (DAsABHuMI), four perfections are added: the perfections of skillful means (UPAYA), vow, power, and knowledge (JNANA). Thus the perfection of power (BALAPARAMITA) is linked with the ninth bodhisattva stage (BHuMI). When the ten powers are listed as a bodhisattva's perfection of power, they are sometimes explained to be the powers of a tathAgata before they have reached full strength.

Bhaddekarattasutta. In PAli, "The Ideal Lover of Solitude," the 131st sutra in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (there is no corresponding version in the Chinese translations of the AGAMAs); spoken at Jeta's Grove in SAvatthi (sRAVASTĪ); several related DHARMAGUPTAKA recensions appear in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA, although none with a corresponding title. The Buddha recites an enigmatic verse, in which he defines ideal solitude as letting go of everything involving the past or the future and dwelling solely in the present moment, discerning phenomena with wisdom as they appear. In his own exposition of the meaning of his verses, the Buddha explains that tracing back the past means not so much remembering the past but rather binding oneself to one's past aggregates (SKANDHA) through delighting in them; similarly, yearning for the future means the desire to have one's aggregates appear a certain way in the future. Instead, the religious should not identify with any of the five skandhas as being oneself; such a one is called an "ideal lover of solitude." The MajjhimanikAya collects subsequent expositions of these same verses by the Buddha's attendant ANANDA, MahAkaccAna (MAHAKATYAYANA), and Lomasakangiya. The term bhaddekaratta has given traditional PAli commentators difficulties and has sometimes been interpreted to mean "one who is happy [viz., auspicious?] for one night" (bhaddakassa ekarattassa) because he possesses insight, an interpretation that has its analogues in the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit title BHADRAKARATRĪ as shanye (a good night).

BhadrakArAtrī. (T. Mtshan mo bzang po; C. Shanye jing; J. Zen'yakyo; K. Sonya kyong 善夜經). In Sanskrit, "Scripture of One Fine Night," an apotropaic and soteriological text, in one roll, with close parallels to the PAli BHADDEKARATTASUTTA; translated into Chinese in 701 by YIJING (635-713), and into Tibetan by YE SHES SDE (fl. c. 800). The Sanskrit title, which is found in the colophon of the Tibetan translation of the sutra (three folios in length) is otherwise unattested in the literature. The title is interpreted in Chinese as meaning "a fine night" and is used as an analogy for the mind of a person who is freed from all kinds of suffering (DUḤKHA) and afflictions (KLEsA). The text seems to have its origins in an incantation that the Buddha had spoken previously. One day, a divinity (DEVA) visited a monk who was then staying with the Buddha in the Bamboo Grove (S. VEnUVANAVIHARA) in RAJAGṚHA, to ask about this verse. The monk, who did not know the verse, went to the Buddha, informed him of the divinity's request, and asked him to teach it. The Buddha then explained this scripture, which he said had the power to protect human beings from baleful spirits. One who follows the teachings of the scripture would also be relieved from all miseries and transgressions and could soon attain awakening. If one recites the scripture or one of its verses, or explains it to others, one would experience no misfortunes and would acquire knowledge of one's past and future lives. A recension of the text is also included in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA (no. 165), which partially corresponds to the PAli Bhaddekarattasutta spoken by MahAkaccAna (MAHAKATYAYANA), the 133rd sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA.

Bhadrika. (P. Bhaddiya; T. Bzang ldan; C. Poti/Renxian; J. Badai/Ninken; K. Paje/Inhyon 婆提/仁賢). In Sanskrit, "Felicitous," one of the five ascetics (S. PANCAVARGIKA; P. paNcavaggiyA), along with AJNATAKAUndINYA (P. ANNakondaNNa), AsVAJIT (P. Assaji), VAsPA (P. Vappa), and MAHANAMAN (P. MahAnAma), who practiced austerities with GAUTAMA before his enlightenment; he later became one of the Buddha's first disciples upon hearing the first "turning of the wheel of the DHARMA" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA; P. dhammacakkappavatana) at the ṚsIPATANA (P. Isipatana) deer park. When Gautama first renounced the world to practice austerities, Bhadrika and his four companions accompanied him (some texts say that the Buddha's father, King sUDDHODANA, dispatched them to ensure his son's safety). Later, when Gautama abandoned the severe asceticism they had been practicing in favor of the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD), Bhadrika and his companions became disgusted with Gautama's backsliding and left him, going to practice in the Ṛsipatana deer park, located in the northeast of Benares. After the Buddha's enlightenment, however, the Buddha sought them out to teach them the first sermon, the DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA (P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA); Bhadrika became a stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNA) while listening to this sermon and was immediately ordained as a monk using the informal EHIBHIKsUKA (P. ehi bhikkhu), or "come, monk," formula. Five days later, the Buddha then preached to the group of five monks the second sermon, the *AnAtmalaksanasutra (P. ANATTALAKKHAnASUTTA), which led to Bhadrika becoming an arhat. Bhadrika is presumed to have been related to the Buddha on his father King suddhodana's side and was the son of one of the eight brAhmanas who attended Gautama's naming ceremony, when it was predicted he would become either a wheel-turning monarch (CAKRAVARTIN; P. cakkavattin) or a buddha. There are several variant transcriptions of Bhadrika's name in Chinese and a number of different translations, including Xiaoxian (J. Shoken; K. Sohyon), Shanxian (J. Zenken; K. Sonhyon), Renxian (J. Ninken; K. Inhyon), and Youxian (J. Yuken; K. Yuhyon). ¶ For another Bhadrika (P. Bhaddiya) known in the mainstream Buddhist literature as chief among monks of aristocratic birth, see BHADDIYA-KAlIGODHAPUTTA.

BhArhut. An important Buddhist archeological site in India; located in central India, in northeastern Madhya Pradesh. In 1873, the British general Alexander Cunningham discovered at the site an ancient Buddhist STuPA, or reliquary mound, dating as far back as the third century BCE. Surrounding this stupa are a series of sculptures that date to the second and first centuries BCE. The antiquity of these works, and the quality of their preservation, render them invaluable to the study of Indian Buddhist iconography. The structure follows the general Indian stupa design, with a central mound surrounded by a fence-like enclosure with four gates. The stupa is illustrated with several aniconic representations of the Buddha. These images include an empty throne (VAJRASANA), a BODHI TREE, a set of the Buddha's footprints (BUDDHAPADA), the triple gem (RATNATRAYA) and a dharma wheel (DHARMACAKRA). This stupa also includes a number of reliefs depicting various episodes in the life of the Buddha (see BAXIANG; TWELVE DEEDS OF A BUDDHA), including the dream of queen MAYA when he was conceived, the battle with MARA, and his enlightenment. Also depicted are a number of the Buddha's birth stories (JATAKA). The stupa's sculptural remains are now housed in the Indian Museum in Kolkata (Calcutta) and in the Municipal Museum of Allahabad. See also SANCĪ.

BhAvanAkrama. (T. Sgom rim). In Sanskrit, "Stages of Meditation," the title of three separate but related works by the late-eighth century Indian master KAMALAsĪLA. During the reign of the Tibetan king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN at the end of the eighth century, there were two Buddhist factions at court, a Chinese faction led by the Northern Chan (BEI ZONG) monk Heshang Moheyan (MahAyAna) and an Indian faction of the recently deceased sANTARAKsITA, who with the king and PADMASAMBHAVA had founded the first Tibetan monastery at BSAM YAS (Samye). According to traditional accounts, sAntaraksita foretold of dangers and left instructions in his will that his student Kamalasīla should be summoned from India. A conflict seems to have developed between the Indian and Chinese partisans (and their allies in the Tibetan court) over the question of the nature of enlightenment, with the Indians holding that enlightenment takes place as the culmination of a gradual process of purification, the result of perfecting morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMADHI), and wisdom (PRAJNA). The Chinese spoke against this view, holding that enlightenment was the intrinsic nature of the mind rather than the goal of a protracted path, such that one need simply to recognize the presence of this innate nature of enlightenment by entering a state of awareness beyond distinctions; all other practices were superfluous. According to both Chinese and Tibetan records, a debate was held between Kamalasīla and Moheyan at Bsam yas, circa 797, with the king himself serving as judge (see BSAM YAS DEBATE). According to Tibetan reports (contradicted by the Chinese accounts), Kamalasīla was declared the winner and Moheyan and his party banished from Tibet, with the king proclaiming that thereafter the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy (to which sAntaraksita and Kamalasīla belonged) would have pride of place in Tibet. ¶ According to Tibetan accounts, after the conclusion of the debate, the king requested that Kamalasīla compose works that presented his view, and in response, Kamalasīla composed the three BhAvanAkrama. There is considerable overlap among the three works. All three are germane to the issues raised in the debate, although whether all three were composed in Tibet is not established with certainty; only the third, and briefest of the three, directly considers, and refutes, the view of "no mental activity" (amanasikAra, cf. WUNIAN), which is associated with Moheyan. The three texts set forth the process for the potential BODHISATTVA to cultivate BODHICITTA and then develop sAMATHA and VIPAsYANA and progress through the bodhisattva stages (BHuMI) to buddhahood. The cultivation of vipasyanA requires the use of both scripture (AGAMA) and reasoning (YUKTI) to understand emptiness (suNYATA); in the first BhAvanAkrama, Kamalasīla sets forth the three forms of wisdom (prajNA): the wisdom derived from learning (sRUTAMAYĪPRAJNA), the wisdom derived from reflection (CINTAMAYĪPRAJNA), and the wisdom derived from cultivation (BHAVANAMAYĪPRAJNA), explaining that the last of these gradually destroys the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) and the obstructions to omniscience (JNEYAVARAnA). The second BhAvanAkrama considers many of these same topics, stressing that the achievement of the fruition of buddhahood requires the necessary causes, in the form of the collection of merit (PUnYASAMBHARA) and the collection of wisdom (JNANASAMBHARA). Both the first and second works espouse the doctrine of mind-only (CITTAMATRA); it is on the basis of these and other statements that Tibetan doxographers classified Kamalasīla as a YOGACARA-SVATANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. The third and briefest of the BhAvanAkrama is devoted especially to the topics of samatha and vipasyanA, how each is cultivated, and how they are ultimately unified. Kamalasīla argues that analysis (VICARA) into the lack of self (ATMAN) in both persons (PUDGALA) and phenomena (DHARMA) is required to arrive at a nonconceptual state of awareness. The three texts are widely cited in later Tibetan Buddhist literature, especially on the process for developing samatha and vipasyanA.

bhAvanAmArga. (T. sgom lam; C. xiudao; J. shudo; K. sudo 修道). In Sanskrit, "the path of cultivation" or "path of meditation"; the fourth of the five stages of the path (MARGA) in the SARVASTIVADA soteriological system (also adopted in the MAHAYANA), which follows the path of vision or insight (DARsANAMARGA) and precedes the adept path where no further training is necessary (AsAIKsAMARGA). In the SarvAstivAda path schema, the path of vision consists of fifteen thought-moments, with a subsequent sixteenth moment marking the beginning of the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). This sixteenth moment, that of subsequent knowledge (ANVAYAJNANA) of the truth of the path (mArga), is, in effect, the knowledge that all of the afflictions (KLEsA) of both the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHATU) and the immaterial realm (ARuPYADHATU) that are associated with the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS have been abandoned. As a result, the meditator destroys all causes for future rebirth as an animal, ghost, or hell denizen, but is not liberated from rebirth altogether and may still be reborn as a human or divinity. The more deeply rooted afflictions are destroyed over the course of the path of cultivation. For each of the nine levels of the three realms of rebirth-the sensuous realm (with one level), the realm of subtle materiality (with four levels), and the immaterial realm (with four levels)-there are nine levels of afflictions (KLEsA), from the most coarse to the most insidious, making eighty-one levels of affliction to be destroyed. As was the case with the path of vision, these defilements must be destroyed in a two-step process: the actual destruction of the particular affliction and the knowledge that it has been destroyed. There are therefore 162 "moments" of the abandoning of afflictions. This process, which takes place over the course of the path of cultivation, may occur over several lifetimes. However, when the 162nd stage is reached, and the subtlest of the subtle afflictions associated with the ninth level-that is, the fourth absorption of the immaterial realm-has been abandoned, the adept is then liberated from rebirth. The bhAvanAmArga is one of the "paths of the nobles" (ARYAMARGA) and one on this stage is immune to any possibility of retrogression and is assured of eventually achieving NIRVAnA. Reference is also sometimes made to the mundane path of cultivation (LAUKIKA-bhAvanAmArga), which refers to the three trainings (TRIsIKsA) in morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMADHI), and wisdom (PRAJNA) as they are developed before the first of the three fetters (SAMYOJANA) is eradicated and insight achieved. In the MahAyAna path system, with variations between YOGACARA and MADHYAMAKA, the bhAvanAmArga is the period in which the BODHISATTVA proceeds through the ten BHuMIs and destroys the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) and the obstructions to omniscience (JNEYAVARAnA).

BhavasaMkrAnti. (T. Srid pa 'pho ba). In Sanskrit, "Transference of Existence," a brief work ascribed to NAGARJUNA; also known as MadhyamakabhavasaMkrAnti. The title seems to suggest that it deals with the practice of transferring one's consciousness from one body to another, but this topic is actually not covered in the text. It discusses instead standard MADHYAMAKA topics such as the function of VIKALPA as the source of the world, the ultimate nonexistence of all phenomena, the six perfections (PARAMITA), UPAYA and PRAJNA, and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). NAgArjuna's major commentators (BHAVAVIVEKA, CANDRAKĪRTI et al.) do not cite the work, which raises questions about its authorship.

BhAvaviveka. (T. Legs ldan 'byed; C. Qingbian; J. Shoben; K. Ch'ongbyon 清辯) (c. 500-570). Also known as BhAviveka and Bhavya, an important Indian master of the MADHYAMAKA school, identified in Tibet as a proponent of SVATANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA and, within that, of SAUTRANTIKA-SVATANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. He is best known for two works. The first is the PRAJNAPRADĪPA, his commentary on NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA; this work has an extensive subcommentary by AVALOKITAVRATA. Although important in its own right as one of the major commentaries on the central text of the Madhyamaka school, the work is most often mentioned for its criticism of the commentary of BUDDHAPALITA on the first chapter of NAgArjuna's text, where BhAvaviveka argues that it is insufficient for the Madhyamaka only to state the absurd consequences (PRASAnGA) that follow from the position of the opponent. According to BhAvaviveka, the Madhyamaka must eventually state his own position in the form of what is called an autonomous inference (svatantrAnumAna) or an autonomous syllogism (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA). In his own commentary on the first chapter of NAgArjuna's text, CANDRAKĪRTI came to the defense of BuddhapAlita and criticized BhAvaviveka, stating that it is inappropriate for the Madhyamaka to use autonomous syllogisms. It is on the basis of this exchange that Tibetan exegetes identified two schools within Madhyamaka: the SvAtantrika, which includes BhAvaviveka, and the PrAsangika, which includes BuddhapAlita and Candrakīrti. ¶ The other major work of BhAvaviveka is his MADHYAMAKAHṚDAYA, written in verse, and its prose autocommentary, the TARKAJVALA. The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan, the TarkajvAlA only in Tibetan. It is a work of eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in BhAvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNAna), and omniscience (SARVAJNATA). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and BhAvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRAVAKA, YOGACARA, SAMkhya, Vaisesika, VedAnta, and MīmAMsA. These chapters (along with sANTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are an invaluable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and other contemporary Indian philosophical schools, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist. The chapter on the srAvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the sRAVAKAYANA schools of mainstream Buddhism as to why the MahAyAna sutras are not the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). BhAvaviveka's response to these charges, as well as his refutation of YOGACARA in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited, arguing that reality (TATHATA) cannot be substantially existent (dravyasat), as those rival schools claim. However, BhAvaviveka made extensive use of both the logic and epistemology of DIGNĂGA, at least at the level of conventional analysis. BhAvaviveka appears to have been the first Madhyamaka author to declare that the negations set forth by the Madhyamaka school are nonaffirming (or simple) negations (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA) rather than affirming (or implicative) negations (PARYUDASAPRATIsEDHA). Also attributed to BhAvaviveka is the Karatalaratna ("Jewel in Hand Treatise"; Zhangzhen lun), a work preserved only in the Chinese translation of XUANZANG. BhAvaviveka's MADHYAMAKARTHASAMGRAHA is a brief text in verse. As the title suggests, it provides an outline of the basic topics of MADHYAMAKA philosophy, such as the middle way (S. MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the extremes of existence and nonexistence, Madhyamaka reasoning, and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). The MADHYAMAKARATNAPRADĪPA is likely the work of another author of the same name, since it makes reference to such later figures as Candrakīrti and DHARMAKĪRTI.

bhikkhu. In PAli, "mendicant"; a fully ordained Buddhist monk, who is enjoined to observe 227 rules of discipline according to the PAli VINAYA. Upon receiving higher ordination (UPASAMPADA), the new monk is required to remain under the guidance (nissaya; NIsRAYA) of his preceptor (upajjhAya; UPADHYAYA) for at least five years, until he becomes sufficiently skilled in dhamma and vinaya. After ten years, the monk becomes an elder (thera) in the sangha and is allowed to serve as an upajjhAya and ordain others. See also BHIKsU.

bhiksunī. (P. bhikkhunī; T. dge slong ma; C. biqiuni; J. bikuni; K. piguni 比丘尼) In Sanskrit, "beggar (female)," commonly translated as "nun." A bhiksunī holds full ordination in her VINAYA lineage and is distinguished from a novice nun (sRAMAnERIKA) or a probationary postulant (sIKsAMAnA) who both accept only the preliminary training rules. The bhiksunī is enjoined to observe the full set of rules of monastic discipline, or PRATIMOKsA, governing fully ordained nuns, which vary from 311 in the PAli vinaya to 364 in the MuLASARVASTIVADA vinaya followed in Tibet (although the order of bhiksunī was never established there). These rules mirror closely those also incumbent on monks (BHIKsU) (although there are substantially greater numbers of rules in all categories of the bhiksunī prAtimoksa); an important exception, however, is that nuns are also required to adhere to the eight "weighty" or "deferential" "rules" (GURUDHARMA), a set of special rules that nuns alone are enjoined to follow, which explicitly subordinate the bhiksunī to the bhiksu SAMGHA. Upon receiving higher ordination (UPASAMPADA), the new nun is required to remain under the guidance (NIsRAYA; P. nissaya) of her preceptor (UPADHYAYA; P. upajjhAyA) for at least two years until she becomes skilled in dharma and vinaya. After ten years, the nun becomes an elder (sthavirī; P. therī) in the bhiksunī saMgha and, after another two years, may act as a preceptor and ordain new nuns into the order. In South Asia, the formal upasaMpadA ordination of nuns is thought to have died out sometime during the medieval period, and there is little evidence that a formal bhiksunī saMgha was ever established in Southeast Asia. The only surviving bhiksunī ordination lineages are in China, Korea, and Taiwan. Apart from East Asia, most Buddhist women known as "nuns" are actually only ordained with the eight, nine, or ten extended lay precepts (as in Southeast Asia), as srAmanerikA (as in Tibet), or else take the East Asian bodhisattva precepts of the FANWANG JING (as in Japan). In recent years there has been a concerted effort to reintroduce the bhiksunī ordination to countries where it had died out or was never established.

bhrAntijNAna. (T. 'khrul shes; C. luanshi; J. ranjiki; K. nansik 亂識). In Sanskrit, "mistaken consciousness"; an epistemological term that is used to describe a consciousness that is mistaken with regard to its external sensory object, or "appearing object" (T. snang yul). Hence, according to the SAUTRANTIKA school, all conceptual consciousnesses, even those that are veridical, are mistaken in the sense that they mistake a generic image (arthasAmAnya) of an object for the actual object. YOGACARA schools say all consciousness of external appearance is mistaken, and some MADHYAMAKA schools say basic ignorance makes even nonconceptual sensory perceptions mistaken. In addition to mistaken consciousnesses that arise from such forms of ignorance (AVIDYA), there are also mistaken consciousnesses produced by superficial causes--inner and outer causes and conditions that distort the five physical senses and sixth mental sense. For example, jaundice may cause something that is white to appear yellow and summer sunlight and sand may cause a mirage, in which the mistaken consciousness sees water where there is none.

bhrumadhya ::: [the place between the eyebrows].

bodhicitta. (T. byang chub kyi sems; C. putixin; J. bodaishin; K. porisim 菩提心). In Sanskrit, "thought of enlightenment" or "aspiration to enlightenment"; the intention to reach the complete, perfect enlightenment (ANUTTARASAMYAKSAMBODHI) of the buddhas, in order to liberate all sentient beings in the universe from suffering. As the generative cause that leads to the eventual achievement of buddhahood and all that it represents, bodhicitta is one of the most crucial terms in MAHAYANA Buddhism. The achievement of bodhicitta marks the beginning of the BODHISATTVA path: bodhicitta refers to the aspiration that inspires the bodhisattva, the being who seeks buddhahood. In some schools of MahAyAna Buddhism, bodhicitta is conceived as being latent in all sentient beings as the "innately pure mind" (prakṛtiparisuddhacitta), as, for example, in the MAHAVAIROCANABHISAMBODHISuTRA: "Knowing one's own mind according to reality is BODHI, and bodhicitta is the innately pure mind that is originally existent." In this sense, bodhicitta was conceived as a universal principle, related to such terms as DHARMAKAYA, TATHAGATA, or TATHATA. However, not all schools of the MahAyAna (e.g., some strands of YOGACARA) hold that all beings are destined for buddhahood and, thus, not all beings are endowed with bodhicitta. Regardless of whether or not bodhicitta is regarded as somehow innate, however, bodhicitta is also a quality of mind that must be developed, hence the important term BODHICITTOTPADA, "generation of the aspiration to enlightenment." Both the BODHISATTVABHuMI and the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA provide a detailed explanation of bodhicitta. In late Indian MahAyAna treatises by such important authors as sANTIDEVA, KAMALAsĪLA, and ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNANA, techniques are set forth for cultivating bodhicitta. The development of bodhicitta also figures heavily in MahAyAna liturgies, especially in those where one receives the bodhisattva precepts (BODHISATTVASAMVARA). In this literature, two types of bodhicitta are enumerated. First, the "conventional bodhicitta" (SAMVṚTIBODHICITTA) refers to a bodhisattva's mental aspiration to achieve enlightenment, as described above. Second, the "ultimate bodhicitta" (PARAMARTHABODHICITTA) refers to the mind that directly realizes either emptiness (suNYATA) or the enlightenment inherent in the mind. This "conventional bodhicitta" is further subdivided between PRAnIDHICITTOTPADA, literally, "aspirational creation of the attitude" (where "attitude," CITTA, refers to bodhicitta), where one makes public one's vow (PRAnIDHANA) to attain buddhahood; and PRASTHANACITTOTPADA, literally "creation of the attitude of setting out," where one actually sets out to practice the path to buddhahood. In discussing this latter pair, sAntideva in his BODHICARYAVATARA compares the first type to the decision to undertake a journey and the second type to actually setting out on the journey; in the case of the bodhisattva path, then, the first therefore refers to the process of developing the aspiration to buddhahood for the sake of others, while the second refers to undertaking the various practices of the bodhisattva path, such as the six perfections (PARAMITA). The AVATAMSAKASuTRA describes three types of bodhicitta, those like a herder, a ferryman, and a king. In the first case the bodhisattva first delivers all others into enlightenment before entering enlightenment himself, just as a herder takes his flock into the pen before entering the pen himself; in the second case, they all enter enlightenment together, just as a ferryman and his passengers arrive together at the further shore; and in the third, the bodhisattva first reaches enlightenment and then helps others to reach the goal, just as a king first ascends to the throne and then benefits his subjects. A standard definition of bodhicitta is found at the beginning of the ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, where it is defined as an intention or wish that has two aims: buddhahood, and the welfare of those beings whom that buddhahood will benefit; the text also gives a list of twenty-two types of bodhicitta, with examples for each. Later writers like Arya VIMUKTISENA and HARIBHADRA locate the AbhisamayAlaMkAra's twenty-two types of bodhicitta at different stages of the bodhisattva path and at enlightenment. At the beginning of his MADHYAMAKAVATARA, CANDRAKĪRTI compares compassion (KARUnA) to a seed, water, and crops and says it is important at the start (where compassion begins the bodhisattva's path), in the middle (where it sustains the bodhisattva and prevents a fall into the limited NIRVAnA of the ARHAT), and at the end when buddhahood is attained (where it explains the unending, spontaneous actions for the sake of others that derive from enlightenment). KarunA is taken to be a cause of bodhicitta because bodhicitta initially arises and ultimately will persist, only if MAHAKARUnA ("great empathy for others' suffering") is strong. In part because of its connotation as a generative force, in ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, bodhicitta comes also to refer to semen, especially in the practice of sexual yoga, where the physical seed (BĪJA) of awakening (representing UPAYA) is placed in the lotus of wisdom (PRAJNA).

Bodhicittavivarana. (T. Byang chub sems 'grel). In Sanskrit, "Exposition of the Mind of Enlightenment"; a work traditionally ascribed to NAGARJUNA, although the text is not cited by NAgArjuna's commentators BUDDHAPALITA, CANDRAKĪRTI, or BHAVAVIVEKA. This absence, together with apparently tantric elements in the text and the fact that it contains a sustained critique of VIJNANAVADA, have led some scholars to conclude that it is not the work of the same NAgArjuna who authored the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA. Nonetheless, the work is widely cited in later Indian MahAyAna literature and is important in Tibet. The text consists of 112 stanzas, preceded by a brief section in prose. It is essentially a compendium of MAHAYANA theory and practice, intended for bodhisattvas, both monastic and lay, organized around the theme of BODHICITTA, both in its conventional aspect (SAMVṚTIBODHICITTA) as the aspiration to buddhahood out of compassion for all sentient beings, and in its ultimate aspect (PARAMARTHABODHICITTA) as the insight into emptiness (suNYATA). In addition to the refutation of VijNAnavAda, the text refutes the self as understood by the TĪRTHIKAs and the SKANDHAs as understood by the sRAVAKAs.

Bodhiruci. (C. Putiliuzhi; J. Bodairushi; K. Poriryuji 菩提流支) (d. 727). A renowned Indian translator and monk (to be distinguished from an earlier Bodhiruci [s.v.], who was active two centuries earlier during the Northern Wei dynasty). Bodhiruci is said to have been a south Indian who was invited to China by Emperor Gaozong (r. 649-683) of the Tang dynasty in 663, but did not arrive until thirty years later, in 693, during the reign of Empress WU ZETIAN (r. 684-704). He is said to have changed his name from Dharmaruci to Bodhiruci at the request of Empress Wu. He resided in the monastery of Foshoujisi, where he dedicated himself to the translation of several scriptures, including the RATNAMEGHASuTRA (Baoyun jing), ADHYARDHAsATIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA (Shixiang bore bolomi jing), and GayAsīrsasutra. Bodhiruci also assisted sIKsANANDA in his translation of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA. In 706, he resided in the monastery Chongfusi and commenced the translation of the lengthy RATNAKutASuTRA, which the famed Chinese pilgrim and translator XUANZANG had failed to complete earlier. Bodhiruci's translation, edited into 120 rolls, was completed in 713.

bodhisaMbhAra. (T. byang chub kyi tshogs; C. puti ju/puti ziliang; J. bodaigu/bodaishiryo; K. pori ku/pori charyang 菩提具/菩提資糧). In Sanskrit, "collection" of, or "equipment" (SAMBHARA) for, "enlightenment" (BODHI); the term refers to specific sets of spiritual requisites (also called "accumulations") necessary for the attainment of awakening. The BODHISATTVA becomes equipped with these factors during his progress along the path (MARGA) leading to the attainment of buddhahood. In a buddha, the amount of this "enlightenment-collection" is understood to be infinite. These factors are often divided into two major groups: the collection of merit (PUnYASAMBHARA) and the collection of knowledge (JNANASAMBHARA). The collection of merit (PUnYA) entails the strengthening of four perfections (PARAMITA): generosity (DANA), morality (sĪLA), patience (KsANTI), and energy (VĪRYA). The collection of knowledge entails the cultivation of meditative states leading to the realization that emptiness (suNYATA) is the ultimate nature of all things. The bodhisaMbhAra were expounded in the *BodhisaMbhAraka, attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NAGARJUNA, which is now extant only in Dharmagupta's 609 CE Chinese translation, titled the Puti ziliang lun. In this treatise, NAgArjuna explains that the acquisition, development, and fruition of these factors is an essentially interminable process: enlightenment will be achieved when these factors have been developed for as many eons as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River (see GAnGANADĪVALUKA). The text also emphasizes the importance of compassion (KARUnA), calling it the mother of perfect wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA). The perfection of wisdom sutras stress that PARInAMANA (turning over [merit]) and ANUMODANA (rejoicing [in the good deeds of others]) are necessary to amass the collection necessary to reach the final goal.

Bodhisattvabhumi. (T. Byang chub sems dpa'i sa; C. Pusa dichi jing; J. Bosatsujijikyo; K. Posal chiji kyong 菩薩地持經). In Sanskrit, "The Bodhisattva Stages"; a treatise on the entire vocation and training of a BODHISATTVA, attributed to MAITREYA/MAITREYANATHA or ASAnGA (c. fourth century CE), the effective founder of the YOGACARA school. Sanskrit and Tibetan recensions are extant, as well as three different renderings in Chinese: (1) Pusa dichi jing, translated by DHARMAKsEMA between 414-421 CE, which is also abbreviated as the "Treatise on the Bodhisattva Stages" (C. Dichi lun; J. Jijiron; K. Chiji non); (2) Pusa shanjie jing, translated by GUnAVARMAN in 431 CE; and (3) a version incorporated as the fifteenth section of XUANZANG's Chinese translation of Asanga's YOGACARABHuMIsASTRA. In the Tibetan BSTAN 'GYUR, the Bodhisattvabhumi appears as the sixteenth and penultimate part of the fundamental section (sa'i dngos gzhi) of the YogAcArabhumi (which has a total of seventeen sections), but it is set apart as a separate work in 6,000 lines. The Bodhisattvabhumi explains in three major sections the career and practices of a bodhisattva. The chapters on the abodes (vihArapatala) in the second major division and the chapter on stages (bhumipatala) in the third section are considered especially important, because they provide a systematic outline of the soteriological process by which a bodhisattva attains enlightenment. ¶ In contrast to the ten stages (DAsABHuMI) of the bodhisattva path that are described in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the Bodhisattvabhumi instead outlines a system of seven stages (BHuMI), which are then correlated with the thirteen abodes (VIHARA): (1) The stage of innate potentiality (gotrabhumi), which corresponds to the abode of innate potentiality (gotravihAra); (2) the stage of the practice of resolute faith (adhimukticaryAbhumi), corresponding to the abode of resolute faith (adhimukticaryAvihAra); (3) the stage of superior aspiration (suddhAdhyAsayabhumi), which corresponds to the abode of extreme bliss (pramuditavihAra); (4) the stage of carrying out correct practices (caryApratipattibhumi), which includes the abode of superior morality (adhisīlavihAra), the abode of superior concentration (adhicittavihAra), and the abode of the superior wisdom (adhiprajNavihAra), i.e., the abode of superior insight associated with the factors of enlightenment (bodhipaksyapratisaMyukto 'dhiprajNavihAra), the abode of superior insight associated with the truths (satyapratisaMyukto 'dhiprajNavihAra), the abode of superior insight associated with the cessation of dependently arisen transmigration (pratītyasamutpAdapravṛttinivṛttipratisaMyukto 'dhiprajNavihAra), and the signless abode of applied practices and exertion (sAbhisaMskArasAbhoganirnimittavihAra); (5) the stage of certainty (niyatabhumi), which is equivalent to the signless abode that is free from application and exertion (anAbhoganirnimittavihAra); (6) the stage of determined practice (niyatacaryAbhumi), which corresponds to the abode of analytical knowledge (pratisaMvidvihAra); (7) the stage of arriving at the ultimate (nisthAgamanabhumi), which correlates with the abode of ultimate consummation [viz., of bodhisattvahood] (paramavihAra) and the abode of the tathAgata (tathAgatavihAra). In this schema, the first two stages are conceived as preliminary stages of the bodhisattva path: the first stage, the stage of innate potentiality (gotrabhumi), is presumed to be a state in which the aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTA) has yet to be generated; the second stage, the stage of the practice of resolute faith (adhimukticaryAbhumi), is referred to as the stage of preparation (saMbhArAvasthA) and applied practice (prayogAvasthA) in the case of the fivefold YOGACARA mArga schema, or alternatively to the ten faiths, ten abodes, ten practices, and ten dedications in the case of the comprehensive fifty-two stage bodhisattva path presented in the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING, and RENWANG JING. The third stage, the stage of superior aspiration, is regarded as corresponding to the first of the ten bhumis in the Dasabhumikasutra; the fourth stage of carrying out correct practices corresponds to the second through seventh bhumis in that rival schema; the fifth stage of certainty pertains to the eighth bhumi; the stage of determined practice to the ninth bhumi; and the stage of arriving at the ultimate to the tenth bhumi. In fact, however, the seven-bhumi schema of the Bodhisattvabhumi and the ten-bhumi schema of the Dasabhumikasutra developed independently of each other and it requires consider exegetical aplomb to correlate them. ¶ The Bodhisattvabhumi also serves as an important source of information on another crucial feature of bodhisattva practice: the MahAyAna interpretation of a set of moral codes specific to bodhisattvas (BODHISATTVAsĪLA). The chapter on precepts (sīlapatala) in the first major section of the text provides an elaborate description of MahAyAna precepts, which constitute the bodhisattva's perfection of morality (sĪLAPARAMITA). These precepts are classified into the "three sets of pure precepts" (trividhAni sīlAni; C. sanju jingjie, see sĪLATRAYA; TRISAMVARA): (1) the saMvarasīla, or "restraining precepts," (cf. SAMVARA), which refers to the "HĪNAYANA" rules of discipline (PRATIMOKsA) that help adepts restrain themselves from all types of unsalutary conduct; (2) practicing all virtuous deeds (kusaladharmasaMgrAhakasīla), which accumulates all types of salutary conduct; and (3) sattvArthakriyAsīla, which involve giving aid and comfort to sentient beings. Here, the first group corresponds to the generic hīnayAna precepts, while the second and third groups are regarded as reflecting a specifically MahAyAna position on morality. Thus, the three sets of pure precepts are conceived as a comprehensive description of Buddhist views on precepts, which incorporates both hīnayAna and MahAyAna perspectives into an overarching system. A similar treatment of the three sets of pure precepts is also found in the Chinese apocryphal sutra FANWANG JING (see APOCRYPHA), thus providing a scriptural foundation in East Asia for an innovation originally appearing in an Indian treatise. ¶ In Tibet, the Bodhisattvabhumi was a core text of the BKA' GDAMS sect, and its chapter on sīla was the basis for a large body of literature elaborating a VINAYA-type ritual for taking bodhisattva precepts in a MahAyAna ordination ceremony. The SA SKYA PA master Grags pa rgyal mtshan's explanation of CANDRAGOMIN's synopsis of the morality chapter, and TSONG KHA PA's Byang chub gzhung lam are perhaps the best known works in this genre. In Tibet, the SDOM GSUM genre incorporates the Bodhisattvabhumi's three sets of pure precepts into a new scheme that reconciles hīnayAna and MahAyAna with TANTRA.

brahmaloka. (T. tshangs pa'i 'jig rten; C. fanjie; J. bonkai; K. pomgye 梵界). In Sanskrit and PAli, the "BRAHMA worlds." In its narrowest sense, brahmaloka refers to the first three heavens of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU), whose denizens live perpetually immersed in the bliss of the first meditative absorption (DHYANA; P. jhAna): BRAHMAKAYIKA (heaven of BrahmA's followers), BRAHMAPUROHITA (heaven of BrahmA's vassals), and MAHABRAHMA (heaven of BrahmA himself). The ruler of these three heavens is named either BrahmA or MahAbrahmA, and he mistakenly believes that he is the creator of the universe. In a more general sense, the brahmaloka can also refer collectively to all the heavens of both the realm of subtle materiality and the immaterial realm (ARuPYADHATU). The two realms are divided into twenty heavens, the top four of which comprise the immaterial realm. Denizens of the immaterial realm have no physical dimension but are entirely mental and are perpetually immersed in one of the four immaterial absorptions (ARuPYAVACARADHYANA). The realm of subtle materiality is divided into sixteen heavens, the top five of which are called the "pure abodes" (sUDDHAVASA), where nonreturners (ANAGAMIN) are reborn. When the time is right, inhabitants of the pure abodes descend to earth in the guise of brAhmanas to leave portents of the advent of future buddhas so that they can be recognized when they appear in the human realm. One heaven in the realm of subtle materiality is reserved for unconscious beings (S. asaMjNisattva; P. asaNNasatta) who pass their entire lives (which can last eons) in dreamless sleep, only to die the moment they awaken. As with the immaterial realm, the realm of subtle materiality is also divided into four broad strata that correspond to the four form-based meditative absorptions (RuPAVACARADHYANA) and the denizens of these strata perpetually experience the bliss of the corresponding dhyAna. Regardless of the particular heaven they occupy, all inhabitants of the brahmaloka are all classified as BrahmA gods and live in splendor that far exceeds that of the divinities in the lower sensuous realm of existence (KAMADHATU).

Brahmanimantanikasutta. (C. Fantian qing fo jing; J. Bonten shobutsukyo; K. Pomch'on ch'ongbul kyong 梵天請佛經). In PAli, "Discourse on the Invitation of a BRAHMA"; the forty-ninth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA, preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks at the JETAVANA Grove in the town of SAvatthi (S. sRAVASTĪ). (A separate SARVASTIVADA version appears as the seventy-eighth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA.) The Buddha recounts to his disciples how he once visited the divine abode of the brahmA god Baka to dissuade him of the wrong view of eternalism (S. sAsVATADṚstI). Because Baka had lived a very long time as lord of his realm-so long that his memory had failed him-the wrong view occurred to him that everything in his heaven was permanent, everlasting, and eternal; that nothing was beyond it; that nothing in his heaven was born, grew old, or died; that nothing passed away or reappeared; and that beyond his heavenly realm there was no escape. The Buddha tells Baka he knows more than Baka knows, that there are in fact other heavens more resplendent than his, and that because of their awakening, the Buddha and his disciples are quite beyond and free from all realms of existence.

Bruno, Giordano: (1548-1600) A Dominican monk, eventually burned at the stake because of his opinions, he was converted from Christianity to a naturalistic and mystical pantheism by the Renaissance and particularly by the new Copernican astronomy. For him God and the universe were two names for one and the same Reality considered now as the creative essence of all things, now as the manifold of realized possibilities in which that essence manifests itself. As God, natura naturans, the Real is the whole, the one transcendent and ineffable. As the Real is the infinity of worlds and objects and events into which the whole divides itself and in which the one displays the infinite potentialities latent within it. The world-process is an ever-lasting going forth from itself and return into itself of the divine nature. The culmination of the outgoing creative activity is reached in the human mind, whose rational, philosophic search for the one in the many, simplicity in variety, and the changeless and eternal in the changing and temporal, marks also the reverse movement of the divine nature re-entering itself and regaining its primordial unity, homogeneity, and changelessness. The human soul, being as it were a kind of boomerang partaking of the ingrowing as well as the outgrowing process, may hope at death, not to be dissolved with the body, which is borne wholly upon the outgoing stream, but to return to God whence it came and to be reabsorbed in him. Cf. Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, selection from Bruno's On Cause, The Principle and the One. G. Bruno: De l'infinito, universo e mundo, 1584; Spaccio della bestia trionfante, 1584; La cena delta ceneri, 1584; Deglieroici furori, 1585; De Monade, 1591. Cf. R. Honigswald, Giordano Bruno; G. Gentile, Bruno nella storia della cultura, 1907. -- B.A.G.F. Brunschvicg, Leon: (1869-) Professor of Philosophy at the Ecole Normale in Paris. Dismissed by the Nazis (1941). His philosophy is an idealistic synthesis of Spinoza, Kant and Schelling with special stress on the creative role of thought in cultural history as well as in sciences. Main works: Les etapes de la philosophie mathematique, 1913; L'experience humaine et la causalite physique, 1921; De la connaissance de soi, 1931. Buddhism: The multifarious forms, philosophic, religious, ethical and sociological, which the teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) have produced. They centre around the main doctrine of the catvari arya-satyani(q.v.), the four noble truths, the last of which enables one in eight stages to reach nirvana (q.v.): Right views, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. In the absence of contemporary records of Buddha and Buddhistic teachings, much value was formerly attached to the palm leaf manuscripts in Pali, a Sanskrit dialect; but recently a good deal of weight has been given also the Buddhist tradition in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. Buddhism split into Mahayanism and Hinayanism (q.v.), each of which, but particularly the former, blossomed into a variety of teachings and practices. The main philosophic schools are the Madhyamaka or Sunyavada, Yogacara, Sautrantika, and Vaibhasika (q.v.). The basic assumptions in philosophy are a causal nexus in nature and man, of which the law of karma (q.v.) is but a specific application; the impermanence of things, and the illusory notion of substance and soul. Man is viewed realistically as a conglomeration of bodily forms (rupa), sensations (vedana), ideas (sanjna), latent karma (sanskaras), and consciousness (vijnana). The basic assumptions in ethics are the universality of suffering and the belief in a remedy. There is no god; each one may become a Buddha, an enlightened one. Also in art and esthetics Buddhism has contributed much throughout the Far East. -- K.F.L.

Bsam yas debate. An important event in the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet. During the reign of the king KHRI SRONG LDE BRTSAN at the end of the eighth century, there were two Buddhist factions at court, a Chinese faction led by the Northern Chan (BEI ZONG) monk Heshang MOHEYAN (the Chinese transcription of "MahAyAna") and an Indian faction associated with the recently deceased sANTARAKsITA who, with the king and PADMASAMBHAVA, had founded the first Tibetan monastery at BSAM YAS. According to traditional accounts, sAntaraksita foretold of dangers and left instructions in his will that his student KAMALAsĪLA be called from India. A conflict seems to have developed between the Indian and Chinese partisans (and their allies in the Tibetan court) over the question of the nature of enlightenment, with the Indians holding that enlightenment takes place as the culmination of a gradual process of purification, the result of combining ethical practice (sĪLA), meditation (SAMADHI), and wisdom (PRAJNA). The Chinese spoke against this view, holding that enlightenment was the intrinsic nature of the mind itself rather than the goal of a protracted path of practice. Therefore, to recognize the presence of this innate nature of enlightenment, one need only enter a state of awareness beyond distinctions; all other practices were superfluous. According to both Chinese and Tibetan records, a debate was held between Kamalasīla and Moheyan at Bsam yas, circa 797, with the king himself serving as judge. According to Tibetan records (contradicted by Chinese accounts), Kamalasīla was declared the winner and Moheyan and his party were banished from Tibet, with the king proclaiming that the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy (to which sAntaraksita and Kamalasīla belonged) would thereafter be followed in Tibet. Kamalasīla died shortly after the debate, supposedly assassinated by members of the Chinese faction. Scholars have suggested that although a controversy between the Indian and Chinese Buddhists (and their Tibetan partisans) occurred, it is unlikely that a face-to-face debate took place or that the outcome of the controversy was so unequivocal. The "debate" may instead have been an exchange of statements; indeed, KAmalasīla's third BHAVANAKRAMA seems to derive from this exchange. It is also important to note that, regardless of the merits of the Indian and Chinese philosophical positions, China was Tibet's chief military rival at the time, whereas India posed no such threat. The debate's principal significance derives from the fact that from this point on, Tibet largely sought its Buddhism from India; no school of Chinese Buddhism subsequently exerted any major influence in Tibet. It is said that when he departed, Moheyan left behind one shoe, indicating that traces of his view would remain in Tibet; some scholars have suggested possible connections between Chan positions and the RDZOGS CHEN teachings that developed in the ninth century. In Tibetan polemics of later centuries, it was considered particularly harsh to link one's opponent's views to the antinomian views of Moheyan. Moheyan himself was transformed into something of a trickster figure, popular in Tibetan art and drama. This event is variously referred to in English as the Council of Samye, the Council of Lha sa, and the Samye Debate. See also DUNWU.

Bsod nams rtse mo. (Sonam Tsemo) (1142-1182). A renowned scholar of the SA SKYA sect of Tibetan Buddhism, considered one of the five Sa skya forefathers (SA SKYA GONG MA RNAM LNGA). He was born the second son of the great Sa skya founder SA CHEN KUN DGA' SNYING PO. His brother was another of the Sa skya forefathers, Grags pa rgyal mtshan (Drakpa Gyaltsen). He was the uncle of SA SKYA PAndITA. Bsod nams rtse mo was a devoted student of PHYWA PA CHOS KYI SENG GE, studying MADHYAMAKA and PRAMAnA with him over the course of eleven years. Bsod nams rtse mo was famous for his commentarial work on Indian tantra, which he categorized in works such as his Rgyu sde spyi rnam par bzhag pa ("A General Presentation on the Divisions of Tantra").

bstan 'gyur. (tengyur). In Tibetan, "the translated treatises," or sASTRA collection; referring to the second of the two major divisions of the Tibetan Buddhist canon, along with the BKA' 'GYUR, or "translated word [of the Buddha]." The bstan 'gyur collection contains approximately 225 volumes of commentarial literature and independent works, comprising more than 3,500 texts, most of which were written by Indian Buddhist exegetes. It exists in numerous editions, but was less frequently printed than its companion collection, the bka' 'gyur. Subjects covered include hymns of praise (stotra), SuTRA commentaries, works on PRAJNAPARAMITA, MADHYAMAKA and YOGACARA philosophies, ABHIDHARMA, and VINAYA, TANTRA commentaries, and technical treatises on logic, grammar, poetics, medicine, and alchemy.

Buddhamitra. (C. Fotuomiduoluo; J. Butsudamitsutara; K. Pult'amiltara 佛陀蜜多羅). In Sanskrit, literally "Friend of the Buddha"; one of the Indian patriarchs listed in Chinese lineage records. He is variously listed in Chinese sources as the ninth (e.g., in the LIDAI FABAO JI and BAOLIN ZHUAN), the eighth (e.g., FU FAZANG YINYUAN ZHUAN), or the fifteenth (e.g., LIUZU TAN JING) patriarch of the Indian tradition. He is said to have been born into the vaisya caste of agriculturalists, in the kingdom of Daigya. His master was the patriarch BUDDHANANDI. According to tradition, when Buddhamitra was fifty years old, Buddhanandi was passing by the house in which Buddhamitra lived; seeing a white light floating above the house, Buddhanandi immediately recognized that his successor was waiting inside. Buddhamitra is also said to be one of the teachers of the Indian Buddhist philosopher VASUBANDHU and is considered the author of a work known as the PaNcadvAradhyAnasutramahArthadharma.

BuddhapAlita. (T. Sangs rgyas bskyang) (c. 470-540). An Indian Buddhist scholar of the MADHYAMAKA school, who is regarded in Tibet as a key figure of what was dubbed the *PRASAnGIKA school of Madhyamaka. Little is known about the life of BuddhapAlita. He is best known for his commentary on NAGARJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA, a commentary that was thought to survive only in Tibetan translation, until the recent rediscovery of a Sanskrit manuscript. BuddhapAlita's commentary bears a close relation in some chapters to the AKUTOBHAYA, another commentary on NAgArjuna's MulamadhyamakakArikA of uncertain authorship, which is sometimes attributed to NAgArjuna himself. In his commentary, BuddhapAlita does not adopt some of the assumptions of the Buddhist logical tradition of the day, including the need to state one's position in the form of an autonomous inference (SVATANTRANUMANA). Instead, BuddhapAlita merely states an absurd consequence (PRASAnGA) that follows from the opponent's position. In his own commentary on the first chapter of NAgArjuna's text, BHAVAVIVEKA criticizes BuddhapAlita's method, arguing for the need for the Madhyamaka adept to state his own position after refuting the position of the opponent. In his commentary on the same chapter, CANDRAKĪRTI in turn defended the approach of BuddhapAlita and criticized BhAvaviveka. It was on the basis of these three commentaries that later Tibetan exegetes identified two schools within Madhyamaka, the SVATANTRIKA, in which they included BhAvaviveka, and the PrAsangika, in which they included BuddhapAlita and Candrakīrti.

buddha. (T. sangs rgyas; C. fo; J. butsu/hotoke; K. pul 佛). In Sanskrit and PAli, "awakened one" or "enlightened one"; an epithet derived from the Sanskrit root √budh, meaning "to awaken" or "to open up" (as does a flower) and thus traditionally etymologized as one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encompass all objects of knowledge. The term was used in ancient India by a number of different religious groups, but came to be most strongly associated with followers of the teacher GAUTAMA, the "Sage of the sAKYA Clan" (sAKYAMUNI), who claimed to be only the most recent of a succession of buddhas who had appeared in the world over many eons of time (KALPA). In addition to sAkyamuni, there are many other buddhas named in Buddhist literature, from various lists of buddhas of the past, present, and future, to "buddhas of the ten directions" (dasadigbuddha), viz., everywhere. Although the precise nature of buddhahood is debated by the various schools, a buddha is a person who, in the far distant past, made a previous vow (PuRVAPRAnIDHANA) to become a buddha in order to reestablish the dispensation or teaching (sASANA) at a time when it was lost to the world. The path to buddhahood is much longer than that of the ARHAT-as many as three incalculable eons of time (ASAMKHYEYAKALPA) in some computations-because of the long process of training over the BODHISATTVA path (MARGA), involving mastery of the six or ten "perfections" (PARAMITA). Buddhas can remember both their past lives and the past lives of all sentient beings, and relate events from those past lives in the JATAKA and AVADANA literature. Although there is great interest in the West in the "biography" of Gautama or sAkyamuni Buddha, the early tradition seemed intent on demonstrating his similarity to the buddhas of the past rather than his uniqueness. Such a concern was motivated in part by the need to demonstrate that what the Buddha taught was not the innovation of an individual, but rather the rediscovery of a timeless truth (what the Buddha himself called "an ancient path" [S. purAnamArga, P. purAnamagga]) that had been discovered in precisely the same way, since time immemorial, by a person who undertook the same type of extended preparation. In this sense, the doctrine of the existence of past buddhas allowed the early Buddhist community to claim an authority similar to that of the Vedas of their Hindu rivals and of the JAINA tradition of previous tīrthankaras. Thus, in their biographies, all of the buddhas of the past and future are portrayed as doing many of the same things. They all sit cross-legged in their mother's womb; they are all born in the "middle country" (madhyadesa) of the continent of JAMBUDVĪPA; immediately after their birth they all take seven steps to the north; they all renounce the world after seeing the four sights (CATURNIMITTA; an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a mendicant) and after the birth of a son; they all achieve enlightenment seated on a bed of grass; they stride first with their right foot when they walk; they never stoop to pass through a door; they all establish a SAMGHA; they all can live for an eon if requested to do so; they never die before their teaching is complete; they all die after eating meat. Four sites on the earth are identical for all buddhas: the place of enlightenment, the place of the first sermon that "turns the wheel of the dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), the place of descending from TRAYASTRIMsA (heaven of the thirty-three), and the place of their bed in JETAVANA monastery. Buddhas can differ from each other in only eight ways: life span, height, caste (either brAhmana or KsATRIYA), the conveyance by which they go forth from the world, the period of time spent in the practice of asceticism prior to their enlightenment, the kind of tree they sit under on the night of their enlightenment, the size of their seat there, and the extent of their aura. In addition, there are twelve deeds that all buddhas (dvAdasabuddhakArya) perform. (1) They descend from TUsITA heaven for their final birth; (2) they enter their mother's womb; (3) they take birth in LUMBINĪ Garden; (4) they are proficient in the worldly arts; (5) they enjoy the company of consorts; (6) they renounce the world; (7) they practice asceticism on the banks of the NAIRANJANA River; (8) they go to the BODHIMAndA; (9) they subjugate MARA; (10) they attain enlightenment; (11) they turn the wheel of the dharma; and (12) they pass into PARINIRVAnA. They all have a body adorned with the thirty-two major marks (LAKsAnA; MAHAPURUsALAKsAnA) and the eighty secondary marks (ANUVYANJANA) of a great man (MAHAPURUsA). They all have two bodies: a physical body (RuPAKAYA) and a body of qualities (DHARMAKAYA; see BUDDHAKAYA). These qualities of a buddha are accepted by the major schools of Buddhism. It is not the case, as is sometimes suggested, that the buddha of the mainstream traditions is somehow more "human" and the buddha in the MAHAYANA somehow more "superhuman"; all Buddhist traditions relate stories of buddhas performing miraculous feats, such as the sRAVASTĪ MIRACLES described in mainstream materials. Among the many extraordinary powers of the buddhas are a list of "unshared factors" (AVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA) that are unique to them, including their perfect mindfulness and their inability ever to make a mistake. The buddhas have ten powers specific to them that derive from their unique range of knowledge (for the list, see BALA). The buddhas also are claimed to have an uncanny ability to apply "skill in means" (UPAYAKAUsALYA), that is, to adapt their teachings to the specific needs of their audience. This teaching role is what distinguishes a "complete and perfect buddha" (SAMYAKSAMBUDDHA) from a "solitary buddha" (PRATYEKABUDDHA) who does not teach: a solitary buddha may be enlightened but he neglects to develop the great compassion (MAHAKARUnA) that ultimately prompts a samyaksaMbuddha to seek to lead others to liberation. The MahAyAna develops an innovative perspective on the person of a buddha, which it conceived as having three bodies (TRIKAYA): the DHARMAKAYA, a transcendent principle that is sometimes translated as "truth body"; an enjoyment body (SAMBHOGAKAYA) that is visible only to advanced bodhisattvas in exalted realms; and an emanation body (NIRMAnAKAYA) that displays the deeds of a buddha to the world. Also in the MahAyAna is the notion of a universe filled with innumerable buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA), the most famous of these being SUKHAVATĪ of AmitAbha. Whereas the mainstream traditions claim that the profundity of a buddha is so great that a single universe can only sustain one buddha at any one time, MahAyAna SuTRAs often include scenes of multiple buddhas appearing together. See also names of specific buddhas, including AKsOBHYA, AMITABHA, AMOGHASIDDHI, RATNASAMBHAVA, VAIROCANA. For indigenous language terms for buddha, see FO (C); HOTOKE (J); PHRA PHUTTHA JAO (Thai); PUCH'o(NIM) (K); SANGS RGYAS (T).

buddhavacana. (T. sangs rgyas kyi bka'; C. foyu; J. butsugo; K. puro 佛語). In Sanskrit and PAli, "word of the Buddha"; those teachings accepted as having been either spoken by the Buddha or spoken with his sanction. Much traditional scholastic literature is devoted to the question of what does and does not qualify as the word of the Buddha. The SuTRAPItAKA and the VINAYAPItAKA of the Buddhist canon (TRIPItAKA), which are claimed to have been initially redacted at the first Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, FIRST), held in RAJAGṚHA soon after the Buddha's death, is considered by the tradition-along with the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA, which was added later-to be the authentic word of the Buddha; this judgment is made despite the fact that the canon included texts that were spoken, or elaborated upon, by his direct disciples (e.g., separate versions of the BHADDEKARATTASUTTA, which offer exegeses by various disciples of an enigmatic verse the Buddha had taught) or that included material that clearly postdated the Buddha's death (such as the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA, which tells of the events leading up to, and immediately following, the Buddha's demise, or the NAradasutta, which refers to kings who lived long after the Buddha's time). Such material could still be considered buddhavacana, however, by resort to the four references to authority (MAHAPADEsA; CATURMAHAPADEsA). These four types of authority are found listed in various SuTRAs, including the eponymous PAli MahApadesasutta, and provide an explicit set of criteria through which to evaluate whether a teaching is the authentic buddhavacana. Teachings could be accepted as authentic if they were heard from four authorities: (1) the mouth of the Buddha himself; (2) a SAMGHA of wise elders; (3) a group of monks who were specialists in either the dharma (dharmadhara), vinaya (vinayadhara), or the proto-abhidharma (mAtṛkAdhara); or (4) a single monk who was widely learned in such specializations. The teaching should then be compared side by side with the authentic SuTRA and VINAYA; if found to be compatible with these two strata of the canon and not in contradiction with reality (DHARMATA), it would then be accepted as the buddhavacana and thus marked by the characteristics of the Buddha's words (buddhavacanalaksana). Because of this dispensation, the canons of all schools of Buddhism were never really closed, but could continue to be reinvigorated with new expressions of the Buddha's insights. In addition, completely new texts that purported to be from the mouths of the buddha(s) and/or BODHISATTVAs, such as found in the MAHAYANA or VAJRAYANA traditions, could also begin to circulate and be accepted as the authentic buddhavacana since they too conformed with the reality (dharmatA) that is great enlightenment (MAHABODHI). For example, a MahAyAna sutra, the AdhyAsayasaNcodanasutra, declares, "All which is well-spoken, Maitreya, is spoken by the Buddha." The sutra qualifies the meaning of "well spoken" (subhAsita), explaining that all inspired speech should be known to be the word of the Buddha if it is meaningful and not meaningless, if it is principled and not unprincipled, if it brings about the extinction and not the increase of the afflictions (KLEsA), and if it sets forth the qualities and benefits of NIRVAnA and not the qualities and benefits of SAMSARA. However, the authenticity of the MahAyAna sutras (and later the tantras) was a topic of great contention between the proponents of the MahAyAna and mainstream schools throughout the history of Indian Buddhism and beyond. Defenses of the MahAyAna as buddhavacana appear in the MahAyAna sutras themselves, with predictions of the terrible fates that will befall those who deny their authenticity; and arguments for the authenticity of the MahAyAna sutras were a stock element in writings by MahAyAna authors as early as NAGARJUNA and extending over the next millennium. Related, and probably earlier, terms for buddhavacana are the "teaching of the master" (S. sAstuḥ sAsanam) and the "dispensation of the Buddha" (buddhAnusAsanam). See also APOCRYPHA, DAZANGJING, GTER MA.

Bumapa (Tibetan) [possibly dbu ma pa (u-ma-pa) translation of Sanskrit madhyamaka or madhyamika the school of Buddhist philosophy which follows Nagarjuna] “A school of men, usually a college of mystic students” (TG 69).

Byams chos sde lnga. In Tibetan, "the five books of Maitreya" said to have been presented to ASAnGA by the bodhisattva MAITREYA in the TUsITA heaven; they are the MAHAYANASuTRALAMKARA, ABHISAMAYALAMKARA, MADHYANTAVIBHAGA, DHARMADHARMATAVIBHAGA, and the RATNAGOTRAVIBHAGA (Uttaratantra). See MAITREYANATHA.

CakkavattisīhanAdasutta. (C. Zhuanlun shengwang xiuxing jing; J. Tenrinjoo shugyokyo; K. Chollyun songwang suhaeng kyong 轉輪聖王修行經). In PAli, "Discourse on the Lion's Roar of the Wheel-Turning Emperor"; the twenty-sixth sutta of the DĪGHANIKAYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the sixth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHAGAMA and a separate SarvAstivAda recension as the seventieth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); the scripture is known especially for being the only sutta in the PAli canon that mentions the name of the Buddha's successor, Metteya (MAITREYA). Before a gathering of monks at the town of MAtulA in MAGADHA, the Buddha tells the story of a universal or wheel-turning monarch (cakkavattin; S. CAKRAVARTIN) named Dalhanemi, wherein he explains that righteousness and order are maintained in the world so long as kings observe their royal duties. Dalhanemi's successors, unfortunately, gradually abandoned their responsibilities, leading to immorality, strife, and the shortening of life spans from eighty thousand years to a mere ten; the sutta thus attributes the origins of evil in the world to the neglect of royal duty. Upon reaching this nadir, people finally recognize the error of their ways and begin anew to practice morality. The observance of morality leads to improved conditions, until eventually a universal monarch named Sankha appears, who will prepare the way for the advent of the future-Buddha Metteya (Maitreya).

Candrakīrti. (T. Zla ba grags pa) (c. 600-650). An important MADHYAMAKA master and commentator on the works of NAGARJUNA and ARYADEVA, associated especially with what would later be known as the PRASAnGIKA branch of Madhyamaka. Very little is known about his life; according to Tibetan sources, he was from south India and a student of Kamalabuddhi. He may have been a monk of NALANDA. He wrote commentaries on NAgArjuna's YUKTIsAstIKA and suNYATASAPTATI as well as Aryadeva's CATUḤsATAKA. His two most famous and influential works, however, are his PRASANNAPADA ("Clear Words"), which is a commentary on NAgArjuna's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA, and his MADHYAMAKAVATARA ("Entrance to the Middle Way"). In the first chapter of the PrasannapadA, he defends the approach of BUDDHAPALITA against the criticism of BHAVAVIVEKA in their own commentaries on the MulamadhyamakakArikA. Candrakīrti argues that it is inappropriate for the Madhyamaka to use what is called an autonomous syllogism (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA) in debating with an opponent and that the Madhyamaka should instead use a consequence (PRASAnGA). It is largely based on Candrakīrti's discussion that Tibetan scholars retrospectively identified two subschools of Madhyamaka, the SVATANTRIKA (in which they placed BhAvaviveka) and the PrAsangika (in which they placed BuddhapAlita and Candrakīrti). Candrakīrti's other important work is the MadhyamakAvatAra, written in verse with an autocommentary. It is intended as a general introduction to the MulamadhyamakakArikA, and provides what Candrakīrti regards as the soteriological context for NAgArjuna's work. It sets forth the BODHISATTVA path, under the rubric of the ten bodhisattva stages (BHuMI; DAsABHuMI) and the ten perfections (PARAMITA). By far the longest and most influential chapter of the text is the sixth, dealing with the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA), where Candrakīrti discusses the two truths (SATYADVAYA), offers a critique of CITTAMATRA, and sets forth the reasoning for proving the selflessness of phenomena (DHARMANAIRATMYA) and the selflessness of the person (PUDGALANAIRATMYA), using his famous sevenfold analysis of a chariot as an example. Candrakīrti seems to have had little influence in the first centuries after his death, perhaps accounting for the fact that his works were not translated into Chinese (until the 1940s). There appears to have been a revival of interest in his works in India, especially in Kashmir, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, at the time of the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of Buddhism to Tibet. Over the next few centuries, Candrakīrti's works became increasingly important in Tibet, such that eventually the MadhyamakAvatAra became the locus classicus for the study of Madhyamaka in Tibet, studied and commented upon by scholars of all sects and serving as one of the "five texts" (GZHUNG LNGA) of the DGE LUGS curriculum. ¶ There appear to be later Indian authors who were called, or called themselves, Candrakīrti. These include the authors of the Trisaranasaptati and the MadhyamakAvatAraprajNA, neither of which appears to have been written by the author described above. Of particular importance is yet another Candrakīrti, or CandrakīrtipAda, the author of the Pradīpoddyotana, an influential commentary on the GUHYASAMAJATANTRA. Scholars often refer to this author as Candrakīrti II or "the tantric Candrakīrti."

carita. (T. spyod pa; C. xing; J. gyo; K. haeng 行). In Sanskrit and PAli, "conduct," "behavior," or "temperament"; an alternative form is Sanskrit caryA (P. cariyA). As "behavior," carita is typically bifurcated into either good (sucarita) or bad (S. duscarita; P. duccarita) conduct. As "temperament," carita is used to indicate six general character types, which are predominantly biased toward the negative temperaments of greedy (RAGA), hateful (S. DVEsA; P. dosa), and deluded (MOHA), or the more positive temperaments of faithful (S. sRADDHA; P. saddhA), intelligent (BUDDHI), and discursive (S. VITARKA; P. vitakka), a taxonomy found in the VISUDDHIMAGGA. The first three types of temperaments are negative and thus need to be corrected. (1) A greedy temperament is constantly searching out new sensory experiences and clings to things that are not beneficial. (2) A hateful temperament is disaffected, always finding imaginary faults in others; along with the intelligent temperament, he is less prone to clinging than the other character types. (3) A deluded temperament is agitated and restless, because he is unable to make up his mind about anything and follows along with others' decisions. The latter three types of temperaments are positive and thus need to be enhanced. (4) A faithful temperament is like a greedy type who instead cultivates wholesome actions and clings to what is beneficial. (5) An intelligent temperament is like a hateful type who performs salutary actions and points out real faults; along with the hateful temperament, he is less prone to clinging than the other character types. (6) A discursive temperament is characterized by a restlessness of mind that constantly flits from topic to topic and vacillates due to his constant conjecturing; if these discursive energies can be harnessed, however, that knowledge may lead to wisdom. The Visuddhimagga also provides detailed guidelines for determining a person's temperament by observing their posture, their preferences in food, and the sort of mental concomitants with which they are typically associated. This knowledge of temperaments is important as a tool of practice (BHAVANA), because in the Visuddhimagga's account of visualization (P. KASInA) exercises, the practitioner is taught to use an appropriate kasina device or meditation topic (P. KAMMAttHANA) either to mitigate the influence of the negative temperaments or enhance the influence of the positive ones. Thus, a practitioner with a greedy temperament is advised to emphasize the cemetery contemplations on foulness (S. AsUBHABHAVANA; P. asubhabhAvanA) and mindfulness of the body (S. KAYANUPAsYANA; P. kAyAnupassanA; see also SMṚTYUPASTHANA); the hateful temperament, the four divine abidings (BRAHMAVIHARA) and the four color kasinas (of blue, yellow, red, white); the deluded temperament, mindfulness of breathing (S. ANAPANASMṚTI; P. AnApAnasati); the discursive temperament, also mindfulness of breathing; the faithful temperament, the first six recollections (S. ANUSMṚTI; P. anussati), viz., of the Buddha, the DHARMA, the SAMGHA, morality, generosity, and the divinities; and the intelligent temperament, the recollections of death and peace, the analysis of the four elements, and the loathsomeness of food. Suitable to all six temperaments are the other six kasinas (viz., of earth, water, fire, air, light, and empty space) and the immaterial absorptions (S. ARuPYAVACARADHYANA; P. arupAvacarajhAna). ¶ In the MAHAYANA, caryA, carita, and related terms (e.g., Sanskrit compounds such as duscara) refer specifically to the difficult course of action that a BODHISATTVA pursues in order to reach the goal of enlightenment. These actions include the unending search or pilgrimage for a teacher, the sacrifices required to meet with an authentic teacher who can teach MahAyAna doctrines (see SADAPRARUDITA, SUDHANA), and the difficult practices of charity, such as giving away all possessions, including family members and even one's body (see DEHADANA; SHESHEN). The JATAKAMALA of sura, the BODHICARYAVATARA of sANTIDEVA, and to a certain extent the BUDDHACARITA of AsVAGHOsA set forth a model of the authentic bodhisattva's behavior for aspirants to emulate. In Buddhist TANTRA, caryA refers to a code of ritual purity, and to an esoteric practice called "yoga with signs" (SANIMITTAYOGA) followed by CARYATANTRA practitioners.

Catuḥsataka. (T. Bzhi brgya pa; C. Guang Bai lun ben; J. Kohyakuronpon; K. Kwang Paengnon pon 廣百論本). In Sanskrit, "Four Hundred [Stanzas]"; the magnum opus of ARYADEVA, a third century CE Indian monk of the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHAYANA philosophy and the chief disciple of NAGARJUNA, the founder of that tradition. The four-hundred verses are divided into sixteen chapters of twenty-five stanzas each, which cover many of the seminal teachings of Madhyamaka philosophy. The first four of the sixteen chapters are dedicated to arguments against erroneous conceptions of permanence, satisfaction, purity, and a substantial self. In chapter 5, Aryadeva discusses the career of a BODHISATTVA, emphasizing the necessity for compassion (KARUnA) in all of the bodhisattva's actions. Chapter 6 is a treatment of the three afflictions (KLEsA) of greed or sensuality (LOBHA or RAGA), hatred or aversion (DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA). Chapter 7 explains the need to reject sensual pleasures. In chapter 8, Aryadeva discusses the proper conduct and attitude of a student of the TATHAGATA's teaching. Chapters 9 through 15 contain a series of arguments refuting the erroneous views of other Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools. These refutations center on Aryadeva's understanding of emptiness (suNYATA) as the fundamental characteristic of reality. For example, in chapter 9, Aryadeva argues against the conception that anything, including liberation, is permanent and independent of causes. In chapter 11, Aryadeva argues against the SARVASTIVADA claim that dharmas exist in reality in the past, present, and future. Chapter 16, the final chapter, is a discussion of emptiness and its centrality to the Madhyamaka school and its doctrine. There is a lengthy and influential commentary on the text by CANDRAKĪRTI, entitled CatuḥsatakatīkA; its full title is BodhisattvayogacaryAcatuḥsatakatīkA. The Catuḥsataka was translated into Chinese by XUANZANG and his translation team at DACI'ENSI, in either 647 or 650-651 CE. The work is counted as one of the "three treatises" of the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG, where it is treated as Aryadeva's own expansion of his *sATAsASTRA (C. BAI LUN; "One Hundred Treatise"); hence, the Chinese instead translates the title as "Expanded Text on the One Hundred [Verse] Treatise." Some have speculated, to the contrary, that the satasAstra is an abbreviated version of the Catuḥsataka. The two works consider many of the same topics, including the nature of NIRVAnA and the meaning of emptiness in a similar fashion and both refute SAMkhya and Vaisesika positions, but the order of their treatment of these topics and their specific contents differ; the satasAstra also contains material not found in the Catuḥsataka. It is, therefore, safer to presume that these are two independent texts, not that one is a summary or expansion of the other. It is possible that the satasAstra represents KumArajīva's interpretation of the Catuḥsataka, but this is difficult to determine without further clarity on the Indian text that KumArajīva translated.

Catuḥstava. (T. Bstod pa bzhi). In Sanskrit, "Four Songs of Praise"; a set of four devotional hymns attributed to the Indian monk NAGARJUNA, the founder of the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHAYANA philosophy. More than four such hymns have survived, so it is uncertain which were the original four. The four hymns now included in this set are entitled LOKATĪTASTAVA ("Hymn to He Who Transcends the World"), NIRAUPAMYASTAVA ("Hymn to He Who Is Unequaled"), ACINTYASTAVA ("Hymn to the Inconceivable"), and PARAMARTHASTAVA ("Hymn to the Ultimate"). These verses are addressed to the Buddha himself, in honor of his virtues and various aspects of his enlightenment. The author praises the Buddha for his supreme insight, his compassion, and his efforts to awaken all beings. The hymns also contain many important aspects of the philosophy of the Madhyamaka school. For example, verses five through ten of the LokAtītastava are used to explain the interdependence, and therefore inessential nature, of each of the five aggregates (SKANDHA).

catuskoti. (T. mu bzhi; C. siju fenbie; J. shiku funbetsu; K. sagu punbyol 四句分別). In Sanskrit, "four antinomies" or "four alternatives"; a dialectical form of argumentation used in Buddhist philosophy to categorize sets of specific propositions, i.e., (1) A, (2) B, (3) both A and B, (4) neither A nor B; or (1) A, (2) not A, (3) both A and not A, 4) neither A nor not A. For instance, something may be said to (1) exist, (2) not exist, (3) both exist and not exist, and (4) neither exist nor not exist. Or, 1) everything is one, (2) everything is many, (3) everything is both one and many, 4) everything is neither one nor many. In the sutra literature, the catuskoti is employed to categorize the speculative philosophical propositions of non-Buddhists (TĪRTHIKA) in a list of fourteen "indeterminate" or "unanswered" (AVYAKṚTA) questions to which the Buddha refused to respond. These questions involve various metaphysical assertions that were used in traditional India to evaluate a thinker's philosophical pedigree. In the case of ontology, for example: (1) Is the world eternal? (2) Is the world not eternal? (3) Is the world both eternal and not eternal? (4) Is the world neither eternal nor not eternal? Or, in the case of soteriology, for a TATHAGATA, or an enlightened person: (1) Does the tathAgata exist after death? (2) Does the tathAgata not exist after death? (3) Does the tathAgata both exist and not exist after death? (4) Does the tathAgata neither exist nor not exist after death? Because of the conceptual flaws inherent in any prospective answer to these sets of questions, the Buddha refused to answer them and his silence is sometimes interpreted to mean that his teachings transcend conceptual thought (PRAPANCA). This transcendent quality of Buddhist philosophy is displayed in the MADHYAMAKA school, which seeks to ascertain the conceptual flaws inherent in any definitive philosophical proposition and show instead that all propositions-even those made by Buddhists-are "empty" (sunya). NAGARJUNA, the founder of the Madhyamaka school, analyzes many philosophical positions in terms of a catuskoti to demonstrate their emptiness. In analyzing causality, for example, NAgArjuna in the opening lines of his MuLAMADHYAMAKAKARIKA analyzes the possible philosophical positions on the connection between cause (HETU) and effect (PHALA) as a catuskoti: (1) cause and effect are identical, as the SAMkhya school claims; (2) cause and effect are different, as the Buddhists propose; (3) cause and effect are both identical and different, and thus the effect is both continuous with as well as emergent from the cause, as the JAINA school claims; (4) cause and effect are neither identical nor different, and thus things occur by chance, as the materialists and skeptics advocate. NAgArjuna instead reveals the absurd consequences inherent in all of these positions to show that the only defensible position is that cause and effect are "empty"; thus, all compounded things are ultimately unproduced (ANUTPADA) and empty of intrinsic existence (NIḤSVABHAVA). Classifications of teachings using the catuskoti are widely found in Buddhist literature of all traditions.

Cetokhilasutta. (C. Xinhui jing; J. Shinnekyo; K. Simye kyong 心穢經). In PAli, "Discourse on Mental Obstructions"; the sixteenth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SarvAstivAda recension appears as the 206th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; a recension of unidentified affiliation also occurs in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARAGAMA), preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA grove in the town of SAvatthi (sRAVASTĪ). The Buddha describes five mental obstructions and five fetters that constitute impediments to overcoming suffering. The five obstructions include (1) doubt about the teacher, the Buddha; (2) doubt about the dhamma (DHARMA); (3) doubt about the SAMGHA; (4) doubt about the value of morality (sīla; S. sĪLA), meditative concentration (SAMADHI), and wisdom (paNNA; S. PRAJNA); 5) ill will and animosity toward one's fellow monks. The five fetters include (1) attachment to sensual desires, (2) attachment to a sense of self, (3) attachment to material possessions, (4) excessive sleeping and eating, and (5) adopting the life of renunciation merely for the limited goal of a blissful existence in the heavens.

chanda. (T. 'dun pa; C. yu; J. yoku; K. yok 欲). In Sanskrit and PAli, "zeal" or "desire to act"; one of the ten mental factors or mental concomitants (CAITTA) of wide extent (MAHABHuMIKA) that the VAIBHAsIKA school of SARVASTIVADA ABHIDHARMA says accompany all consciousness activity; alternatively, it is listed as one of the five VINIYATA or pratiniyama mental factors of specific application according to the YOGACARA school, and one of the six pakinnaka (miscellaneous) CETASIKAs of the PAli abhidhamma. Chanda plays an important role in motivating all wholesome (and unwholesome) activity, and is particularly important in the cultivation of sAMATHA (serenity or calm abiding). According to the MADHYANTAVIBHAGA, there are eight forces that counteract five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) to reaching samatha. Chanda is called the ground of all eight forces because, based on sRADDHA (faith or confidence), it leads to a resolute effort (vyAyAma) to apply SMṚTI (mindfulness), SAMPRAJANYA (circumspection), and UPEKsA (equanimity) to reach the final goal.

cittaikAgratA. (P. cittekaggatA; T. sems rtse gcig pa; C. xin yijing xing; J. shin ikkyo sho; K. sim ilgyong song 心一境性). In Sanskrit, "one-pointedness of mind"; a deep state of meditative equipoise in which the mind is thoroughly concentrated on the object of meditation. In the progression of the four meditative absorptions associated with the subtle-materiality realm (RuPAVACARADHYANA), the first absorption (DHYANA) still involves the first two of the five constituents of dhyAna (DHYANAnGA): i.e., the application of thought to the meditative object (VITARKA) and sustained attention to that object (VICARA). As concentration deepens from the second dhyAna onward, applied and sustained thought vanish and the meditator moves from the mental "isolation" or "solitude" (VIVEKA) that characterizes the first dhyAna, to the true one-pointedness of mind (cittaikAgratA) that characterizes all higher stages of dhyAna; in this state of one-pointedness, the mind is so completely absorbed in the meditative object that even these most subtle varieties of thinking have disappeared.

cittavisuddhi. (S. cittavisuddhi). In PAli, "purity of mind"; according to the VISUDDHIMAGGA, the second of seven "purities" (VISUDDHI) to be developed along the path to liberation. Purity of mind refers to the eight meditative absorptions (P. JHANA; S. DHYANA) or attainments (SAMAPATTI) belonging to the subtle-materiality realm (rupAvacara) and the immaterial realm (ArupyAvacara). Meditative absorption belonging to the subtle-materiality realm (P. rupAvacarajhAna; S. RuPAVACARADHYANA) is subdivided into four stages, each of which is characterized by an increasing attenuation of consciousness as the meditator progresses from one stage to the next. Meditative absorption belonging to the immaterial realm (P. arupAvacarajhAna; S. ARuPYAVACARADHYANA) is likewise subdivided into four stages, but in this case it is the object of meditation that becomes attenuated from one stage to the next. In the first immaterial absorption, the meditator sets aside the perception of materiality and abides in the sphere of infinite space (P. AkAsAnaNcAyatana; S. AKAsANANTYAYATANA). In the second immaterial absorption, the meditator sets aside the perception of infinite space and abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness (P. viNNanaNcAyatana; S. VIJNANANANTYAYATANA). In the third immaterial absorption, the meditator sets aside the perception of infinite consciousness and abides in the sphere of nothingness (P. AkiNcaNNAyatana; S. AKINCANYAYATANA). In the fourth immaterial absorption, the meditator sets aside the perception of nothingness and abides in the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (P. nevasaNNAnAsaNNAyatana; S. NAIVASAMJNANASAMJNAYATANA). To this list of eight absorptions is added "access" or "neighborhood" "concentration" (P. UPACARASAMADHI), which is the degree of concentration present in the mind of the meditator just prior to entering any of the four jhAnas.

Conze, Edward. [Eberhard (Edward) Julius Dietrich Conze] (1904-1979). An influential Anglo-German Buddhist scholar and practitioner, Edward Conze was born in London, the son of the then German vice consul, but was raised in Germany. He attended the universities of Cologne, Bonn, and Hamburg, where he studied both Western and Indian philosophy and Buddhist languages, including Sanskrit, PAli, and Tibetan. Conze was raised as a Protestant, but he also explored Communism and had a strong interest in Theosophy. Because of his deep opposition to the Nazi ideology, he became persona non grata in Germany and in 1933 moved to England. Although initially active with English socialists, he eventually became disillusioned with politics and began to study the works of DAISETZ TEITARO SUZUKI, whom he came to consider his informal spiritual mentor. Conze taught at various universities in the UK between 1933 and 1960, expanding the range of his visiting professorships to the USA and Canada in the 1960s. However, the Communist affiliations of his youth and his outspoken condemnation of the Vietnam War put him at odds with American authorities, prompting him to return to England. Conze was especially enamored of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA) texts and the related MADHYAMAKA strand of Buddhist philosophy and became one of foremost scholarly exponents of this literature of his day. He saw Buddhism and especially Madhyamaka philosophy as presenting an "intelligible, plausible, and valid system" that rivaled anything produced in the West and was therefore worthy of the close attention of Western philosophers. He translated several of the major texts of the prajNApAramitA, including The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousands Lines and Its Verse Summary (1973), and The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom with the Divisions of the AbhisamayAlaMkAra (1975), as well as the VAJRACCHEDIKAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA ("Diamond Sutra") and the PRAJNAPARAMITAHṚDAYASuTRA ("Heart Sutra"). His compilation of terminology derived from this translation work, Materials for a Dictionary of the PrajNApAramitA Literature (1967), did much to help establish many of the standard English equivalencies of Sanskrit Buddhist terms. Conze also wrote more general surveys of Buddhist philosophy and history, including Buddhism: Its Essence and Development (1951) and Buddhist Thought in India (1962).

Cudapanthaka. (P. Culapanthaka/Cullapantha; T. Lam phran bstan; C. Zhutubantuojia; J. Chudahantaka; K. Chudobant'akka 注荼半托迦). An eminent ARHAT declared in PAli sources as foremost among the Buddha's disciples in his ability to create mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKAYA) and to manipulate mind (cittavivatta). Cudapanthaka was the younger of two brothers born to a merchant's daughter from RAJAGṚHA who had eloped with a slave. Each time she became pregnant, she wanted to return home to give birth to her children, but both were born during her journey home. For this reason, the brothers were named "Greater" Roadside (MahApanthaka; see PANTHAKA) and "Lesser" Roadside. The boys were eventually taken to RAjagṛha and raised by their grandparents, who were devoted to the Buddha. The elder brother Panthaka often accompanied his grandfather to listen to the Buddha's sermons and was inspired to be ordained. He proved to be an able monk, skilled in doctrine, and eventually attained arhatship. He later ordained his younger brother Cudapanthaka but was gravely disappointed in his brother's inability to memorize even a single verse of the dharma. Panthaka was so disappointed that he advised his brother to leave the order, much to the latter's distress. Once, the Buddha's physician JĪVAKA invited the Buddha and his monks to a morning meal. Panthaka gathered the monks together on the appointed day to attend the meal but intentionally omitted Cudapanthaka. So hurt was Cudapanthaka by his brother's contempt that he decided to return to lay life. The Buddha, knowing his mental state, comforted the young monk and taught him a simple exercise: he instructed him to sit facing east and, while repeating the phrase "rajoharanaM" ("cleaning off the dirt"), continue to wipe his face with a clean cloth. As Cudapanthaka noticed the cloth getting dirty from wiping off his sweat, he gained insight into the reality of impermanence (ANITYA) and immediately attained arhatship and was equipped with the four analytical knowledges (PRATISAMVID), including knowledge of the entire canon (TRIPItAKA). (According to other versions of the story, he came to a similar realization through sweeping.) Thereafter Cudapanthaka became renowned for his vast learning, as well as for his supranormal powers. He was a master of meditative concentration (SAMADHI) and of the subtle-materiality absorptions (RuPAVACARADHYANA). He could simultaneously create a thousand unique mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKAYA), while other meditative specialists in the order could at best produce only two or three. ¶ Cudapanthaka is also traditionally listed as the last of the sixteen arhat elders (sOdAsASTHAVIRA), who were charged by the Buddha with protecting his dispensation until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA. In CHANYUE GUANXIU's standard Chinese depiction, Cudapanthaka sits among withered trees, his left hand raised with fingers slightly bent, and his right hand resting on his right thigh, holding a fan.

CuladhammasamAdAnasutta. (C. Shoufa jing; J. Juhokyo; K. Subop kyong 受法經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on Undertaking the Dharma"; the forty-fifth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 174th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA Grove at SAvatthi (S. sRAVASTĪ). The Buddha describes four ways of undertaking things in this life and the good and bad consequences that accrue to one who follows these ways. The first way is to live happily in the present, but suffer a painful consequence in the future, e.g., when a person wantonly indulges in sensual pleasures in the present life and, as a result, is reborn into a woeful state later. The second way is to live a painful existence in the present, and suffer a painful consequence in the future; this is the case with ascetics who mortify their flesh only to be reborn in a woeful state. The third way is to live a painful existence in the present, but enjoy a happy consequence in the future; this is the case with a person who suffers in this life due to greed, hatred, and delusion but nevertheless strives to lead a blameless life and is consequently reborn in a happy existence as a human or lesser divinity (DEVA). The fourth way is to live happily in the present, and enjoy a happy consequence, as is the case with a person who cultivates the meditative absorptions (JHANA; S. DHYANA); he is happy in the present life and is rewarded with a happy rebirth as a BRAHMA divinity. An expanded version of this sermon is found in the MAHADHAMMASAMADANASUTTA, or "Longer Discourse on Undertaking the Dharma," also contained in the MajjhimanikAya.

Culadukkhakkhandhasutta. (C. Kuyin jing; J. Kuongyo; K. Koŭm kyong 苦陰經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on the Mass of Suffering"; the fourteenth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the one hundredth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); preached by the Buddha to the Sakiyan prince MahAnAma at Kapilavatthu (S. KAPILAVASTU). The Buddha explains the full implications of sensual pleasures, the advantages of renouncing them, and the path needed to escape from their influence. In a discussion with JAINA ascetics, he describes how greed, ill-will, and ignorance cause moral defilement and misery.

Culagosingasutta. (C. Niujiaosuoluolin jing; J. Gokakusararingyo; K. Ugaksararim kyong 牛角娑羅林經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse in Gosinga Park"; the thirty-first sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 185th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; there is also a recension of uncertain affiliation that appears without title in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARAGAMA). The Buddha visits the eminent monks, Anuruddha (S. ANIRUDDHA), Nandiya, and Kimila while the three are residing in the Gosinga grove. The monks describe to him how they carry out their daily activities in cooperation with one another and the Buddha praises them for their harmonious lifestyle, declaring it to be an adornment to the grove.

Culahatthipadopamasutta. (C. Xiangjiyu jing; J. Zoshakuyugyo; K. Sangjogyu kyong 象跡經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint"; the twenty-seventh sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 146th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA), preached by the Buddha to the brAhmana JAnussoni at the JETAVANA grove in the city of SAvatthi (sRAVASTĪ). JAnussoni asks the Buddha whether a person could infer something of the virtues of the Buddha and his teachings in the same way that a hunter can infer the size of an elephant from its footprint. The Buddha responds that the virtues of the Buddha and his teachings could only be fully comprehended by following the teachings oneself until one has attained the final goal of NIRVAnA; this is just as with a hunter, who can only truly know the size of an elephant by following its tracks and seeing it directly at its watering hole. The Buddha then provides a systematic outline of his path of training, from morality (sīla, S. sĪLA), through the four meditative absorptions (jhAna; S. DHYANA), to the three higher knowledges (tevijjA; S. TRIVIDYA).

CulasīhanAdasutta. (C. Shizihou jing; J. Shishikukyo; K. Sajahu kyong 師子吼經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on the Lion's Roar"; eleventh sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 103rd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; a separate recension of unidentified affiliation appears, without title, in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARAGAMA), preached by the Buddha to a group of monks in the JETAVANA grove in the city of SAvatthi (S. sRAVASTĪ). The Buddha explains how only in his teachings can one attain any of the four degrees of sanctity (see ARYAPUDGALA): stream-enterer, once-returner, nonreturner, and perfected ARHAT; all other teachings lack these. Also, only in his teachings are found a rejection of all notions of a perduring self (P. atta; S. ATMAN).

CulAssapurasutta. (C. Mayi jing; J. Meyukyo; K. Maŭp kyong 馬邑經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse at Assapura"; the fortieth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 183rd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a group of monks dwelling in the market town of Assapura in the country of the Angans. The people of Assapura were greatly devoted to the Buddha, the DHARMA, and the SAMGHA and were especially generous in their support of the community of monks. In recognition of their generosity, the Buddha advised his monks that the true path of the recluse is not concerned with mere outward purification through austerities but rather with inward purification through freedom from passion and mental defilements. The dedicated monk should therefore devote himself to the path laid down by the Buddha until he has abandoned twelve unwholesome states of mind: (1) covetousness, (2) ill will, (3) anger, (4) resentment, (5) contempt, (6) insolence, (7) envy, (8) greed, (9) fraud, (10) deceit, (11) evil wishes, and (12) wrong view. Having abandoned these twelve, the monk should then strive to cultivate the divine abidings (BRAHMAVIHARA) of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity; through those virtues, the monk attains inner peace and thereby practices the true path of the recluse.

Culavedallasutta. (C. Fale biqiuni jing; J. Horaku bikunikyo; K. Pomnak piguni kyong 法樂比丘尼經). In PAli, "Shorter Discourse on Points of Doctrine"; the forty-fourth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKAYA (a separate SARVASTIVADA recension appears as the 210th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMAGAMA; the entire discourse is also subsumed in the Tibetan translation of samathadeva's commentary to the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHAsYA), expounded by the nun DhammadinnA (S. DHARMADINNA) to her former husband, the householder VisAkha, at the Veluvana (S. VEnUVANAVIHARA) bamboo grove in RAjagaha (S. RAJAGṚHA). VisAkha approached DhammadinnA and questioned her concerning a number of points of doctrine preached by the Buddha. These questions included: what is the nature of this existing body (P. sakkAya; S. satkAya); what is its origin (SAMUDAYA), its cessation (NIRODHA), and the path (P. magga; S. MARGA) leading to its cessation; how does wrong view concerning this body (P. sakkAyaditthi; S. SATKAYADṚstI) arise and how is it removed; what is the noble eightfold path; what is concentration (SAMADHI); what are bodily, verbal, and mental formations; what is the attainment of cessation (nirodha); what is sensation (VEDANA); what are the underlying tendencies with regard to pleasant, painful, and neutral sensations and how should these be overcome; and what are the counterparts of pleasant, painful, and neutral sensations. DhammadinnA answered all of the questions put to her to the satisfaction of the householder VisAkha-proving why the Buddha considered her foremost among his nun disciples in the gift of preaching.

Damoduoluo chan jing. (J. Darumatara zenkyo; K. Talmadara son kyong 達摩多羅禪經). In Chinese, the "DhyAna Sutra of DharmatrAta"; a scripture on meditation (DHYANA) attributed to the SARVASTIVADA teacher DHARMATRATA (c. fourth century CE) and translated into Chinese by BUDDHABHADRA in the early fifth century. Buddhabhadra arrived in the Chinese capital of Chang'an in 406 and briefly stayed at LUSHAN HUIYUAN's (334-416) monastery on LUSHAN, where he translated the text at the latter's request. The Damoduoluo chan jing describes the transmission of the oral teachings of the Buddha from master to disciple and details the various practices of meditation (GUAN) such as mindfulness of breathing (S. ANAPANASMṚTI; P. AnApAnasati) and meditation on the foul (AsUBHABHAVANA), as well as the categories of, SKANDHA, AYATANA, and DHATU. The text includes a listing of patriarchs of the tradition before and after DharmatrAta, which begins with MAHAKAsYAPA and ANANDA, continues through MADHYANTIKA, sAnAKAVASIN, UPAGUPTA, VASUMITRA, and SaMgharaksa, leading up to DharmatrAta, who is then followed in turn by Punyamitra. This lineage seems to derive from the SARVASTIVADA school in the KASHMIR-GANDHARA region and suggests that the notion of a teaching geneaology as a central part of Buddhist religious identity has its start in the Indian tradition. Prefaces to the Damoduoluo chan jing by Lushan Huiyuan and Huiguan subsequently connect versions of this lineage to BODHIDHARMA, the putative founder of the CHAN school in East Asia, suggesting this text exerted some influence in the rise of transmission lineages within the early Chan tradition.

DAnapAla. (C. Shihu; J. Sego; K. Siho 施護) (d.u.; fl. c. 980 CE). In Sanskrit, lit. "Protector of Giving"; one of the last great Indian translators of Buddhist texts into Chinese. A native of OddiyAna in the GANDHARA region of India, he was active in China during the Northern Song dynasty. At the order of the Song Emperor Taizhong (r. 960-997), he was installed in a translation bureau to the west of the imperial monastery of Taiping Xingguosi (in Yuanzhou, present-day Jiangxi province), where he and his team are said to have produced some 111 translations in over 230 rolls. His translations include texts from the PRAJNAPARAMITA, MADHYAMAKA, and tantric traditions, including the AstASAHASRIKAPRAJNAPARAMITA, SUVARnAPRABHASOTTAMASuTRA, SARVATATHAGATATATTVASAMGRAHA, HEVAJRATANTRA, NAGARJUNA's YUKTIsAstIKA and DHARMADHATUSTAVA, and KAMALAsĪLA's BHAVANAKRAMA, as well as several DHARAnĪ texts.

Daosheng. (J. Dosho; K. Tosaeng 道生) (355-434). Influential Chinese monk during the Eastern Jin dynasty and renowned scholar of the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA; also known as ZHU DAOSHENG. Daosheng was a native of Julu in present-day Hebei province. He became a student of the monk Zhu Fatai (320-387), changing his surname to Zhu in his honor. Daosheng received the full monastic precepts in his nineteenth year and took up residence at the monastery of Longguangsi in Jianye. Later, he moved to LUSHAN, where he studied under the eminent monk LUSHAN HUIYUAN. Daosheng also continued his studies under the famed translator and MADHYAMAKA scholar KUMARAJĪVA, and was later praised as one of KumArajīva's four great disciples. In 409, Daosheng returned to Jianye and made the controversial claim that even incorrigibles (ICCHANTIKA) may eventually attain enlightenment and that buddhahood is attained in an instant of awakening (DUNWU). For these claims, Daosheng was harshly criticized by the community of scholars in Jianye, which prompted Daosheng to return to Lushan once more. His interpretations were eventually corroborated in subsequent Chinese translations of the MAHAPARINIRVAnASuTRA and become emblematic of many important strands of indigenous Chinese Buddhism. Daosheng's teachings are quoted in many of his contemporaries' works and Daosheng himself is known to have composed numerous treatises and commentaries, including the Foxing dangyou lun ("Buddha Nature Perforce Exists"), Fashen wuse lun ("DHARMAKAYA Lacks Form"), Fo wu jingtu lun ("The Buddha has no Pure Land"), and Fahua jing yishu (a commentary on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA).

darsanamArga. (T. mthong lam; C. jiandao; J. kendo; K. kyondo 見道). In Sanskrit, "path of vision"; the third of the five paths (PANCAMARGA) to liberation and enlightenment, whether as an ARHAT or as a buddha. It follows the second path, the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMARGA) and precedes the fourth path, the path of meditation or cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). This path marks the adept's first direct perception of reality, without the intercession of concepts, and brings an end to the first three of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) that bind one to the cycle of rebirth: (1) belief in the existence of a self in relation to the body (SATKAYADṚstI), (2) belief in the efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARAMARsA) as a means of salvation, and (3) doubt about the efficacy of the path (VICIKITSA). Because this vision renders one a noble person (ARYA), the path of vision marks the inception of the "noble path" (AryamArga). According to the SarvAstivAda soteriological system, the darsanamArga occurs over the course of fifteen moments of realization of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, with the sixteenth moment marking the beginning of the BHAVANAMARGA. There are four moments of realization for each of the four truths. The first moment is that of doctrinal acquiescence (DHARMAKsANTI) with regard to the sensuous realm (KAMADHATU). In that moment, the afflictions (KLEsA) of the sensuous realm associated with the truth of suffering are abandoned. This is followed by a moment of doctrinal knowledge (DHARMAJNANA) of the truth of suffering with regard to the sensuous realm, which is the state of understanding that the afflictions of that level have been abandoned. Next comes a moment of realization called subsequent acquiescence (anvayaksAnti), in which the afflictions associated with the truth of suffering in the two upper realms, the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHATU) and the immaterial realm (ARuPYADHATU) are abandoned; there is finally a moment of subsequent knowledge (anvayajNAna) of the truth of suffering with regard to the two upper realms. This sequence of four moments-doctrinal acquiescence and doctrinal knowledge (which are concerned with the sensuous realm) and subsequent acquiescence and subsequent knowledge (which are concerned with the two upper realms)-is repeated for the remaining truths of origin, cessation, and path. In each case, the moments of realization called acquiescence are the time when the afflictions are actually abandoned; they are called uninterrupted paths (ANANTARYAMARGA) because they cannot be interrupted or impeded in severing the hold of the afflictions. The eight moments of knowledge are the state of having realized that the afflictions of the particular level have been abandoned. They are called paths of liberation (VIMUKTIMARGA). An uninterrupted path, followed by a path of liberation, are likened to throwing out a thief and locking the door behind him. The sixteenth moment in the sequence-the subsequent knowledge of the truth of the path with regard to the upper realms-constitutes the first moment of the next path, the bhAvanAmArga. For a BODHISATTVA, the attainment of the path of vision coincides with the inception of the first BODHISATTVABHuMI (see also DAsABHuMI). The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA explains that the bodhisattva's path of vision is also a direct perception of reality and is focused on the four noble truths; unlike the mainstream account, however, all three realms are considered simultaneously, and the sixteenth moment is not the first instant of the path of cultivation (bhAvanAmArga). The YOGACARA system is based on their doctrine of the falsehood of the subject/object bifurcation. The first eight instants describe the elimination of fetters based on false conceptualization (VIKALPA) of objects, and the last eight the elimination of fetters based on the false conceptualization of a subject; thus the actual path of vision is a direct realization of the emptiness (suNYATA) of all dharmas (sarvadharmasunyatA). This view of the darsanamArga as the first direct perception (PRATYAKsA) of emptiness is also found in the MADHYAMAKA school, according to which the bodhisattva begins to abandon the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) upon attaining the darsanamArga. See also DHARMAKsANTI; JIEWU; DUNWU JIANXIU.

dasabhumi. (T. sa bcu; C. shidi; J. juji; K. sipchi 十地). In Sanskrit, lit., "ten grounds," "ten stages"; the ten highest reaches of the bodhisattva path (MARGA) leading to buddhahood. The most systematic and methodical presentation of the ten BHuMIs appears in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA ("Ten Bhumis Sutra"), where each of the ten stages is correlated with seminal doctrines of mainstream Buddhism-such as the four means of conversion (SAMGRAHAVASTU) on the first four bhumis, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (CATVARY ARYASATYANI) on the fifth bhumi, and the chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPADA) on the sixth bhumi, etc.-as well as with mastery of one of a list of ten perfections (PARAMITA) completed in the course of training as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten bhumis of the Dasabhumikasutra, which becomes standard in most MahAyAna traditions, is as follows: (1) PRAMUDITA (joyful) corresponds to the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA) and the bodhisattva's first direct realization of emptiness (suNYATA). The bodhisattva masters on this bhumi the perfection of giving (DANAPARAMITA), learning to give away those things most precious to him, including his wealth, his wife and family, and even his body (see DEHADANA); (2) VIMALA (immaculate, stainless) marks the inception of the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA), where the bodhisattva develops all the superlative traits of character incumbent on a buddha through mastering the perfection of morality (sĪLAPARAMITA); (3) PRABHAKARĪ (luminous, splendrous), where the bodhisattva masters all the various types of meditative experiences, such as DHYANA, SAMAPATTI, and the BRAHMAVIHARA; despite the emphasis on meditation in this bhumi, it comes to be identified instead with the perfection of patience (KsANTIPARAMITA), ostensibly because the bodhisattva is willing to endure any and all suffering in order to master his practices; (4) ARCIsMATĪ (radiance, effulgence), where the flaming radiance of the thirty-seven factors pertaining to enlightenment (BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA) becomes so intense that it incinerates obstructions (AVARAnA) and afflictions (KLEsA), giving the bodhisattva inexhaustible energy in his quest for enlightenment and thus mastering the perfection of vigor or energy (VĪRYAPARAMITA); (5) SUDURJAYA (invincibility, hard-to-conquer), where the bodhisattva comprehends the various permutations of truth (SATYA), including the four noble truths, the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of provisional (NEYARTHA) and absolute (NĪTARTHA), and masters the perfection of meditative absorption (DHYANAPARAMITA); (6) ABHIMUKHĪ (immediacy, face-to-face), where, as the name implies, the bodhisattva stands at the intersection between SAMSARA and NIRVAnA, turning away from the compounded dharmas of saMsAra and turning to face the profound wisdom of the buddhas, thus placing him "face-to-face" with both the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) and uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realms; this bhumi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA); (7) DuRAnGAMA (far-reaching, transcendent), which marks the bodhisattva's freedom from the four perverted views (VIPARYASA) and his mastery of the perfection of expedients (UPAYAPARAMITA), which he uses to help infinite numbers of sentient beings; (8) ACALA (immovable, steadfast), which is marked by the bodhisattva's acquiescence or receptivity to the nonproduction of dharmas (ANUTPATTIKADHARMAKsANTI); because he is now able to project transformation bodies (NIRMAnAKAYA) anywhere in the universe to help sentient beings, this bhumi is correlated with mastery of the perfection of aspiration or resolve (PRAnIDHANAPARAMITA); (9) SADHUMATĪ (eminence, auspicious intellect), where the bodhisattva acquires the four analytical knowledges (PRATISAMVID), removing any remaining delusions regarding the use of the supernatural knowledges or powers (ABHIJNA), and giving the bodhisattva complete autonomy in manipulating all dharmas through the perfection of power (BALAPARAMITA); and (10) DHARMAMEGHA (cloud of dharma), the final bhumi, where the bodhisattva becomes autonomous in interacting with all material and mental factors, and gains all-pervasive knowledge that is like a cloud producing a rain of dharma that nurtures the entire world; this stage is also described as being pervaded by meditative absorption (DHYANA) and mastery of the use of codes (DHARAnĪ), just as the sky is filled by clouds; here the bodhisattva achieves the perfection of knowledge (JNANAPARAMITA). As the bodhisattva ascends through the ten bhumis, he acquires extraordinary powers, which CANDRAKĪRTI describes in the eleventh chapter of his MADHYAMAKAVATARA. On the first bhumi, the bodhisattva can, in a single instant (1) see one hundred buddhas, (2) be blessed by one hundred buddhas and understand their blessings, (3) live for one hundred eons, (4) see the past and future in those one hundred eons, (5) enter into and rise from one hundred SAMADHIs, (6) vibrate one hundred worlds, (7) illuminate one hundred worlds, (8) bring one hundred beings to spiritual maturity using emanations, (9) go to one hundred BUDDHAKsETRA, (10), open one hundred doors of the doctrine (DHARMAPARYAYA), (11) display one hundred versions of his body, and (12) surround each of those bodies with one hundred bodhisattvas. The number one hundred increases exponentially as the bodhisattva proceeds; on the second bhumi it becomes one thousand, on the third one hundred thousand, and so on; on the tenth, it is a number equal to the particles of an inexpressible number of buddhaksetra. As the bodhisattva moves from stage to stage, he is reborn as the king of greater and greater realms, ascending through the Buddhist cosmos. Thus, on the first bhumi he is born as king of JAMBUDVĪPA, on the second of the four continents, on the third as the king of TRAYATRIMsA, and so on, such that on the tenth he is born as the lord of AKANIstHA. ¶ According to the rather more elaborate account in chapter eleven of the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimAtratAsiddhi), each of the ten bhumis is correlated with the attainment of one of the ten types of suchness (TATHATA); these are accomplished by discarding one of the ten kinds of obstructions (Avarana) by mastering one of the ten perfections (pAramitA). The suchnesses achieved on each of the ten bhumis are, respectively: (1) universal suchness (sarvatragatathatA; C. bianxing zhenru), (2) supreme suchness (paramatathatA; C. zuisheng zhenru), (3) ubiquitous, or "supreme outflow" suchness (paramanisyandatathatA; C. shengliu zhenru), (4) unappropriated suchness (aparigrahatathatA; C. wusheshou zhenru), (5) undifferentiated suchness (abhinnajAtīyatathatA; C. wubie zhenru), (6) the suchness that is devoid of maculations and contaminants (asaMklistAvyavadAtatathatA; C. wuranjing zhenru), (7) the suchness of the undifferentiated dharma (abhinnatathatA; C. fawubie zhenru), (8) the suchness that neither increases nor decreases (anupacayApacayatathatA; C. buzengjian), (9) the suchness that serves as the support of the mastery of wisdom (jNAnavasitAsaMnisrayatathatA; C. zhizizai suoyi zhenru), and (10) the suchness that serves as the support for mastery over actions (kriyAdivasitAsaMnisrayatathatA; C. yezizai dengsuoyi). These ten suchnessses are obtained by discarding, respectively: (1) the obstruction of the common illusions of the unenlightened (pṛthagjanatvAvarana; C. yishengxing zhang), (2) the obstruction of the deluded (mithyApratipattyAvarana; C. xiexing zhang), (3) the obstruction of dullness (dhandhatvAvarana; C. andun zhang), (4) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle afflictions (suksmaklesasamudAcArAvarana; C. xihuo xianxing zhang), (5) the obstruction of the lesser HĪNAYANA ideal of parinirvAna (hīnayAnaparinirvAnAvarana; C. xiasheng niepan zhang), (6) the obstruction of the manifestation of coarse characteristics (sthulanimittasamudAcArAvarana; C. cuxiang xianxing zhang), (7) the obstruction of the manifestation of subtle characteristics (suksmanimittasamudAcArAvarana; C. xixiang xianxing zhang), (8) the obstruction of the continuance of activity even in the immaterial realm that is free from characteristics (nirnimittAbhisaMskArAvarana; C. wuxiang jiaxing zhang), (9) the obstruction of not desiring to act on behalf of others' salvation (parahitacaryAkAmanAvarana; C. buyuxing zhang), and (10) the obstruction of not yet acquiring mastery over all things (fa weizizai zhang). These ten obstructions are overcome by practicing, respectively: (1) the perfection of giving (dAnapAramitA), (2) the perfection of morality (sīlapAramitA), (3) the perfection of forbearance (ksAntipAramitA), (4) the perfection of energetic effort (vīryapAramitA), (5) the perfection of meditation (dhyAnapAramitA), (6) the perfection of wisdom (prajNApAramitA), (7) the perfection of expedient means (upAyapAramitA), (8) the perfection of the vow (to attain enlightenment) (pranidhAnapAramitA), (9) the perfection of power (balapAramitA), and (10) the perfection of knowledge (jNAnapAramitA). ¶ The eighth, ninth, and tenth bhumis are sometimes called "pure bhumis," because, according to some commentators, upon reaching the eighth bhumi, the bodhisattva has abandoned all of the afflictive obstructions (KLEsAVARAnA) and is thus liberated from any further rebirth. It appears that there were originally only seven bhumis, as is found in the BODHISATTVABHuMI, where the seven bhumis overlap with an elaborate system of thirteen abidings or stations (vihAra), some of the names of which (such as pramuditA) appear also in the standard bhumi schema of the Dasabhumikasutra. Similarly, though a listing of ten bhumis appears in the MAHAVASTU, a text associated with the LOKOTTARAVADA subsect of the MAHASAMGHIKA school, only seven are actually discussed there, and the names given to the stages are completely different from those found in the later Dasabhumikasutra; the stages there are also a retrospective account of how past buddhas have achieved enlightenment, rather than a prescription for future practice. ¶ The dasabhumi schema is sometimes correlated with other systems of classifying the bodhisattva path. In the five levels of the YogAcAra school's outline of the bodhisattva path (PANCAMARGA; C. wuwei), the first bhumi (pramuditA) is presumed to be equivalent to the level of proficiency (*prativedhAvasthA; C. tongdawei), the third of the five levels; while the second bhumi onward corresponds to the level of cultivation (C. xiuxiwei), the fourth of the five levels. The first bhumi is also correlated with the path of vision (DARsANAMARGA), while the second and higher bhumis correlate with the path of cultivation (BHAVANAMARGA). In terms of the doctrine of the five acquiescences (C. ren; S. ksAnti) listed in the RENWANG JING, the first through the third bhumis are equivalent to the second acquiescence, the acquiescence of belief (C. xinren; J. shinnin; K. sinin); the fourth through the sixth stages to the third, the acquiescence of obedience (C. shunren; J. junnin; K. sunin); the seventh through the ninth stages to the fourth, the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmaksAnti; C. wushengren; J. mushonin; K. musaengin); the tenth stage to the fifth and final acquiescence, to extinction (jimieren; J. jakumetsunin; K. chongmyorin). FAZANG's HUAYANJING TANXUAN JI ("Notes Plumbing the Profundities of the AVATAMSAKASuTRA") classifies the ten bhumis in terms of practice by correlating the first bhumi to the practice of faith (sRADDHA), the second bhumi to the practice of morality (sĪLA), the third bhumi to the practice of concentration (SAMADHI), and the fourth bhumi and higher to the practice of wisdom (PRAJNA). In the same text, Fazang also classifies the bhumis in terms of vehicle (YANA) by correlating the first through third bhumis with the vehicle of humans and gods (rentiansheng), the fourth through the seventh stage to the three vehicles (TRIYANA), and the eighth through tenth bhumis to the one vehicle (EKAYANA). ¶ Besides the list of the dasabhumi outlined in the Dasabhumikasutra, the MAHAPRAJNAPARAMITASuTRA and the DAZHIDU LUN (*MahAprajNApAramitAsAstra) list a set of ten bhumis, called the "bhumis in common" (gongdi), which are shared between all the three vehicles of sRAVAKAs, PRATYEKABUDDHAs, and bodhisattvas. These are the bhumis of: (1) dry wisdom (suklavidarsanAbhumi; C. ganhuidi), which corresponds to the level of three worthies (sanxianwei, viz., ten abidings, ten practices, ten transferences) in the srAvaka vehicle and the initial arousal of the thought of enlightenment (prathamacittotpAda) in the bodhisattva vehicle; (2) lineage (gotrabhumi; C. xingdi, zhongxingdi), which corresponds to the stage of the "aids to penetration" (NIRVEDHABHAGĪYA) in the srAvaka vehicle, and the final stage of the ten transferences in the fifty-two bodhisattva stages; (3) eight acquiescences (astamakabhumi; C. barendi), the causal incipiency of stream-enterer (SROTAAPANNA) in the case of the srAvaka vehicle and the acquiescence to the nonproduction of dharmas (anutpattikadharmaksAnti) in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the first or the seventh through ninth bhumis of the bodhisattva path); (4) vision (darsanabhumi; C. jiandi), corresponding to the fruition or fulfillment (PHALA) level of the stream-enterer in the srAvaka vehicle and the stage of nonretrogression (AVAIVARTIKA), in the bodhisattva path (usually corresponding to the completion of the first or the eighth bhumi); (5) diminishment (tanubhumi; C. baodi), corresponding to the fulfillment level (phala) of stream-enterer or the causal incipiency of the once-returner (sakṛdAgAmin) in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage following nonretrogression before the attainment of buddhahood in the bodhisattva path; (6) freedom from desire (vītarAgabhumi; C. liyudi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the nonreturner in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage where a bodhisattva attains the five supernatural powers (ABHIJNA); (7) complete discrimination (kṛtAvibhumi), equivalent to the fulfillment level of the ARHAT in the srAvaka vehicle, or to the stage of buddhahood (buddhabhumi) in the bodhisattva path (buddhabhumi) here refers not to the fruition of buddhahood but merely to the state in which a bodhisattva has the ability to exhibit the eighteen qualities distinctive to the buddhas (AVEnIKA[BUDDHA]DHARMA); (8) pratyekabuddha (pratyekabuddhabhumi); (9) bodhisattva (bodhisattvabhumi), the whole bodhisattva career prior to the fruition of buddhahood; (10) buddhahood (buddhabhumi), the stage of the fruition of buddhahood, when the buddha is completely equipped with all the buddhadharmas, such as omniscience (SARVAKARAJNATĀ). As is obvious in this schema, despite being called the bhumis "common" to all three vehicles, the shared stages continue only up to the seventh stage; the eighth through tenth stages are exclusive to the bodhisattva vehicle. This anomaly suggests that the last three bhumis of the bodhisattvayāna were added to an earlier srāvakayāna seven-bhumi scheme. ¶ The presentation of the bhumis in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ commentarial tradition following the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA uses the names found in the Dasabhumikasutra for the bhumis and understands them all as bodhisattva levels; it introduces the names of the ten bhumis found in the Dazhidu lun as levels that bodhisattvas have to pass beyond (S. atikrama) on the tenth bodhisattva level, which it calls the buddhabhumi. This tenth bodhisattva level is not the level of an actual buddha, but the level on which a bodhisattva has to transcend attachment (abhinivesa) to not only the levels reached by the four sets of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA) but to the bodhisattvabhumis as well. See also BHuMI.

dasa-gavas (dasha-gavas; dashagava) ::: the ten rays; the ten types or dasa-gavas forms of consciousness in the evolutionary scale: the pasu, vanara, pisaca, pramatha, raks.asa, asura, deva, sadhyadeva (or siddhadeva), siddhadeva (or siddhasura) and satyadeva (or siddha purus.a or siddhadeva).

Dasheng qixin lun yi ji. (J. Daijo kisihinron giki; K. Taesŭng kisin non ŭi ki 大乗起信論義). In Chinese, "Notes on the Meaning of the 'Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna'"; composed by the Chinese HUAYAN monk FAZANG. In addition to exegeses by WoNHYO (see TAESŬNG KISIN NON SO) and JINGYING HUIYUAN, this commentary has been traditionally regarded as one of the three great commentaries on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN. Fazang's commentary relies heavily upon that by Wonhyo. Throughout the centuries, numerous other commentaries on the Dasheng qixin lun appeared in China, and most of them are based on Fazang's work. According to this commentary, the Dasheng qixin lun speaks of one mind, two gates, three greats, four faiths, and five practices. Fazang also categorizes the entire history of Buddhism into four traditions: (1) the tradition of grasping at the characteristics of dharmas (i.e., the HĪNAYĀNA), (2) the tradition of no characteristics and only true emptiness (i.e., the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs and the MADHYAMAKA), (3) the tradition of YOGĀCĀRA and consciousness-only (i.e., the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA and YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA), and (4) the tradition of conditioned origination from the TATHĀGATAGARBHA (i.e., the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and Dasheng qixin lun). The notion of "conditioned origination from the tathāgatagarbha" (rulaizang yuanqi) reflects the author's Huayan training deriving from the AVATAMSAKASuTRA and its notion of "nature origination" (XINGQI).

Dasheng xuanlun. (J. Daijo genron; K. Taesŭng hyon non 大乗玄論). In Chinese, "Profound Treatise on the MAHĀYĀNA"; one of most influential treatises of the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese branch of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian philosophy; composed by JIZANG, in five rolls. The treatise is primarily concerned with eight general topics: the two truths (SATYADVAYA), eight negations, buddha-nature (FOXING), EKAYĀNA, NIRVĀnA, two wisdoms, teachings, and treatises. The section on teachings explains the notions of sympathetic resonance (GANYING) and the PURE LAND. Explanations of Madhyamaka epistemology, the "four antinomies" (CATUsKOtI), and the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ appear in the last section on treatises.

Dazhidu lun. (J. Daichidoron; K. Taejido non 大智度論). In Chinese, "Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom"; an important Chinese text that is regarded as the translation of a Sanskrit work whose title has been reconstructed as *MāhāprājNāpāramitāsāstra or *MahāprajNāpāramitopedesa. The work is attributed to the MADHYAMAKA exegete NĀGĀRJUNA, but no Sanskrit manuscripts or Tibetan translations are known and no references to the text in Indian or Tibetan sources have been identified. The work was translated into Chinese by the KUCHA monk KUMĀRAJĪVA (344-413) between 402 and 406; it was not translated into Chinese again. Some scholars speculate that the work was composed by an unknown Central Asian monk of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school who had "converted" to MADHYAMAKA, perhaps even Kumārajīva himself. The complete text was claimed to have been one hundred thousand slokas or one thousand rolls (zhuan) in length, but the extant text is a mere one hundred rolls. It is divided into two major sections: the first is Kumārajīva's full translation of the first fifty-two chapters of the text; the second is his selective translations from the next eighty-nine chapters of the text. The work is a commentary on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and is veritable compendium of Buddhist doctrine, replete with quotations from a wide range of Indian texts. Throughout the translation, there appear frequent and often substantial interlinear glosses and interpolations, apparently provided by Kumārajīva himself and targeting his Chinese readership; it is the presence of such interpolations that has raised questions about the text's Indian provenance. In the first thirty-four rolls, the Dazhidu lun provides a detailed explanation of the basic concepts, phrases, places, and figures that appear in the PaNcaviMsatisāhasrikāprajNāpāramitā (e.g., BHAGAVAT, EVAM MAYĀ sRUTAM, RĀJAGṚHA, buddha, BODHISATTVA, sRĀVAKA, sĀRIPUTRA, suNYATĀ, NIRVĀnA, the six PĀRAMITĀ, and ten BALA). The scope of the commentary is extremely broad, covering everything from doctrine, legends, and rituals to history and geography. The overall concern of the Dazhidu lun seems to have been the elucidation of the concept of buddhahood, the bodhisattva career, the MAHĀYĀNA path (as opposed to that of the HĪNAYĀNA), PRAJNĀ, and meditation. The Dazhidu lun thus served as an authoritative source for the study of Mahāyāna in China and was favored by many influential writers such as SENGZHAO, TIANTAI ZHIYI, FAZANG, TANLUAN, and SHANDAO. Since the time of the Chinese scriptural catalogue KAIYUAN SHIJIAO LU (730), the Dazhidu lun, has headed the roster of sĀSTRA materials collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon (DAZANGJING; see also KORYo TAEJANGGYoNG); this placement is made because it is a principal commentary to the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras that open the SuTRA section of the canon. Between 1944 and 1980, the Belgian scholar ÉTIENNE LAMOTTE published an annotated French translation of the entire first section and chapter 20 of the second section as Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse, in five volumes.

dbu ma chen po. (uma chenpo) [alt. dbu ma pa chen po]. In Tibetan, "great MADHYAMAKA"; a term central to the "self empty, other empty" (RANG STONG GZHAN STONG) debate in Tibetan Buddhism, on the question of which Indian masters are the true representatives of the Madhyamaka. According to the DGE LUGS view, among the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma as described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, the second wheel, generally identified with the view of emptiness as set forth in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras and propounded by the Madhyamaka, is definitive (NĪTĀRTHA), while the third wheel, generally identified with YOGĀCĀRA and TATHĀGATHAGARBHA teachings, is provisional (NEYĀRTHA). Other sects, most notably the JO NANG PA, as well as certain BKA' BRGYUD and RNYING MA thinkers, especially of the so-called RIS MED movement, disagreed, asserting that the third wheel is the definitive teaching while the second wheel is provisional. (Both agree that the first wheel, setting forth the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS to sRĀVAKAs, is provisional.) For the Dge lugs pas, the highest of all Buddhist doctrines is that all phenomena in the universe are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA); emptiness is the lack of any substantial existence. The Dge lugs pas are therefore proponents of "self-emptiness" (rang stong), arguing that that each object of experience is devoid of intrinsic nature; the unenlightened wrongly believe that such a nature is intrinsic to the object itself. In reality, everything, from physical forms to the omniscient mind of a buddha, is equally empty, and this emptiness is a nonaffirming negation (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA), an absence with nothing else implied in its place. Furthermore, this emptiness of intrinsic nature is the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). The Jo nang pa's look to the third wheel, especially to those statements that describe the nonduality of subject and object to be the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) and the understanding of that nonduality as the highest wisdom, described as eternal, self-arisen, and truly established. This wisdom exists autonomously and is thus not empty in the way that emptiness is understood by the Dge lugs. Instead, this wisdom consciousness is empty in the sense that it is devoid of all defilements and conventional factors, which are extraneous to its true nature. Hence, the Jo nang pas speak of "other emptiness" (gzhan stong) the absence of extrinsic and extraneous qualities. For the Dge lugs pas, the supreme interpreter of the doctrine of emptiness (as they understand it) is CANDRAKĪRTI. The Jo nang pas do not dispute the Dge lugs reading of Candrakīrti but they deny Candrakīrti the rank of premier expositor of NĀGĀRJUNA's thought. For them, Candrakīrti teaches an emptiness that is a mere negation of intrinsic existence, which they equate with nihilism. They also do not deny that such an exposition is found in Nāgārjuna's philosophical treatises (YUKTIKĀYA). However, they claim that those works do not represent Nāgārjuna's final view, which is expressed instead in his devotional corpus (STAVAKĀYA), notably the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA, and, according to some, in the works of VASUBANDHU, the author of two defenses of the prajNāpāramitā sutras. Those who would deny the ultimate existence of wisdom, such as Candrakīrti, are classed as "one-sided Madhyamakas" (phyogs gcig pa'i dbu ma pa) as opposed to the great Madhyamakas among whom they would include the Nāgārjuna of the hymns and ĀRYADEVA as well as thinkers whom the Dge lugs classify as Yogācāra or SVĀTANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA: ASAnGA, Vasubandhu, MAITREYANĀTHA, and sĀNTARAKsITA.

dehadhyasa. ::: false identification with the body

dge bshes. (geshe). A Tibetan abbreviation for dge ba'i bshes gnyen, or "spiritual friend" (S. KALYĀnAMITRA). In early Tibetan Buddhism, the term was used in this sense, especially in the BKA' GDAMS tradition, where saintly figures like GLANG RI THANG PA are often called "geshe"; sometimes, however, it can have a slightly pejorative meaning, as in the biography of MI LA RAS PA, where it suggests a learned monk without real spiritual attainment. In the SA SKYA sect, the term came to take on a more formal meaning to refer to a monk who had completed a specific academic curriculum. The term is most famous in this regard among the DGE LUGS, where it refers to a degree and title received after successfully completing a long course of Buddhist study in the tradition of the three great Dge lugs monasteries in LHA SA: 'BRAS SPUNGS, DGA' LDAN, and SE RA. According to the traditional curriculum, after completing studies in elementary logic and epistemology (BSDUS GRWA), a monk would begin the study of "five texts" (GZHUNG LNGA), five Indian sĀSTRAs, in the following order: the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA of MAITREYANĀTHA, the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA of CANDRAKĪRTI, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA of VASUBANDHU, and the VINAYASuTRA of GUnAPRABHA. Each year, there would also be a period set aside for the study of the PRAMĀnAVĀRTTIKA of DHARMAKĪRTI. The curriculum involved the memorization of these and other texts, the study of them based on monastic textbooks (yig cha), and formal debate on their content. Each year, monks in the scholastic curriculum (a small minority of the monastic population) were required to pass two examinations, one in memorization and the other in debate. Based upon the applicant's final examination, one of four grades of the dge bshes degree was awarded, which, in descending rank, are: (1) lha rams pa, (2) tshogs rams pa, (3) rdo rams pa; (4) gling bsre [alt. gling bseb], a degree awarded by a combination of monasteries; sometimes, the more scholarly or the religiously inclined would choose that degree to remove themselves from consideration for ecclesiastical posts so they could devote themselves to their studies and to meditation practice. The number of years needed to complete the entire curriculum depended on the degree, the status of the person, and the number of candidates for the exam. The coveted lha rams pa degree, the path to important offices within the Dge lugs religious hierarchy, was restricted to sixteen candidates each year. The important incarnations (SPRUL SKU) were first in line, and their studies would be completed within about twelve years; ordinary monks could take up to twenty years to complete their studies and take the examination. Those who went on to complete the course of study at the tantric colleges of RGYUD STOD and RYUD SMAD would be granted the degree of dge bshes sngags ram pa.

Dge 'dun chos 'phel. (Gendun Chopel) (1903-1951). A distinguished essayist, poet, painter, translator, historian, and philosopher; one of the most important Tibetan intellectuals of the first half of the twentieth century. He was born in the Reb kong region of A mdo, the son of a respected SNGAGS PA. At the age of five, he was recognized as the incarnation (SPRUL SKU) of an abbot of the famous RNYING MA monastery, RDO RJE BRAG. Following his father's untimely death, he entered a local DGE LUGS monastery, eventually moving to BLA BRANG BKRA' SHIS 'KHYIL. He gained particular notoriety as a debater but apparently criticized the monastery's textbooks (yig cha). In 1927, he traveled to LHA SA, where he entered Sgo mang College of 'BRAS SPUNGS monastery. In 1934, the Indian scholar and nationalist Rahul Sankrityayan (1893-1963) arrived in Lha sa in search of Sanskrit manuscripts, especially those dealing with Buddhist logic. He enlisted Dge 'dun chos 'phel as his guide, just as he was completing the final examinations at the end of the long curriculum of the DGE BSHES. After visiting many of the monasteries of southern Tibet, Sankrityayan invited Dge 'dun chos 'phel to return with him to India. Over the next decade, he would travel extensively, and often alone, across India and Sri Lanka, learning Sanskrit, Pāli, several Indian vernaculars, and English. He assisted the Russian Tibetologist, GEORGE ROERICH, in the translation of the important fifteenth-century history of Tibetan Buddhism by 'Gos lo tsā ba, DEB THER SNGON PO ("The Blue Annals"). He visited and made studies of many of the important Buddhist archaeological sites in India, writing a guide (lam yig) that is still used by Tibetan pilgrims. He studied Sanskrit erotica and frequented Calcutta brothels, producing his famous sex manual, the 'Dod pa'i bstan bcos ("Treatise on Passion"). During his time abroad, he also spent more than a year in Sri Lanka. In January 1946, after twelve years abroad, Dge 'dun chos 'phel returned to Lha sa. He taught poetry and also gave teachings on MADHYAMAKA philosophy, which would be published posthumously as the controversial Klu sgrub dgongs rgyan ("Adornment for NĀGĀRJUNA's Thought"). Within a few months of his arrival in Lha sa, Dge 'dun chos 'phel was arrested by the government of the regent of the young fourteenth Dalai Lama on the fabricated charge of counterfeiting foreign currency. Sentenced to three years, he served at least two, working on his unfinished history of early Tibet, Deb ther dkar po ("The White Annals"), and composing poetry. He emerged from prison a broken man and died in October 1951 at the age of forty-eight.

Dhammacakkappavattanasutta. (S. Dharmacakrapravartanasutra; T. Chos 'khor bskor ba'i mdo; C. Zhuan falun jing; J. Tenboringyo; K. Chon pomnyun kyong 轉法輪經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Turning the Wheel of the DHARMA"; often referred to as GAUTAMA Buddha's "first sermon," delivered after his enlightenment to the "group of five" (PANCAVARGIKA; bhadravargīya), at the Deer Park (P. Migadāya; S. MṚGADĀVA) in ṚsIPATANA near SĀRNĀTH. In its Pāli version, the discourse appears in the MAHĀVAGGA section of the VINAYA, which recounts the founding of the dispensation, rather than in the suttapitaka (S. SuTRAPItAKA). (A separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears in the Chinese translation of the SAMYUKTĀGAMA; there is also an early Chinese translation by AN SHIGAO that circulated independently.) Following his enlightenment, the Buddha considered who might be able to comprehend what he had experienced and remembered the "group of five" ascetics, with whom he had previously engaged in self-mortification practices (TAPAS). Although initially reticent to receive Gautama because he had abandoned his asceticism and had become "self-indulgent," they soon relented and heard Gautama relate his realization of the deathless state. Their minds now pliant, the Buddha then "set rolling the wheel of the dharma" (DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANA), which is the first enunciation of his liberation. In the sermon, the Buddha advocates a middle way (P. majjhimapatipadā; S. MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between sensual indulgence and self-mortification, and equates the middle way to the noble eightfold path (P. ariyātthangikamagga; S. ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). He follows with a detailed account of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, the full knowledge and vision (P. Nānadassana; S. JNĀNADARsANA) of which leads to liberation. While listening to the discourse, ĀJNĀTAKAUndINYA (P. ANNātakondaNNa) understood the principle of causation-that all things produced will also come to an end-and achieved the first level of sanctity, that of stream-enterer (P. sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA). He was the first disciple to take ordination (UPASAMPADĀ) as a monk (P. BHIKKHU; S. BHIKsU), following the simple "come, monk" formula (P. ehi bhikkhu; S. EHIBHIKsUKĀ): "Come, monk, the dharma is well proclaimed; live the holy life for the complete ending of suffering." Soon afterward, he was followed into the order by the rest of the "group of five" monks. The site where the first sermon was delivered-the Deer Park (Mṛgadāva) in Ṛsipatana (P. Isipatana), the modern Sārnāth, near Vārānasī-subsequently became one of the four major Buddhist pilgrimage sites (MAHĀSTHĀNA) in India.

Dhammadāyādasutta. (C. Qiufa jing; J. Guhogyo; K. Kupop kyong 求法經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Heirs of the Dharma"; third sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the eighty-eighth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA; another recension of uncertain affiliation also appears in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARĀGAMA.) This sutta contains two discourses preached at the JETAVANA Grove in Sāvatthi (sRĀVASTĪ), the first by the Buddha and the second by Sāriputta (sĀRIPUTRA). The Buddha urges his monks to give priority to the dharma, not to material possessions, and to receive as their true legacy from him the constituents of enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyadhamma; S. BODHIPAKsIKADHARMA), rather than the four requisites (nissaya; S. NIsRAYA) of mendicancy. Sāriputta advises the monks to live in solitude for the attainment of meditative absorption (jhāna; S. DHYĀNA) and to abandon greed (LOBHA), hatred (P. dosa; S. DVEsA), and delusion (MOHA) in order to attain nibbāna (NIRVĀnA).

dharmacakrapravartana. (P. dhammacakkappavattana; T. chos 'khor bskor ba; C. zhuan falun; J. tenborin; K. chon pomnyun 轉法輪). In Sanskrit, "turning the wheel of the DHARMA"; a term used generally to describe the Buddha's teaching; specifically, it refers the Buddha's first sermon, delivered at the Deer Park (S. MṚGADĀVA) in ṚsIPATANA, the modern SĀRNĀTH, as described in the Pāli DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA (S. Dharmacakrapravartanasutra), when he first declared the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) and the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). As Buddhist doctrine expanded exponentially in size and complexity, Buddhists were hard put to explain the apparent divergences in the teachings found in various recensions of the sutras. In order to account for the critical differences in these sutra explications of the Buddhist teachings, different traditions began to suggest that the Buddha had actually "turned the wheel of the dharma" more than one time. Certain perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras refer to the Buddha's teaching of the perfection of wisdom as the second turning of the wheel of dharma. The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA posits that the Buddha actually turned the wheel of the dharma three separate times, a description that came to figure prominently in MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature: the first, called CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA, when he taught the four noble truths of the HĪNAYĀNA traditions; the second, called the ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel of signlessness"), when he taught the emptiness (suNYATĀ) doctrine as understood by the MADHYAMAKA school; and a third, the *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA ("dharma-wheel possessed of good differentiation"), when he taught the Yogācāra TRISVABHĀVA doctrine. The SaMdhinirmocanasutra claims that the teachings of the first two dharma-wheels were provisional (NEYĀRTHA), while the third was definitive (NĪTĀRTHA). This threefold taxonomy of the Buddhist teachings was one of the most influential hermeneutical schema (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI) created in the Mahāyāna and elicited extensive commentary in India, Tibet, and East Asia. Proponents of the Madhyamaka, who identified the second wheel with the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRAs, claimed to the contrary that the second wheel was definitive and the first and third were provisional.

Dharmadharmatāvibhāga. (T. Chos dang chos nyid rnam par 'byed pa). In Sanskrit, "Distinguishing Dharma and Dharmatā"; a short YOGĀCĀRA work attributed to MAITREYA or MAITREYANĀTHA; it survives only in Tibetan translation (in the SDE DGE BSTAN 'GYUR, there are two translations); it is one of the five works of Maitreya (BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA). The text explains SAMSĀRA (= DHARMA) and the NIRVĀnA (= DHARMATĀ) attained by the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA; like the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, it uses the three-nature (TRISVABHĀVA) terminology to explain that, because there is no object or subject, the transcendent is beyond conceptualization. It presents the paths leading to transformation of the basis (ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI), and enumerates ten types of TATHATĀ (suchness). There is a commentary by VASUBANDHU, the Dharmadharmatāvibhāgavṛtti.

Dharmadhātustava. [alt. Dharmadhātustotra] (T. Chos dbyings bstod pa; C. Zan fajie song; J. San hokkaiju; K. Ch'an popkye song 讚法界頌). In Sanskrit, "Praise of the DHARMADHĀTU," a hymn in 101 stanzas attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA. It is cited by BHĀVAVIVEKA as a work by Nāgārjuna, but its authorship has been questioned by scholars because its substantialist elements seem at odds with the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), as espoused by Nāgārjuna in works such as the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. The text is also not counted among the "four hymns" (CATUḤSTAVA), which can be more confidently ascribed to Nāgārjuna. However, in the Tibetan tradition, it is regarded as his work and is counted among his "devotional corpus" (STAVAKĀYA). Apart from a few stanzas quoted in extant Sanskrit works, the text is lost in the original Sanskrit and is preserved in Tibetan and Chinese (translated by DĀNAPĀLA). The Dharmadhātustava describes the nature of the realm of reality (dharmadhātu) as being pure in its essence but is hidden by the afflictions (KLEsA); when those taints are removed, the nature of reality is made manifest. Many of the metaphors in the text are similar to those found in the TATHĀGATAGARBHA literature. However, the dharmadhātu is also described in ontological terms as the cause of SAMSĀRA, uncreated, immovable, certain, pure, the seed, etc., descriptions that seem at odds with Nāgārjuna's more famous views. In Tibet, this apparent contradiction figured prominently in the so-called RANG STONG GZHAN STONG debates, where the proponents of the rang stong position, especially the DGE LUGS, saw Nāgārjuna's exposition of emptiness to be his definitive position and explained the dharmadhātu as emptiness. The proponents of the gzhan stong position, most famously the JO NANG, argued for a more substantialist reality that is not empty of its own nature (SVABHĀVA) but is devoid of adventitious defilements. They found support for this position in the Dharmadhātustava.

dharmanairātmya. (T. chos kyi bdag med; C. fawuwo; J. homuga; K. pommua 法無我). In Sanskrit, "insubstantiality of dharmas," viz., the lack of self in all the phenomena in the universe, a second, and more advanced, level of emptiness (suNYATĀ) than the insubstantiality of the person (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA). The doctrine of nonself (ANĀTMAN) is a fundamental tenet of Buddhism and is directed primarily at the denial of any notion of a perduring soul. Sentient beings (SATTVA) are viewed as merely a collection of aggregates (SKANDHA) or elements of reality (DHARMA), which are temporarily concatenated through an impersonal, causal process; thus, the person (PUDGALA) is lacking any eternal self (pudgalanairātmya). The mainstream Buddhist ABHIDHARMA schools began to compile extensive lists of the elements of reality (dharma) from which the compounded things of this world were comprised, and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school was especially known for propounding the view that all these dharmas were real and existed throughout all the three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of the past, present, and future (the school's name literally means "those who say that all exists," S. sarvam asti). This view that dharmas were permanent, while compounded things were not, was strongly critiqued by the MAHĀYĀNA tradition as the unwarranted intrusion into Buddhism of a notion of permanence (NITYA). The MADHYAMAKA school in particular was well known for its thoroughgoing denial of the substantiality not only of the compounded person, but of the constituents of reality as well (dharmanairātmya). The selflessness of dharmas is synonymous with the emptiness (sunyatā) of dharmas, and the fact that all things in existence are devoid of intrinsic nature (S. NIḤSVABHĀVA). It was furthermore said in the Mahāyāna that in order to achieve buddhahood, the BODHISATTVA had to gain direct realization of both pudgalanairātmya as well as the more subtle dharmanairātmya; there was disagreement over whether the ARHAT had to gain understanding of dharmanairātmya in order to achieve NIRVĀnA.

dharmānusārin. (P. dhammānusāri; T. chos kyi rjes su 'brang ba; C. suifaxing; J. zuihogyo; K. subophaeng 隨法行). In Sanskrit, "follower of the dharma," one who arrives at a realization of the dharma or truth through his or her own analysis of the teachings; contrasted with "follower of faith" (sRADDHĀNUSĀRIN) whose religious experience is grounded in the faith or confidence in what others tell him about the dharma. The SARVĀSTIVĀDA (e.g., as described in the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA) and THERAVĀDA (e.g., VISUDDHIMAGGA) schools of mainstream Buddhism both recognize seven types of noble ones (ĀRYA, P. ariya), listed in order of their intellectual superiority: (1) follower of faith (S. sraddhānusārin; P. saddhānusāri); (2) follower of the dharma (S. dharmānusārin; P. dhammānusāri); (3) one who is freed by faith (S. sRADDHĀVIMUKTA; P. saddhāvimutta); (4) one who has formed right view (S. DṚstIPRĀPTA; P. ditthippatta), by developing both faith and wisdom; (5) one who has bodily testimony (S. KĀYASĀKsIN; P. kāyasakkhi), viz., through the temporary suspension of mentality in the absorption of cessation (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI); (6) one who is freed by wisdom (S. PRAJNĀVIMUKTA; P. paNNāvimutta), by freeing oneself through analysis; and (7) one who is freed both ways (S. UBHAYATOBHĀGAVIMUKTA; P. ubhatobhāgavimutta), by freeing oneself through both meditative absorption and wisdom. According to the Sarvāstivāda VAIBHĀsIKA school of ABHIDHARMA, an ARHAT whose liberation is grounded in faith may be subject to backsliding from that state, whereas those who are dharmānusārin are unshakable (AKOPYA), because they have experienced the knowledge of nonproduction (ANUTPĀDAJNĀNA), viz., that the afflictions (klesa) can never occur again, the complement of the knowledge of extinction (KsAYAJNĀNA). ¶ The Theravāda school, which does not accept this dynamic interpretation of an arhat's spiritual experience, develops a rather different interpretation of these types of individuals. BUDDHAGHOSA explains in his VISUDDHIMAGGA that one who develops faith by contemplating the impermanent nature of things is a follower of faith at the moment of becoming a stream-enterer (sotāpanna; S. SROTAĀPANNA) and is one who is freed by faith at the subsequent moments of the fruition of the path; one who is tranquil and develops concentration by contemplating the impermanent nature of things is one who has bodily testimony at all moments; one who develops the immaterial meditative absorptions (arupajhāna; S. ARuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) is one freed both ways; one who develops wisdom is one who follows the dharma (dhammānusāri) at the moment of entry into the rank of stream-enterer and is one who has formed right view at the subsequent moments of path entry. When one achieves highest spiritual attainment, one is called freed by wisdom. In another classification of six individuals found in the Pāli CulAGOPĀLAKASUTTA, dhammānusāri is given as the fifth type, the other five being the worthy one (arahant; S. ARHAT), nonreturner (anāgāmi; S. ANĀGĀMIN), once-returner (sakadāgāmi; S. SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), stream-enterer (sotāpanna; S. srotaāpanna), and follower of faith (saddhānusāri). The IndriyasaMyutta in the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA also mentions these same six individuals and explains their differences in terms of their development of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA): faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. An arahant has matured the five faculties; a nonreturner has all five faculties, but they are slightly less developed than in the arahant; a once-returner is slightly less developed than a nonreturner; a stream-enterer slightly less than a once-returner; a dhammānusāri slightly less than a stream-enterer; and a saddhānusāri slightly less than a dhammānusāri. The saddhāvimutta and dhammānusāri are also distinguished depending on when they reach higher spiritual attainment: one who is following faith at the moment of accessing the path (maggakkhana) is called saddhāvimutta, one liberated through faith; the other, who is following wisdom, is called dhammānusāri, one who is liberated by wisdom at the moment of attainment (phalakkhana). ¶ The dharmānusārin is also found in the list of the members of the saMgha when it is subdivided into twenty (VIMsATIPRABHEDASAMGHA). Among the dharmānusārin there are candidates for the fruit of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNAPRATIPANNAKA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIPRATIPANNAKA), and nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIPRATIPANNAKA). The Mahāyāna carries over the division of dharmānusārin and sraddhānusārin into its discussion of the path to enlightenment. The PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ takes the seven types of noble ones (ārya) listed in order of intellectual superiority, and the eight noble beings (stream-enterer and so on) as examples for bodhisattvas at different stages of the path; the dharmānusārin more quickly reaches the AVAIVARTIKA (irreversible) stage, the sraddhānusārin more slowly, based on the development of wisdom (PRAJNĀ) that has forbearance for the absence of any ultimately existing goal to be reached, and skillful means (UPĀYA) that places pride of place on the welfare of others (PARĀRTHA).

dharmātmagraha. (T. chos kyi bdag 'dzin; C. fawozhi; J. hogashu; K. pobajip 法我執). In Sanskrit, the "conception of a self with regard to phenomena"; a term that is used in combination with PUDGALĀTMAGRAHA, the "conception of a self with regard to persons." In the MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools, the false notion of self (ĀTMAN) is expanded beyond that of a permanent soul inherent in each person, to that of a broader sense of an independent existence or intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA) that is falsely imagined to exist in all objects of experience. Sentient beings are thus said to falsely imagine the presence of such a self in two broad categories: persons (PUDGALA) and all other phenomena (DHARMA). Wisdom (PRAJNĀ) entails understanding the lack of self in both of these categories, referred to as the lack of self of persons (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA) and the lack of self of phenomena (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA). Among the soteriological theories of YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA there are differences of opinion as to whether the false conception of the selfhood of persons is more easily uprooted than the conception of the selfhood of phenomena. In addition, although all Mahāyāna philosophical schools agree that both forms of the conception of self must be uprooted by the BODHISATTVA in order to become a buddha, there are differences of opinion as to whether both must be uprooted by the sRĀVAKA and PRATYEKABUDDHA in order to become an ARHAT.

dhutanga. [alt. dhutanga] (S. dhutaguna/dhuta/dhuta; T. sbyang pa'i yan lag; C. toutuo[xing]; J. zuda[gyo]; K. tut'a[haeng] 頭陀[行]). In Pāli, lit. "limbs of scrupulousness," viz., "austerities," or "ascetic practices." The term is alternately known as simply dhuta/dhuta in both Pāli and Sanskrit; the BUDDHIST HYBRID SANSKRIT term dhutaguna means the "qualities" (GUnA) of the "purified" (dhuta) person, viz., an "ascetic." Dhutanga refers to a specific set of thirteen ascetic practices that the Buddha authorized monks to adopt voluntarily for the purposes of cultivating contentedness with little, detachment, energy, and moderation. These austerities are not enjoined on monks and nuns by the VINAYA, but are rather optional practices that monastics were sanctioned to adopt for limited periods of time in order to foster sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA), an important constituent of morality (sĪLA). Based on the Buddha's own failed experiments with extreme mortification of the flesh (see TAPAS) as a practice conducive to enlightenment while he was a BODHISATTVA, this specific set of practices was considered to provide a middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between self-mortification and sensual indulgence. The thirteen authorized practices are (1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; (2) wearing only three robes; (3) going for alms; (4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; (5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; (6) eating only food received in the alms bowl (PĀTRA), rather than more elaborate meals presented to the SAMGHA; (7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; (8) dwelling in the forest; (9) dwelling at the root of a tree; (10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one's robes as shelter; (11) dwelling in a charnel ground (sMAsĀNA); (12) satisfaction with whatever dwelling one has; and (13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down (see CHANGJWA PURWA). The comparable Mahāyāna list of twelve dhutagunas is essentially the same, dropping the two practices involving eating (5, 6) and adding an additional rule on wearing only garments made of coarse hemp and wool. The VISUDDHIMAGGA recommends these ascetic practices especially to those of either greedy (RĀGA) or deluded (MOHA) temperaments (CARITA), because greed and delusion both wane through, respectively, the continued practice of asceticism and the clarification of what is important in life; sometimes a person of hateful temperament is also said to benefit, because conflict abates as one becomes content with little. The Buddha offered this authorized list of voluntary practices after explicitly rejecting a more severe set of austerities proposed by his cousin and rival DEVADATTA that would have been mandatory for all members of the saMgha: forest dwelling (see ARANNAVĀSI), subsistence on gathered alms food only, use of rag robes only, dwelling at the foot of a tree, and strict vegetarianism. With the growth of settled monasticism, the practice of the austerities waned, although asceticism continues to be a major prestige factor within the Buddhist lay and monastic communities. In their accounts of India, both FAXIAN and XUANZANG note the presence of followers of Devadatta who adhered to the austere practices he had recommended to the Buddha. The dhutangas should be distinguished from TAPAS, "severe austerities," or DUsKARACARYĀ, "difficult feats" of religious virtuosity, practices that do not necessarily involve the authorized types of ascetic practices. See also THUDONG.

dhyānānga. (P. jhānanga; T. bsam gtan gyi yan lag; C. chanzhi; J. zenshi; K. sonji 禪支). In Sanskrit, the "constituents of meditative absorption" (DHYĀNA); according to mainstream Buddhist materials, five factors that must be present in order to enter into the first meditative absorption of the subtlemateriality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA): (1) applied thought (VITARKA), (2) sustained thought (VICĀRA), (3) physical rapture (PRĪTI), (4) mental ease (SUKHA), and (5) one-pointedness (EKĀGRATĀ; cf. CITTAIKĀGRATĀ) or equanimity (UPEKsĀ). Each constituent results from the temporary allayment of a specific mental hindrance (NĪVARAnA): vitarka allays sloth and torpor (STYĀNA-MIDDHA); vicāra allays skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ); prīti allays malice (VYĀPĀDA); sukha allays restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA); and ekāgratā allays sensuous desire (KĀMACCHANDA). Each higher dhyāna has a decreasing number of factors, with both types of thought dropping away in the second dhyāna, physical rapture dropping away in the third, and mental ease vanishing in the fourth, when only onepointedness remains. The ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA and related MAHĀYĀNA accounts say the first dhyāna has five branches: applied and sustained thought, rapture, bliss, and SAMĀDHI (meditative stabilization); the second, four branches: rapture, bliss, samādhi, and PRASĀDA (calm clarity); the third, five branches: equanimity, SMṚTI (recollection), SAMPRAJANYA (introspection), happiness, and one-pointedness; and the fourth, four branches: equanimity, recollection, an equanimous feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant, and samādhi. See also DHYĀNA; NĪVARAnA.

dhyāna. (P. jhāna; T. bsam gtan; C. chan/chanding; J. zen/zenjo; K. son/sonjong 禪/禪定). In Sanskrit, "meditative absorption," specific meditative practices during which the mind temporarily withdraws from external sensory awareness and remains completely absorbed in an ideational object of meditation. The term can refer both to the practice that leads to full absorption and to the state of full absorption itself. Dhyāna involves the power to control the mind and does not, in itself, entail any enduring insight into the nature of reality; however, a certain level of absorption is generally said to be necessary in order to prepare the mind for direct realization of truth, the destruction of the afflictions (KLEsA), and the attainment of liberation (VIMUKTI). Dhyāna is classified into two broad types: (1) meditative absorption associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and (2) meditative absorption of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). Each of these two types is subdivided into four stages or degrees of absorption, giving a total of eight stages of dhyāna. The four absorptions of the realm of subtle materiality are characterized by an increasing attenuation of consciousness as one progresses from one stage to the next. The deepening of concentration leads the meditator temporarily to allay the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) and to put in place the five constituents of absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA). The five hindrances are: (1) sensuous desire (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders the constituent of one-pointedness of mind (EKĀGRATĀ); (2) malice (VYĀPĀDA), hindering physical rapture (PRĪTI); (3) sloth and torpor (STYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering applied thought (VITARKA); (4) restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering mental ease (SUKHA); and (5) skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ), hindering sustained thought (VICĀRA). These hindrances thus specifically obstruct one of the specific factors of absorption and, once they are allayed, the first level of the subtle-materiality dhyānas will be achieved. In the first dhyāna, all five constituents of dhyāna are present; as concentration deepens, these gradually fall away, so that in the second dhyāna, both types of thought vanish and only prīti, sukha, and ekāgratā remain; in the third dhyāna, only sukha and ekāgratā remain; and in the fourth dhyāna, concentration is now so rarified that only ekāgratā is left. Detailed correlations appear in meditation manuals describing specifically which of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA) and seven constituents of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA) serves as the antidote to which hindrance. Mastery of the fourth absorption of the realm of subtle materiality is required for the cultivation of the supranormal powers (ABHIJNĀ) and for the cultivation of the four ārupyāvacaradhyānas, or meditative absorptions of the immaterial realm. The immaterial absorptions themselves represent refinements of the fourth rupāvacaradhyāna, in which the "object" of meditation is gradually attenuated. The four immaterial absorptions instead are named after their respective objects: (1) the sphere of infinite space (ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness (VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA), (3) the sphere of nothingness (ĀKINCANYĀYATANA), and (4) the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJYYATANA). Mastery of the subtle-materiality realm absorptions can also result in rebirth as a divinity (DEVA) in the subtle-materiality realm, and mastery of the immaterial absorptions can lead to rebirth as a divinity in the immaterial realm (see ANINJYAKARMAN). Dhyāna occurs in numerous lists of the constituents of the path, appearing, for example, as the fifth of the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). The term CHAN (J. zen), the name adopted by an important school of indigenous East Asian Buddhism, is the Chinese phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit term dhyāna. See also JHĀNA; SAMĀDHI; SAMĀPATTI.

dhyānasamāpatti. [alt. samāpattidhyāna] (P. jhānasamāpatti; T. bsam gtan snyoms 'jug; C. xiude ding; J. shutokujo; K. sudŭk chong 修得定). In Sanskrit, "meditative absorption attained through cultivation"; one of the two types of meditative absorption, along with "innate meditative absorption" (DHYĀNOPAPATTI). Whereas "innate meditative absorption" is attained once one is reborn into the "field of meditative concentration" (dhyānabhumi), i.e., the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU) or the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU), this "meditative absorption attained by cultivation" is the meditative state attained in the "field of distraction" (asamāhitatva) of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) through meditative practice. Rebirth into the subtle-materiality or immaterial realms is presumed to occur as the reward for having performed in the preceding lifetime cultivation of the subtle-material absorptions (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) or immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). The ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA and related MAHĀYĀNA accounts parse the compound dhyānasamāpatti as a dual compound (dvandva) and construe dhyāna as referring to the four levels of the dhyānas of the subtle-materiality realm and samāpatti to the four levels of dhyāna of the immaterial realm.

divyacaksus. (P. dibbacakkhu; T. lha'i mig; C. tianyan; J. tengen; K. ch'onan 天眼). In Sanskrit, lit. "divine eye," viz., "clairvoyance"; one of the five (or six) superknowledges (ABHIJNĀ) and one of the three "knowledges" (TRIVIDYĀ). The divine eye refers to the ability to observe things from afar, as well as to see the "mind-made bodies" (MANOMAYAKĀYA) that are the products of meditation or enlightenment. It also provides the ability to observe where beings will be reborn after they die (S. CYUTYUPAPĀDĀNUSMṚTI), the second of the TRIVIDYĀ. One who possesses this power sees the disappearance and arising of beings as low or noble, beautiful or ugly, etc., according to their wholesome and unwholesome deeds (KARMAN) in body, speech, and mind. Those who revile the noble ones (ĀRYAPUDGALA), hold perverse views (MITHYĀDṚstI), and act in accordance with perverse views are observed to be reborn in lower realms of existence, or in painful realms such as the hells. Those who honor the noble ones, hold right views, and act in accordance with right views are observed to be reborn in higher realms of existence, and in pleasant realms such as the heavens. On the night of his enlightenment, the Buddha gained the divine eye during the second watch of the night. This superknowledge is considered to be a mundane (LAUKIKA) achievement and is gained through refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA; RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA).

divyasrotra. (P. dibbasota; T. lha'i rna ba; C. tian'er; J. tenni; K. ch'oni 天耳). In Sanskrit, lit. "divine ear," viz., "clairaudience"; one of the five (or six) superknowledges (ABHIJNĀ). With the divine ear, one can hear heavenly and earthly sounds both far and near just as if one were a divinity. This superknowledge is considered to be a mundane (LAUKIKA) achievement and is gained through refinement of the fourth stage of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA; RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA).

dravyasat. (T. rdzas yod; C. shi you; J. jitsuu; K. sil yu 實有). In Sanskrit, "substantially existent," or "existent in substance"; a term used in Buddhist philosophical literature to describe phenomena whose inherent nature is more real than those designated as PRAJNAPTISAT, "existent by imputation." The contrast drawn in doctrinal discussions between the way things appear to be and the way they exist in reality appears to have developed out of the early contrast drawn between the false view (MITHYĀDṚstI) of a perduring self (ĀTMAN) and five real aggregates (SKANDHA). The five aggregates as the real constituents of compounded things were further elaborated into the theory of factors (DHARMA), which were generally conceived as dravyasat, although the ABHIDHARMA schools differed regarding how they defined the term and which phenomena fell into which category. In the SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma, for example, dharmas are categorized as dravyasat because they have "inherent existence" (SVABHĀVA), while all compounded things, by contrast, are prajNaptisat, or merely conventional constructs that derive from dravyasat. In the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA scholasticism, however, all things are considered to lack any inherent existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA). Therefore, Madhyamaka asserts that even dharmas are marked by emptiness (suNYATĀ) and thus nothing is "substantially existent" (dravyasat). In contrast to the Madhyamaka's exclusive rejection of anything being dravyasat, the YOGĀCĀRA school maintained that at least one thing, the flow of consciousness or the process of subjective imputation (VIJNAPTI), was substantially existent (dravyasat). For Yogācāra followers, however, the reason that the flow of consciousness is dravyasat is not because it is free from causal conditioning and thereby involves inherent existence (svabhāva), but because the Yogācāra denies the ontological claim that causal conditioning involves the absence of svabhāva, or vice versa. Thus the flow of consciousness, even though it is causally conditioned, may still be conceived as "substantially existent" (dravyasat) because its inherent existence is "dependent" (PARATANTRA), one of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA) recognized in the school. Another strand of Mahāyāna thought that asserts there is something that is substantially existent is the doctrine of the buddha-nature (BUDDHADHĀTU) or TATHĀGATAGARBHA. As the potentiality inherent in each sentient being to become a buddha, the tathāgatagarbha is sometimes said to be both empty (of all afflictions) and nonempty (of all the attributes and qualities inherent in enlightenment). In this context, there has been some dispute as to whether the buddhadhātu or tathāgatagarbha should be conceived as only dravyasat, or as both dravyasat and prajNaptisat.

dravya. (T. rdzas; C. shishi; J. jitsuji; K. silsa 實事). In Sanskrit "substance," "constituent," or "real entity"; a term with wide-ranging use in Buddhism, from the "ingredients" of a medicine or magic potion to "substance" in an ontological sense. The various schools of Indian Buddhism made use of the term in different ways. Although the term is virtually unknown in Pāli materials (where the equivalent is dabba), including its abhidhamma literature, in the VAIBHĀsIKA school of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, dravya became virtually synonymous with DHARMA. The Vaibhāsikas conceived that all things that were "real entities" (DRAVYA) had unique characteristics of their own (SVALAKsAnA), were not subject to any further division, and had specific modes of being (what the Vaibhāsikas termed their "own being," or SVABHĀVA). All material objects were said to be composed of eight dravya: earth, water, fire, air, form, smell, taste, and touch. In MAHĀYĀNA, the YOGĀCĀRA school argued that because there is no external world, there were no physical constituents; only consciousness (VIJNĀNA) possessed dravya. By contrast, the MADHYAMAKA school, in keeping with its doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ), saw dravya as almost a synonym of inherent existence (SVABHĀVA) and said that all things were ultimately devoid of dravya. See also DRAVYASAT.

dṛsti. (P. ditthi; T. lta ba; C. jian; J. ken; K. kyon 見). In Sanskrit, "view" or "opinion"; nearly always used pejoratively in Buddhism to refer to a "wrong view." In the AttHAKAVAGGA chapter of the SUTTANIPĀTA, which seems to belong to the earliest stratum of Pāli Buddhist literature, the Buddha offers a rigorous indictment of the dangers inherent in "views" and displays a skepticism about religious dogmas in general, seeing them as virulent sources of attachment that lead ultimately to conceit, quarrels, and divisiveness. Some scholars have suggested that the thoroughgoing critique of views may have been the core teaching of Buddhism and might have served as the prototype of the later MADHYAMAKA logical approach of reductio ad absurdum, which sought to demonstrate the fallacies inherent in any philosophical statement. A standardized list of five types of wrong views (paNcadṛsti) is commonly found in the literature: (1) the view that there is a perduring self, or soul, that exists in reality (SATKĀYADṚstI); (2) extreme views (ANTAGRĀHADṚstI), viz., in permanence or annihilation (dhruvoccheda); (3) fallacious views (MITHYĀDṚstI), the denial of or disbelief in the efficacy of KARMAN, rebirth, and causality; (4) the rigid attachment to views (DṚstIPARĀMARsA), viz., mistakenly and stubbornly clinging to one's own speculative views as being superior to all others; and (5) the rigid attachment to the soteriological efficacy of rites and rituals (sĪLAVRATAPARĀMARsA). There are numerous other kinds of wrong views listed in the literature. Views are also commonly listed as the second of the four attachments (UPĀDĀNA), along with the attachments to sensuality (KĀMA), the soteriological efficacy of rites and rituals (sīlavrata), and mistaken notions of a perduring soul (ĀTMAVĀDA). Views are also the third of the four contaminants (ĀSRAVA), along with sensuality (KĀMA), the desire for continued existence (BHAVA), and ignorance (AVIDYĀ).

durangamā. (T. ring du song ba; C. yuanxing di; J. ongyoji; K. wonhaeng chi 遠行地). In Sanskrit, "gone afar," or "transcendent"; the seventh of the ten "stages" or "grounds" (BHuMI) of the bodhisattva path (MĀRGA). The name of this stage is interpreted to mean that the bodhisattva has here reached the culmination of moral discipline (sĪLA) and hereafter proceeds to focus more on meditation (SAMĀDHI) and wisdom (PRAJNĀ). This stage marks the bodhisattva's freedom from the four perverted views (VIPARYĀSA) and his mastery of the perfection of expedients (UPĀYAKAUsALYA), which he uses to help infinite numbers of sentient beings. Although at this stage the bodhisattva abides in signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), he does not negate the conventions that create signs, thereby upholding the conventional nature of phenomena. He remains at this stage until he is able to abide spontaneously and effortlessly in the signless state. According to CANDRAKĪRTI in his MADHYAMAKĀVĀTĀRA, at this stage the bodhisattva, in each and every moment, is able to enter into and withdraw from the equipoise of cessation (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI) in which all elaborations (PRAPANCA) cease. For Candrakīrti, at the conclusion of the seventh stage, the bodhisattva is liberated from rebirth, having destroyed all of the afflictive obstructions (KLEsĀVARAnA). The seventh stage is thus the last of the impure bhumis. The bodhisattva then proceeds to the three pure stages (the eighth, ninth, and tenth bhumis), over the course of which he abandons the obstructions to omniscience (JNEYĀVARAnA).

Dus gsum mkhyen pa. (Dusum Kyenpa) (1110-1193). A renowned Tibetan master recognized as the first in the lineage of KARMA PA incarnations and early founder of the KARMA BKA' BRGYUD sect of Tibetan Buddhism. He was born in the Tre shod region of eastern Tibet and at the age of sixteen was ordained by a monk of the BKA' GDAMS sect and received tantric instruction from a disciple of ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA. He went on to study MADHYAMAKA and the KĀLACAKRATANTRA with some of the leading scholars of the day. At the age of thirty, Dus gsum mkhyen pa met his principal GURU, SGAM PO PA BSOD NAMS RIN CHEN, from whom he received many teachings, including so-called "heat yoga" (gtum mo; see CAndĀLĪ). He also studied with MI LA RAS PA's renowned disciple RAS CHUNG PA. He devoted himself to the teachings that would become the hallmark of the Bka' brgyud, such as the six yogas of NĀROPA and MAHĀMUDRA, but he also received teachings from a number of Bka' gdams and SA SKYA masters. He went on to found three important Bka' brgyud monasteries: Kam po gnas nang in 1164, KARMA DGON in 1184, both in eastern Tibet, and MTSHUR PHU northwest of LHA SA in 1187. The latter became a powerful central-Tibetan institution as the primary seat of the Karma pas up to 1959. It is said that at the age of sixteen Dus gsum mkhyen pa received a hat woven from the hair of one hundred thousand dĀKINĪs. This hat has been passed down to subsequent Karma pas, and seen in the so-called "black hat ceremony" (zhwa nag).

duskaracaryā. (P. dukkarakārikā; T. dka' ba spyod pa; C. kuxing; J. kugyo; K. kohaeng 苦行). In Sanskrit, "difficult feats" of religious practice, referring especially to the extreme asceticism in which sākyamuni Buddha engaged as the BODHISATTVA, prior to finding the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between mortification of the flesh and sensual indulgence. For the authorized list of ascetic practices, see DHUTAnGA.

Dvedhāvitakkasutta. (C. Nian jing; J. Nengyo; K. Yom kyong 念經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Two Kinds of Thoughts"; the nineteenth sutta contained in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 102nd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to his disciples gathered at the JETAVANA Grove in the town of Sāvatthi (sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha explains that thoughts can be divided into two categories: unsalutary (P. akusala; S. AKUsALA) thoughts associated with sensual desire, ill will, and harmfulness; and salutary (P. kusala; S. KUsALA) thoughts associated with renunciation, non-ill will, and harmlessness. He describes his own practice prior to his enlightenment as discerning between these two types of thoughts and recognizing the advantages that come from developing the salutary and the disadvantages of the unsalutary. He advises his monks to examine their minds in the same way so that they too would develop salutary thoughts and overcome unsalutary thoughts.

Dyaus (Sanskrit) Dyaus [nominative of div, dyu heaven, sky from div day, brightness from the verbal root div to shine] Heaven, sky; in the Vedas the sky was regarded as descending in three divisions, named from below upwards avama, madhyama, and uttama or tritiya. The sky was designated the father (dyaush-pita); the earth, the mother (dyava-prithivi); and ushas (dawn) the daughter. The term stands for “the unrevealed Deity, or that which reveals Itself only as light and the bright day — metaphorically” (TG 97).

er zong. (J. nishu; K. i chong 二宗). In Chinese, "the two [primary] scholastic traditions," or "two [rival] tenets," of which there are three different schemata. (1) kong zong vs. you zong: In this model, Buddhism is divided into the school that posits the insubstantiality of things (C. kong; S. suNYATĀ) and that which posits the substantiality of things (C. you; S. BHAVA), respectively. One such dichotomy involves the BAHUsRUTĪYA, the school associated with the CHENGSHI LUN (*Tattvasiddhi), which teaches the "emptiness of everything" (sarva-suNYATĀ), including factors (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA), and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, which assumes that things could be reduced to fundamentally real, indivisible factors (DHARMA) that exist independently and are endowed with unique, irreducible properties. (2) XING ZONG vs. XIANG ZONG: In this model, Buddhist teaching is said to consist of the doctrine that deals with the "nature of things" (C. xing; this doctrine has been variously interpreted as being associated with the MADHYAMAKA and TATHĀGATAGARBHA schools), and the doctrine that deals with the "characteristics/phenomenal aspects of things" (C. xiang; this doctrine has been variously interpreted to be associated with the YOGĀCĀRA and Sarvāstivāda schools), respectively. (3) kong zong vs. xing zong: In the third model, Buddhism is said to contain two antithetical strands of thought (that may or may not be ultimately complementary). One strand upholds the reality of "emptiness" (C. kong) and denies any "self" or substantiality in all dharmas. The other strand affirms a discoverable and real "essence" (C. xing) of dharmas. Traditionally, Madhyamaka has been identified to be the paradigmatic "school of emptiness," and tathāgatagarbha to be the paragon of the "school of [real] nature."

Fahua jing lüeshu. (J. Hokekyo ryakusho; K. Pophwa kyong yakso 法華經略疏). In Chinese, "A Brief Commentary on the 'Lotus Sutra,'" the earliest extant Chinese commentary on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, though there is considerable controversy regarding its authenticity. The text is attributed to DAOSHENG from the Liu-Song period (420-479), who was one of the direct disciples of the Kuchean translator KUMĀRAJĪVA. Daosheng claimed that the treatise combined the famous translator's lectures notes on the Saddharmapundarīkasutra with Daosheng's own insights. If authentic, this commentary would be Daosheng's only surviving work, offering a rare perspective into the way the Saddharmapundarīkasutra was understood and interpreted by Kumārajīva and his circle of adherents. Employing expressions found in the Chinese "Book of Changes" (Yijing), this commentary discusses the notions of "consummate perfection" (yuan) and a peculiar MAHĀYĀNA definition of the "middle way" (C. zhongdao, MADHYAMAPRATIPAD), notions that were further elaborated by subsequent TIANTAI and HUAYAN exegetes.

Faxing zong. (J. Hosshoshu; K. Popsong chong 法性宗). In Chinese, "Dharma Nature school," the intellectual tradition in East Asian Buddhism that was concerned with the underlying essence or "nature" (xing) of reality; contrasted with the "Dharma Characteristics School" (FAXIANG ZONG), the tradition that analyzed the different functions of various phenomena. The term "Faxing zong" was employed to refer to more advanced forms of the MAHĀLĀNA, such as to the MADHYAMAKA teachings of the SAN LUN ZONG, the TATHĀGATAGARBHA teachings, or to the last three of the five teachings in the Huayan school's hermeneutical taxonomy (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI): viz., the advanced teaching of Mahāyāna (Dasheng zhongjiao), the sudden teaching (DUNJIAO), and the perfect teaching (YUANJIAO). By contrast, "Faxiang zong" was a pejorative term referring to the Chinese YOGĀLĀRA school that was established on the basis of the new Yogācāra texts introduced from India by XUANZANG (600/602-664) and elaborated upon in his lineage. The Huayan exegete CHENGGUAN (738-839) first used the term Faxing zong to differentiate it from the Faxiang zong. In his Dafangguang fo huayanjing shu ("Commentary on the AVATAMSAKASuTRA"), Chengguan presents ten differences between the two schools of Faxing and Faxiang, and in his own hermeneutic taxonomy, Chengguan polemically equates the elementary teaching of the Mahāyāna (Dasheng shijiao) with Faxiang, and the advanced (Dasheng zhongjiao) and perfect teachings (yuanjiao) of the Mahāyāna with the Faxing school. The contrast between "nature" (xing) and "characteristics" (xiang) was used in FAZANG's (643-712) HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG as a means of reconciling the differences in the approaches taken by the Madhyamaka and Yogācāra schools. Although Fazang did not use the term Faxing zong himself, he did coin the term "Faxiang zong" to refer pejoratively to Xuanzang's lineage of Yogācāra teachings. It appears, then, that Chengguan projected the concept of Faxing and Faxiang schools onto Fazang's doctrinal notions as well, for Chengguan sometimes interprets Fazang's notions of the "provisional" and "definitive" teachings (see QUAN SHI) as the Faxiang and the Faxing schools, respectively, or sometimes replaces a concept such as "true nature" (zhenxing) with the term faxing.

fazhi. (J. hoshu/hosshu; K. popchip 法執). In Chinese, "attachment to factors"; in contrast to ĀTMAGRĀHA, the attachment to a self, attachment to factors (DHARMA) refers to either a clinging to the constituent aggregates that make up a person as ultimately real, or an attachment to the Buddhist teachings themselves. In the former scenario, the SARVĀSTIVĀDA, for example, rejects the reality of a self among the constituent factors (DHARMA) that constitute the person, but maintained that constituent parts themselves do have a perduring, ultimate reality. Rival Buddhist schools, most notably the MADHYAMAKA tradition, criticize such a view as being emblematic of an attachment to the dharmas. In the latter scenario, dharma-attachment is the clinging to Buddhist teachings and other heuristic devices as being ultimately real (cf. PARAMĀRTHASATYA). Various Buddhist scriptures tout the Buddhist teachings as skillful strategems (UPĀYA) that serve a provisional purpose. Buddhist teachings are likened to a raft that could be used to cross a river, but once having reached the other shore, the traveler should leave the raft behind lest it become a burden. Doctrinaire interpretations of, or an undue fascination with, the Buddhist teachings, especially when they are ill-suited for the present situation, is said to be a kind of dharma-attachment. Traditionally, two kinds of dharma-attachment are delineated: "dharma-attachment that arises from discriminatory cognition" (fenbie fazhi) and "inborn dharma-attachment" (jusheng fazhi). The former is primarily an epistemic error resulting from improper thinking and exposure to fallacious doctrines-it is eradicated at the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA). The latter is primarily an affective, habitual, and instinctive clinging (conditioned by similar tendencies accrued from previous lives) that may be present whether or not one subscribes to fenbie fazhi-the view of independent, irreducibly real dharmas. "Inborn dharma-attachment" is only gradually attenuated through the successive stages of the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀLĀRGA). In Mahāyāna polemics, the so-called HĪNAYĀNA can only lead to the eradication of the attachment to self but never to the attachment to dharmas. Cf. DHARMANAIRĀTMYA.

Fazun. (法尊) (T. Blo bzang chos 'phags) (1902-1980). Twentieth-century Chinese translator of Buddhist scriptures and scholar of Tibetan religious and political history. In 1920, Fazun was ordained as a novice on WUTAISHAN. He became acquainted with Dayong (1893-1929), a student of TAIXU's who introduced him to the techniques of Buddhist TANTRA, at the time a popular strand of Buddhism in China in its Japanese (MIKKYo) and Tibetan forms. Fully ordained in Beijing in 1922, Fazun trained under Taixu's patronage in the tenets of the PURE LAND and TIANTAI schools at the Wuchang Institute for Buddhist Studies. During the same years, Taixu urged Dayong to train in Japanese mikkyo on KoYASAN. Taixu's aim was to verify and rectify the opinions about Buddhist tantra that circulated in China, where this form of Indian Buddhism had flourished at the Tang court. Upon his return, Dayong conferred on Fazun several ABHIsEKAs of the lower tantric cycles that he had brought from Japan. He also instructed Fazun in the Mizong gangyao ("Essentials of Tantra"), a primer for students of Buddhist tantra by the Japanese SHINGONSHu scholar Gonda Raifu (1846-1934) that Wang Hongyuan (1876-1937), a Chinese student of Gonda's, had translated in 1918. After an introduction to the Tibetan tantric traditions by Bai Puren (1870-1927), a Mongolian lama stationed at Beijing's Yonghe Gong, Dayong became gradually dissatisfied with Japanese mikkyo. With Taixu's endorsement, he resolved to study Buddhist tantra in its Tibetan form. In 1924, Fazun joined Dayong's Group for Learning the Dharma in Tibet (Liu Zang Xuefa Tuan), a team of some thirty Chinese monks who were studying the basics of the Tibetan language in Beijing. From 1925 to 1929, Fazun carried on his language learning in eastern Tibet and began his training in the classics of the DGE LUGS monastic curriculum, which in the ensuing years would become his main focus of translation. After Dayong's passing in 1929, Fazun followed his Tibetan teacher, DGE BSHES A mdo, to central Tibet. He stayed at 'BRAS SPUNGS monastery from 1930 to 1933. In 1934, Taixu asked Fazun to take on the position of director at the newly established Sino-Tibetan Institute (Hanzang Jiaoli Yuan) near Chongqing. The thirteenth DALAI LAMA also encouraged Fazun to spread TSONG KHA PA's synthesis of the Buddhist teachings in China. Hence from 1935, under the Japanese occupation and during the Chinese civil war, Fazun served as an educator of young monks in Tibetan Buddhism and as a translator of Tibetan scriptures at the Sino-Tibetan Institute. These years of prolific translation work established Fazun as the foremost translator of Buddhism from Tibetan sources in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Among his translations are Tsong kha pa's LAM RIM CHEN MO (Putidao cidi guanglun), LEGS BSHAD SNYING PO (Bian liaoyi buliaoyi lun), SNGAGS RIM CHEN MO (Mizong daocidi lun); MAITREYA's ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA (Xianguan zhuangyan lun); CANDRAKĪRTI's MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA (Ru zhonglun); and ĀRYADEVA's CATUḤsATAKA (Sibailun song). Fazun also translated into Tibetan the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBLĀsA, extant in the two hundred rolls of XUANZANG's Chinese rendering (Da piposha lun), by the title Bye brag bshad mdzod chen mo. In 1950, after the Communist authorities discontinued the activities of the Institute, Fazun moved to Beijing. The Committee for Minority Affairs appointed him as a translator of communist propaganda materials, including Chairman Mao's Xin minzhu zhuyi("New Democracy") and Lun renmin minzhu zhuanzheng ("On the People's Democratic Dictatorship"), for the education of the new generation of cadres in occupied Tibet. In 1966, as the Cultural Revolution set in, he was charged with expressing anti-Communist sentiments during the 1930s. He was confined in a labor camp until his release in 1972. During the 1970s Fazun resumed his translation activity from Tibetan with DHARMAKĪRTI's PRALĀnAVĀRTTIKA (Shiliang lun), DIGNĀGA's PRALĀnASAMUCCAYA (Jiliang lun), and ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA's BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA (Putidao deng lun). Fazun suffered a fatal heart attack in 1980. Because of his unsurpassed knowledge of Tibetan language, religion, and history, and his writing style inspired by KUMĀRAJĪVA's and Xuanzang's Buddhist Chinese, Fazun is often referred to as "the Xuanzang of modern times."

four immaterial absorptions. (S. ārupyāvacaradhyāna; T. gzugs med pa'i snyoms 'jug; C. wuse ding 無色定) See FOUR IMMATERIAL REALMS (s.v.).

gati. (T. 'gro ba; C. qu; J. shu; K. ch'wi 趣). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "destiny," "destination," or "bourne," one of the five or six places in SAMSĀRA where rebirth occurs. In ascending order, these bournes are occupied by hell denizens (NĀRAKA), hungry ghosts (PRETA), animals (TIRYAK), humans (MANUsYA), and divinities (DEVA); sometimes, demigods (ASURA) are added between humans and divinities as a sixth bourne. These destinies are all located within the three realms of existence (TRILOKA[DHĀTU]), which comprises the entirety of our universe. At the bottom of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) are located the denizens of the eight hot and cold hells (nāraka), of which the lowest is the interminable hell (see AVĪCI). These are said to be located beneath the continent of JAMBUDVĪPA. This most ill-fated of existences is followed by hungry ghosts, animals, humans, demigods, and the six sensuous-realm divinities, who live on MOUNT SUMERU or in the heavens directly above it. Higher levels of the divinities occupy the upper two realms of existence. The divinities of the BRAHMALOKA, whose minds are perpetually absorbed in one of the four meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA), occupy seventeen levels in the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU). Divinities who are so ethereal that they do not require even a subtle material foundation occupy four heavens in the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU). The divinities in the immaterial realm are perpetually absorbed in formless trance states, and rebirth there is the result of mastery of one or all of the immaterial dhyānas (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). The bottom three destinies, of hell denizens, hungry ghosts, and animals, are referred to as the three evil bournes (DURGATI); these are destinies where suffering predominates because of the past performance of primarily unvirtuous actions. In the various levels of the divinities, happiness predominates because of the past performance of primarily virtuous deeds. By contrast, the human destiny is thought to be ideally suited for religious training because it is the only bourne where both suffering and happiness can be readily experienced in the proper balance (not intoxicated by pleasure or racked by pain), allowing one to recognize more easily the true character of life as impermanent (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANĀTMAN). Some schools posit a transitional "intermediate state" (ANTARĀBHAVA) of being between past and future lives within these destinies. See also DAsADHĀTU.

Go bo rab 'byams pa Bsod nams seng ge. [alt. Go rams pa Bsod nams seng ge] (1429-1489). A renowned philosopher and logician of the SA SKYA sect of Tibetan Buddhism, he studied at NA LAN DRA (founded in 1435 by RONG STON SMRA BA'I SENG GE) then NGOR (founded in 1429 by Ngor chen KUN DGA' BZANG PO), where he later became the sixth abbot. His complete works in five volumes, included in the set of works of the great masters of the Sa skya sect, present the authoritative interpretation of statements by the five Sa skya hierarchs (SA SKYA GONG MA RNAM LNGA) on important topics in ABHIDHARMA and epistemology (PRAMĀnA). Particularly highly regarded are his works on MADHYAMAKA and the thought of DHARMAKĪRTI, as well as his explanation of Sa skya Pandita's SDOM GSUM RAB DBYE, a core text of the Sa skya curriculum explaining the three sRĀVAKA, BODHISATTVA, and tantric moral codes, written as a corrective to the work of his contemporary SHĀKYA MCHOG LDAN.

gunapāramitā. (T. yon tan pha rol tu phyin pa; C. gongde boluomi; J. kudokuharamitsu; K. kongdok paramil 功德波羅蜜). In Sanskrit, "the perfection of qualities," referring to the four salutary qualities of the TATHĀGATAGARBHA: permanence, purity, bliss, and self, as described in the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA. These qualities are in distinction to the four perverted views (VIPARYĀSA), where ignorant sentient beings regard the conditioned realm of SAMSĀRA as being permanent, pure, blissful, and self when in fact it is impermanent (ANITYA), impure (asubha), suffering (DUḤKHA), and not-self (ANĀTMAN). More specifically, according to the Ratnagotravibhāgavyākyā, sentient beings assume that all the conditioned phenomena they experience are permanent and real: they consider their own bodies to be pure, regard their five aggregates (SKANDHA) as having a perduring self (ĀTMAN), falsely imagine permanence in the transitory, and mistakenly regard saMsāra as a source of real happiness. In order to counter these attachments, the Buddha therefore taught that saMsāra is impermanent, impure, suffering, and not-self. However, the Ratnagotravibhāgavyākyā says it would be wrong to assume that these four qualities also apply to the tathāgatagarbha or the DHARMAKĀYA; the Buddha teaches that it is endowed with the four gunapāramitā, or perfect qualities, of permanence, purity, bliss, and self. The FOXING LUN ("Buddha-Nature Treatise") additionally presents the gunapāramitā as resulting from the perfection of four soteriological practices, e.g., bliss refers to the condition of being free from suffering, which is experienced through cultivating a SAMĀDHI that overcomes wrong conceptions of emptiness (suNYATĀ); permanence indicates the endless variety of acts that bodhisattvas cultivate on the path of great compassion (MAHĀKARUnĀ), etc. This positive valorization of the qualities of the tathāgatagarbha serves to counteract any mistaken tendency toward nihilism that might be prompted by the apophatic language used within the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature or the MADHYAMAKA school.

Haribhadra. (T. Seng ge bzang po) (c. 800). Indian Buddhist exegete during the Pāla dynasty, whom later Tibetan doxographers associate with the YOGĀCĀRA-*SVĀTANTRIKA syncretistic strand of Indian philosophy. He may have been a student of sĀNTARAKsITA and was a contemporary of KAMALAsĪLA; he himself lists Vairocanabhadra as his teacher. Haribhadra is known for his two commentaries on the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA ("PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ in Eight Thousand Lines"): the longer ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRĀLOKĀ-PrajNāpāramitāvyākhyā, and its summary, the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRAVIVṚTI. He is also known for his recasting of the twenty-five-thousand-line version of the prajNāpāramitā (PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA) in a work entitled the Le'u brgyad ma in Tibetan. Each of these works is based on the interpretative scheme set forth in the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA ("Ornament for Clear Realizations"), a guide to the PaNcaviMsati that Haribhadra explicitly attributes to MAITREYA. His AbhisamayālaMkārālokā builds upon PRAMĀnA, MADHYAMAKA, and ABHIDHARMA literature and was extremely influential in Tibet; its summary (known as "'grel pa don gsal" in Tibetan) is the root text (rtsa ba) for commentaries in the GSANG PHU NE'U THOG monastery tradition originating with RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB. It is the most widely studied prajNāpāramitā commentary in Tibetan Buddhism to the present day. Haribhadra is known for his explanation of a JNĀNADHARMAKĀYA (knowledge truth-body) in addition to a SVĀBHĀVAKĀYA, viz., the eternally pure DHARMADHĀTU that is free from duality. He is characterized as an alīkākāravādin ("false-aspectarian") to differentiate him from Kamalasīla, a satyākāravādin ("true-aspectarian") who holds that the objects appearing in the diverse forms of knowledge in a buddha's all-knowing mind are truly what they seem to be. He cites DHARMAKĪRTI frequently but appears to accept that scripture (ĀGAMA) is also a valid authority (PRAMĀnA). There are two principal commentaries on his work, by Dharmamitra and Dharmakīrtisrī. BuddhasrījNāna (or simply BuddhajNāna) was his disciple. The Subodhinī, a commentary on the RATNAGUnASAMCAYAGĀTHĀ, is also attributed to him.

hihan Bukkyo. (C. pipan Fojiao; K. pip'an Pulgyo 批判佛教). In Japanese, "critical Buddhism." A contemporary intellectual controversy fostered largely by the Japanese Buddhist scholars and SoToSHu ZEN priests Hakamaya Noriaki and Matsumoto Shiro and their followers. In a series of provocative essays and books, Hakamaya and Matsumoto have argued for a more engaged form of Buddhist scholarship that sought a critical pursuit of truth at the expense of the more traditional, accommodative approaches to Buddhist thought and history. "Critical" here refers to the critical analysis of Buddhist doctrines using modern historiographical and philological methodologies in order to ascertain the authentic teachings of Buddhism. "Critical" can also connote an authentic Buddhist perspective, which should be critical of intellectual misconstructions and/or societal faults. Critical Buddhists polemically dismiss many of the foundational doctrines long associated with East Asian Buddhism, and especially Japanese Zen, as corruptions of what they presume to have been the pristine, "original" teachings of the Buddha. In their interpretation, true Buddhist teachings derive from a critical perspective on the nature of reality, based on the doctrines of "dependent origination" (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) and "nonself" (ANĀTMAN); for this reason, the style of critical philosophical analysis used in the MADHYAMAKA school represents an authentic approach to Buddhism. By contrast, more accommodative strands of Buddhism that are derived from such teachings as the "embryo of buddhahood" (TATHĀGATAGARBHA), buddha-nature (FOXING), and original enlightenment (HONGAKU) were considered heretical, because they represented the corruption of the pristine Buddhist message by Brahmanical notions of a perduring self (ĀTMAN). The Mahāyāna notion of the nonduality between such dichotomies as SAMSĀRA and NIRVĀnA, the Critical Buddhists also claim, fostered a tendency toward antinomianism or moral ambiguity that had corrupted such Buddhist schools as CHAN or Zen and encouraged those schools to accept social inequities and class-based persecution (as in Soto Zen's acquiescence to the persecution of Japanese "untouchables," or burakumin). Opponents of "Critical Buddhism" suggest that efforts to locate what is "original" in the teachings of Buddhism are inevitably doomed to failure and ignore the many local forms Buddhism has taken throughout its long history; the "Critical Buddhism" movement is therefore sometimes viewed as social criticism rather than academic scholarship.

Himitsu mandara jujushinron. (秘密曼荼羅十住心論). In Japanese, "Ten Abiding States of Mind According to the Sacred MAndALA"; a treatise composed by the Japanese SHINGONSHumonk KuKAI; often referred to more briefly as the Jujushinron. In 830, Kukai submitted this treatise in reply to Emperor Junna's (r. 823-833) request to each Buddhist tradition in Japan to provide an explanation of its teachings. In his treatise, Kukai systematically classified the various Buddhist teachings (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI) and placed them onto a spiritual map consisting of the ten stages of the mind (jujushin). The first and lowest stage of the mind ("the deluded, ram-like mind") is that of ignorant beings who, like animals, are driven by their uncontrolled desires for food and sex. The beings of the second stage ("the ignorant, childlike, but tempered mind") display ethical behavior consistent with the teachings of Confucius and the lay precepts of Buddhism. The third stage of mind ("the infantlike, fearless mind") is the state in which one worships the various gods and seeks rebirth in the various heavens, as would be the case in the non-Buddhist traditions of India and in Daoism. The fourth stage ("recognizing only SKANDHAs and no-self") corresponds to the sRĀVAKAYĀNA and the fifth stage ("mind free of karmic seeds") to that of the PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA. The sixth stage ("the mind of MAHĀYĀNA, which is concerned with others") corresponds to the YOGĀCĀRA teachings, the seventh ("mind awakened to its unborn nature") to MADHYAMAKA, the eighth ("mind of one path devoid of construction") to TIANTAI (J. TENDAI), and the ninth ("mind completely devoid of self-nature") to HUAYAN (J. Kegon). Kukai placed his own tradition of Shingon at the last and highest stage of mind ("the esoteric and adorned mind"). Kukai also likened each stage of mind to a palace and contended that these outer palaces surround an inner palace ruled by the buddha MAHĀVAIROCANA. To abide in the inner palace one must be initiated into the teachings of Shingon by receiving consecration (ABHIsEKA). Kukai thus provided a Buddhist (or Shingon) alternative to ideal rulership. To demonstrate his schema of the mind, Kukai frequently cites numerous scriptures and commentaries, which made his treatise extremely prolix; Kukai later provided an abbreviated version of his argument, without the numerous supporting references, in his HIZo HoYAKU.

historical schools: Madhyamaka, MulasarvAstivAda, Huayan zong, but not hīnayAna, ekayAna, tathAgatagarbha;

Huayan wujiao. (J. Kegon no gokyo; K. Hwaom ogyo 華嚴五教). In Chinese, "Huayan's five classifications of the teachings." The HUAYAN ZONG recognizes two different versions of this doctrinal-classification schema, which ranks different strands of Buddhist teachings. The best-known version was outlined by DUSHUN and FAZANG: (1) The HĪNAYĀNA teachings (xiaojiao; cf. XIAOSHENG JIAO), also known as the srāvakayāna teaching (shengwenjiao), was pejoratively referred to as "teachings befitting the [spiritually] obtuse" (yufa). The ĀGAMAs and the ABHIDHARMAs were relegated to this class, which supposedly dealt primarily with theories of elements (DHĀTU) and more basic concepts such as dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). (2) The "elementary teaching [of Mahāyāna]" ([Dasheng] SHIJIAO). Within this category, two additional subgroups were differentiated. The first was the "initial teaching pertaining to emptiness" (kong shijiao), which encompassed the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and exegetical traditions such as MADHYAMAKA. This class of teachings was characterized by an emphasis (or, in Huayan's polemical assessment, an overemphasis) on the doctrine of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The second subgroup, the "initial teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao), broaches the dynamic and phenomenal aspects of reality and did not confine itself to the theme of emptiness. YOGĀCĀRA and its traditional affiliate sutras and commentaries were classified under this subgroup. Together, these two subgroups were deemed the provisional teachings (quanjiao) within the MAHĀYĀNA tradition. (3) The "advanced [Mahāyāna] teachings" ([Dasheng] ZHONGJIAO) focused on the way true suchness (ZHENRU; S. TATHATĀ) was innately immaculate but could be activated in response to myriad conditions. The DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith"), sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA, and LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA are examples of texts belonging to this doctrinal category. The treatment in these texts of the one mind (YIXIN) and TATHĀGATAGARBHA thought was considered a more definitive rendition of the MAHĀYĀNA teachings than were the elementary teachings (shijiao). (4) The "sudden teachings" (DUNJIAO), which includes texts like the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, was ranked as a unique category of subitist teachings befitting people of keen spiritual faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA), and therefore bypasses traditional, systematic approaches to enlightenment. The CHAN ZONG's touted soteriological methods involving sudden enlightenment (DUNWU) and its rejection of reliance on written texts led some Huayan teachers to relegate that school to this advanced, but still inferior, category of the teachings. Chan was thus superseded by, (5) the "perfect teachings" or "consummate teachings" (YUANJIAO). This supposedly most comprehensive and definitive strand of Buddhist teaching was reserved for the Huayan school and especially its definitive scripture, the AVATAMSAKASuTRA. ¶ The second version of five classifications was made by GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841) in his YUANREN LUN: (1) The "teachings pertaining to the human and heavenly realms" (RENTIAN JIAO) encompassed "mundane" (LAUKIKA) practices, such as the observation of the five precepts (PANCAsĪLA) and the ten wholesome ways of action (KUsALA-KARMAPATHA); this classification was named because of its believed efficacy to lead practitioners to higher realms of rebirth. (2) The "HĪNAYĀNA teachings" (XIAOSHENG JIAO), which were similar to the previous "xiaojiao." (3) The "dharma-characteristics teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng faxiang jiao), which was analogous to the aforementioned "elementary teaching pertaining to phenomena" (xiang shijiao) in the preceding classification scheme. (4) The "characteristics-negating teachings of MAHĀYĀNA" (Dasheng poxiang jiao) was analogous to the preceding "elementary teaching pertaining to emptiness." (5) The "nature-revealing teaching of the one vehicle" (yisheng xiangxing jiao) was equivalent to the last three categories Fazang's system combined together. See also HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG.

Huayan wujiao zhang. (J. Kegon gokyosho; K. Hwaom ogyo chang 華嚴五教章). In Chinese, "Essay on the Five [Categories of] Teachings According to Huayan" is one of the foundational treatises on the HUAYAN ZONG; composed by DUSHUN. The essay offers a systematic analysis and classification of all major Buddhist teachings according to their thematic differences, which were discussed in reference to such basic Huayan tenets as the ten profound meanings (see HUAYAN SHIYI) and the six aspects of phenomena (LIUXIANG). Dushun's influential work is the foundation of the Huayan doctrinal taxonomy, which divided the Buddhist scriptures into five levels based on the profundity of their respective teachings: HĪNAYĀNA (viz., the ĀGAMAs), elementary MAHĀYĀNA (viz., YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA), advanced Mahāyāna (SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA), sudden teachings (typically CHAN), and perfect teachings (AVATAMSAKASuTRA). See also HUAYAN WUJIAO.

hwajaeng. (C. hezheng; J. wajo 和諍). In Korean, lit. "resolving disputes," "reconciling doctrinal controversies"; a hermeneutical technique associated with the Silla scholiast WoNHYO (617-686), which seeks to demonstrate that various Buddhist doctrines, despite their apparent differences and inconsistencies, can be integrated into a single coherent whole. This "ecumenical" approach is pervasive throughout Wonhyo's works, though its basic principle is explained chiefly in his Simmun hwajaeng non ("Ten Approaches to the Reconciliation of Doctrinal Controversy"; only fragments are extant), TAESŬNG KISILLON SO ("Commentary to the 'Awakening of Faith according to the Mahāyāna'"), and KŬMGANG SAMMAEGYoNG NON ("Exposition of the *VAJRASAMĀDHISuTRA"). Wonhyo was versed in the full range of Buddhist philosophical doctrines then accessible to him in Korea, including MADHYAMAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, HWAoM, and TATHĀGATAGARBHA thought, and hwajaeng was his attempt to demonstrate how all of these various teachings of the Buddha were part of a coherent heuristic plan within the religion. All the Buddha's teachings were in fact representations of the one mind (K. ilsim; C. YIXIN); whatever doctrinal differences seem to exist between them result merely from the limitations inherent in conventional language to express the truth, not from substantive differences in the teachings themselves. One of the means through which Wonhyo seeks to demonstrate the truth of hwajaeng is to deploy the dichotomy of "analysis and synthesis" (kaehap)-lit. to "open up" all the various teachings for analysis and to "fold them together" into an overarching synthesis. This process of exegesis was then applied to the hermeneutical schema of "doctrines and essential" (chongyo)-i.e., the various doctrines of Buddhism and their essential truth. Buddhism's essential truth (yo) is "opened up" (kae) for analysis into all its various doctrines, and those doctrines (chong) are then returned to the one mind when they are "folded together" (hap) into a synthesis. Many of Wonhyo's scriptural commentaries use this hermeneutical technique in their exegeses, especially his seventeen exegetical commentaries (five of which are extant) that are titled chongyo, e.g., his Yolban kyong chongyo ("Doctrines and Essentials of the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA"). As one specific example, Wonhyo's analysis of the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith according to the Mahāyāna") attempts to demonstrate how the emptiness (suNYATĀ) doctrine of the Madhyamaka-which Wonhyo characterizes as apophasis or lit. "destruction" (K. p'a, C. po)-may been reconciled with the representation-only (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ) teachings of the Yogācāra-which he characterizes as a kataphasis, or lit. "establishment" (K. ip, C. li)-by reducing them both to the single principle of the "one mind." The Koryo monk ŬICH'oN (1055-1101) first posited that the notion of hwajaeng was emblematic of Wonhyo's philosophical approach and petitioned his brother, King Sukchong (r. 1095-1105), to grant Wonhyo the posthumous title of Hwajaeng KUKSA (the state preceptor Resolving Controversy) in 1101. Since that time, Wonhyo has been viewed as the embodiment of hwajaeng thought in Korea and hwajaeng has often been portrayed as characteristic of a distinctively Korean approach to Buddhist thought.

indriya. (T. dbang po; C. gen; J. kon; K. kŭn 根). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "faculty," "dominant," or "predominant factor"; a polysemous term of wide import in Buddhist soteriological and epistemological literature. In the SuTRA literature, indriya typically refers to the five or six sense bases: e.g., the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile faculties associated with the physical sense organs and the mental base associated with the mind; in the case of the physical senses, the indriya are forms of subtle matter located within the organs of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body that enable the functioning of the senses. The mind (MANAS) is typically listed as a sixth, internal sensory faculty. The six sense faculties (sadindriya) are subsumed as well within the list of the twelve ĀYATANA (sense-fields) and eighteen DHĀTU (elements). ¶ Indriya is also used soteriologically to describe the five "dominants" or "spiritual faculties" that are crucial to development along the path: faith (sRADDHĀ), effort (VĪRYA), mindfulness (SMṚTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ). These two denotations for indriya are subsumed by the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA abhidharma into a more extensive list of twenty-two faculties: (1-5) the five physical sense faculties, which are the predominant factors in the rise of the sensory consciousnesses, etc.; (6-7) the "female" (strīndriya) and "male" (purusendriya) faculties, which are the predominant factors in distinguishing sex organs and marking physical gender; (8) the "life force" (jīvitendriya; see JĪVITA), the predominant factor in birth and prolonging the physical continuum up through the "intermediate state" (ANTARĀBHAVA); (9) the mental faculty (MANENDRIYA), the predominant factor that governs both rebirth and the associations between an individual and the world at large; (10-14) the five faculties of sensation or feeling-viz., pleasure (SUKHA), suffering (DUḤKHA), satisfaction (saumanasya), dissatisfaction (daurmanasya), and indifference (UPEKsĀ)-the predominant factors with regard to contamination (SAMKLEsA), for passions such as attachment, hatred, conceit, delusion, etc., attach themselves to these five sensations, creating bondage to worldly objects; (15-22) the eight faculties-viz., the five moral faculties of faith (sraddhā), energy (vīrya), mindfulness (smṛti), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajNā), and the three immaculate faculties of (1) anājNātam ājNāsyāmī 'ndriyam ("the faculty of resolving to understand that which is yet to be understood"), (2) ājNātendriya ("the faculty of having understood"), and (3) ājNātāvīndriya ("the faculty of perfecting one's understanding")-which are the predominant factors regarding purification (VIsUDDHI); this is because the five moral faculties are the predominant factors that purify beings of their bondage to worldly objects and offer access to NIRVĀnA, and the three immaculate faculties are the predominant factors in the origin, duration, and enjoyment of nirvāna. ¶ Indriya is also used to refer to "three capacities" (see TRĪNDRIYA) of the disciples of the Buddha or of a particular teaching, based on their level of aptitude or capacity for understanding: viz., those of dull faculties (MṚDVINDRIYA), those of intermediate faculties (MADHYENDRIYA), and those of sharp faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA).

In each case, the name of the realm indicates the object of meditation of the beings reborn there. Hence, in the first, for example, the beings perceive only infinite space. Rebirth in these different spheres is based on mastery of the corresponding four immaterial meditative absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA; ārupyasamāpatti) in the previous life. While the devas of the sensuous realm and the realm of subtle materiality come to have larger and ever more splendid bodies at the more advanced levels of their heavens, the devas of the immaterial realm do not have even the subtlest foundation in materiality; their existence is so refined that it is not even possible to posit exactly where they dwell spatially. In some schools, such as the Sarvāstivāda, the immaterial realm does not even exist as a discrete place: rather, when a being who has mastered the immaterial absorptions dies, he is reborn at the very same location where he passed away, except now he is "immaterial" or "formless" and thus invisible to coarser beings. According to the Theravāda, even a mind-made body (MANOMAYAKĀYA) is excluded from this realm, for the devas here possess only the mind base (MANĀYATANA), mental objects (P. dhammāyatana), the elements of mental consciousness (P. manoviNNānadhātu), and the element of mental objects (P. dhammadhātu), needing only three nutriments (ĀHĀRA) to survive-contact (P. phassa), mental cognition (P. manosaNcetana), and consciousness (P. viNNāna). The Buddha claims to have lived among the devas of the immaterial realm in certain of his previous lives, but without offering any detailed description of those existences. ¶ In all realms, devas are born apparitionally. In the sensuous realm, devas are born in their mother's lap, appearing as if they are already five to ten years old at birth; by contrast, devas of the subtle-materiality and immaterial realms appear not to need the aid of parents; those in the subtle-materiality realm appear fully grown, while those in the immaterial realm do not appear at all, because they have no form. It is also said that, when devas are reborn, they are aware of their prior existence and of the specific KARMAN that led to their rebirth in the heavenly realms. The different deva realms are also distinguished by differences in nutriment, sexuality, requisites, and life span. The devas of the lower heavens of the sensuous realm consume ordinary food; those in the upper spheres of the sensuous realm and the lower levels of the realm of subtle materiality feed only on sensory contact; the devas of the upper levels of the realm of subtle materiality feed only on contemplation; those in the immaterial realm feed on cognition alone. Sexual differentiation remains only in the sensuous realm: in the heaven of the four heavenly kings and the heaven of the thirty-three, the devas engage in physical copulation, the devas of the yāma heaven engage in sexual union by embracing one another, the devas of the tusita heaven by holding hands, those of the nirmānarati heaven by smiling at one another, and those of the paranirmitavasavartin heaven by exchanging a single glance. Clothes are said to be used in all deva worlds except in the immaterial realm. The life spans of devas in the sensuous realm range from five hundred years for the gods of the heaven of the four heavenly kings to one thousand years for the trāyastriMsa gods, two thousand years for the yāma gods, four thousand years for the tusita gods, eight thousand years for the nirmānarati gods, and sixteen thousand years for the paranirmitavasavartin gods. However, there is a range of opinion of what constitutes a year in these heavens. For example, it is said that in the tusita heaven, four hundred human years equal one day in the life of a god of that heaven. The life spans of devas in the realm of subtle materiality are measured in eons (KALPA). The life spans of devas in the immaterial realm may appear as essentially infinite, but even those divinities, like all devas, are subject to impermanence (ANITYA) and will eventually die and be subject to further rebirths once the salutary meditative deed that caused them to be reborn there has been exhausted. The sutras say that for a deva of the sensuous realm, there are five portents of his impending death: the garlands of flowers he wears begin to fade, his clothes become soiled and his palace dusty, he begins to perspire, his body becomes opaque and loses its luster, and his throne becomes uncomfortable. At that point, the deva experiences a vision of his next place of rebirth. This vision is said to be one of the most horrible sufferings in saMsāra, because of its marked contrast to the magnificence of his current life. There are also said to be four direct reasons why devas die: exhaustion of their life spans, their previous merit, their food, and the arising of anger. ¶ Rebirth as a deva is presumed to be the reward of virtuous karman performed in previous lives and is thus considered a salutary, if provisional, religious goal. In the "graduated discourse" (P. ANUPUBBIKATHĀ; S. ANUPuRVIKATHĀ) taught by the Buddha, for example, the Buddha uses the prospect of heavenly rebirth (svargakathā), and the pleasures accruing thereto, as a means of attracting laypersons to the religious life. Despite the many appealing attributes of these heavenly beings, such as their physical beauty, comfortable lives, and long life span, even heavenly existence is ultimately unsatisfactory because it does not offer a definitive escape from the continued cycle of birth and death (saMsāra). Since devas are merely enjoying the rewards of their previous good deeds rather than performing new wholesome karman, they are considered to be stagnating spiritually. This spiritual passivity explains why they must be reborn in lower levels of existence, and especially as human beings, in order to further their cultivation. For these reasons, Buddhist soteriological literature sometimes condemns religious practice performed solely for the goal of achieving rebirth as a deva. It is only certain higher level of devas, such as the devas belonging to the five pure abodes (suddhāvāsa), that are not subject to further rebirth, because they have already eliminated all the fetters (saMyojana) associated with that realm and are destined to achieve arhatship. Nevertheless, over the history of Buddhism, rebirth in heaven as a deva has been a more common goal for religious practice, especially among the laity, than the achievement of nirvāna. ¶ The sutras include frequent reference to "gods and men" (S. devamanusya; C. tianren) as the objects of the Buddha's teachings. Despite the fact that this is how most Buddhist traditions have chosen to translate the Sanskrit compound, "gods" here is probably meant to refer to the terrestrial divinities of "princes" or "kings," rather than heavenly beings; thus, the compound should be more properly (if, perhaps, pedantically) rendered "princes and peoples." Similarly, as the "divinities" of this world, buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats are also sometimes referred to as devas. See also DEVALOKA; DEVATĀ.

In the cosmic sense the sadhyas signify the names collectively of the twelve great gods, the first twelve cosmic hierarchs emanating from Brahma, out of which flow not only the twelve cosmic planes, but the hierarchies inherent in these twelve planes. Their importance lies in the fact that they are the earliest emanations in serial order from the formative and productive Brahma-prakriti, and therefore are really the origin of all beings and things in the cosmos arranged from the beginning in the duodenary hierarchical scheme. Plato had the same thought when he spoke of Divinity forming the universe according to the number twelve. They are reminiscent of the Latin dii consentes, taken over from the ancient mystical Etruscans who stated that these twelve “agreeing or consenting divinities” form the council of Jupiter, the Latin Brahma. The twelve dii consentes consisted of six feminine and six masculine divinities, and the Etruscan theology stated that they govern not only the world, but time also, coming into existence periodically at the commencement of a world period, and passing into rest or pralaya when the world period ended.

'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa'i rdo rje Ngag dbang brtson 'grus. (Jamyang Shepe Dorje Ngawang Tsondrü) (1648-1722). The originator, and first in the line of 'JAM DBYANGS BZHAD PA SPRUL SKU (incarnations) that are the head lamas of BLA BRANG BKRA SHIS DKYIL monastery in A mdo, northeastern Tibet, now part of Gansu province in northwest China. He arrived in LHA SA in 1668 and entered Sgo mang grwa tshang (monastic college) of 'BRAS SPUNGS monastery. He received both his sRĀMAnERA and BHIKsU ordinations from the fifth DALAI LAMA. In 1676, he entered the tantric college of RGYUD SMAD. A prolific writer, his collected works (gsung 'bum) in fifteen volumes include commentaries on the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA and VAJRABHAIRAVATANTRA, and long and detailed commentaries on ABHIDHARMA, PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, VINAYA, and a range of issues in MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA philosophy; these works replaced those of Gung ru Chos kyi 'byung gnas as the authoritative standard works (yig cha) studied in the Sgo mang college of 'Bras spungs monastery, and in the network of provincial monasteries associated with it. Among his most famous works is his doxography of the Indian philosophical schools, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, known as Grub mtha' chen mo. In the political turmoil that followed the death of the fifth DALAI LAMA in 1682 and the rule of SDE SRID SANGS RGYAS RGYA MTSHO in his name, 'Jam dbyangs bzhad pa was appointed abbot of Sgo mang in 1700. However, he came into conflict with the Sde srid over the latter's attempt to force a change in the monastic curriculum at 'Bras spungs, stepping down from the abbacy. He developed a friendship with Lha bzang Khan, the military ruler of central Tibet, accepting from him the hermitage of Pha bong kha located above SE RA monastery. He apparently sought to pacify the strained relations between the Sde srid and the Lha bzang Khan, but after the execution of the Sde srid by Mongolian forces in 1705, he left central Tibet for A mdo in 1709 where he founded Bla brang bkra shis dkyil. It grew into a huge monastery and a center of scholarship in its own right. The monastery attracted many Mongolian students and its influence was instrumental in consolidating the power of the DGE LUGS sect and the new DGA' LDAN PHO BRANG government over the A mdo regions.

Jaya (Sanskrit) Jaya [from the verbal root ji to conquer] Conquering, winning, victorious. As a noun, conquest, victory, hence a favorite proper name, applied to gods and goddesses, Arjuna, the sun, etc. In the Puranas, the jayas are the twelve great gods (or twelve great hierarchies of beings) created by Brahma to assist him in his work of creation in the very beginning of the kalpa. Also termed chhandajas — those born of their own will or svabhava, in human and other form. Being lost in samadhi they neglected to create, and therefore they were cursed to be born repeatedly in each manvantara until the seventh. They are called respectively: Ajitas, Tushitas, Satyas, Haris, Vaikunthas, Sadhyas, and Adityas. They are equivalent to the manasaputras or reincarnating egos.

jhāna. In Pāli, "meditative absorption," corresponding to the Sanskrit DHYĀNA (s.v.). Jhāna refers to the attainment of single-pointed concentration, whereby the mind is withdrawn from external sensory input and completely absorbed in an ideational object of meditation (see KAMMAttHĀNA). Jhāna involves the power to control the mind and does not, in itself, entail any enduring insight into the nature of reality; however, a certain level of concentration is generally said to be necessary in order to prepare the mind for direct realization of truth, the destruction of the afflictions, and the attainment of liberation. Jhāna is classified into two broad types: (1) meditative absorption of the subtle-materiality realm (P. rupāvacarajhāna; S. RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and (2) meditative absorption of the immaterial realm (P. arupāvacarajhāna; S. ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). Each of these two types is subdivided into four stages or degrees of absorption, giving a total of eight stages of jhāna. These stages are sometimes called the eight "attainments" (SAMĀPATTI). The four absorptions of the subtle-materiality realm are characterized by an increasing attenuation of consciousness as one progresses from one stage to the next. By entering into any one of the jhānas, the meditator temporarily overcomes the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) through the force of concentration. This is called "overcoming by repression" (P. vikkhambhanappahāna). The five hindrances are (1) "sensuous desire" (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders one-pointedness of mind (P. cittekaggatā; S. CITTAIKĀGRATĀ); (2) "malice" (P. byāpāda; S. VYĀPĀDA), hindering rapture (P. pīti; S. PRĪTI); (3) "sloth and torpor" (P. thīnamiddha; S. STHYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering applied thought (P. vitakka; S. VITARKA); (4) "restlessness and worry" (P. uddhaccakukkucca; S. AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering joy (SUKHA); and (5) "skeptical doubt" (P. vicikicchā; S. VICIKITSĀ), which hinders sustained thought (VICĀRA). These hindrances thus specifically obstruct one of the factors of absorption (P. jhānanga; S. DHYĀNĀnGA), and once they are allayed the first level of the subtle-materiality jhānas will be achieved. In the first jhāna, all five constituents of jhāna are present; as concentration deepens, these gradually fall away, so that in the second jhāna, both types of thought vanish and only pīti, sukha, and ekaggatā remain; in the third jhāna, only sukha and ekaggatā remain; and in the fourth jhāna, concentration is now so rarified that only ekaggatā is left. Detailed correlations appear in meditation manuals describing specifically which of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA) and seven constituents of enlightenment (P. bojjhanga; S. BODHYAnGA) serve as the antidote to which hindrance. Mastery of the fourth absorption of the subtle-materiality realm is required for the cultivation of supranormal powers (P. abhiNNā; S. ABHIJNĀ) and for the cultivation of the four arupāvacarajhānas, or meditative absorptions of the immaterial realm. The immaterial absorptions themselves represent refinements of the fourth rupāvacarajhāna, in which the "object" of meditation is gradually attenuated. The four immaterial absorptions instead take as their objects: (1) the sphere of infinite space (P. ākāsānaNcāyatana; S. ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), (2) the sphere of infinite consciousness (P. viNNānaNcāyatana; S. VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA), (3) the sphere of nothingness (P. ākiNcaNNāyatana; S. ĀKINCANYĀYATANA), and (4) the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (P. nevasaNNānāsaNNāyatana; S. NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA). Mastery of the absorptions of either the subtle-materiality or immaterial realms results in rebirth in the corresponding heaven of each respective absorption.

jiaoxiang panshi. (J. kyoso hanjaku; K. kyosang p'ansok 教相判釋). In Chinese, lit., "classification and interpretation of the characteristics of the doctrine"; also known as jiaopan or PANJIAO (tenet classification). Tenet classification was a fundamental exegetical practice in East Asian Buddhism, in which scriptures or Buddhist teachings were ranked in order of their supposed relative profundity. The practice flourished in East Asia, especially during the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries. As more translations of Buddhist texts became available in East Asia, indigenous exegetes struggled with the question of why this plethora of scriptural material, all of which purported to have been spoken by the Buddha himself, offered such differing presentations of Buddhist thought and practice. Drawing on the notion of UPĀYA, or skill in means, exegetes began to reflect on the context and intent of the different Buddhist scriptures that were now available to them. The origin of scriptures and their teachings were analyzed and evaluated comparatively; after which the texts were organized in a hierarchical or, in some cases, chronological, order. Different exegetical traditions adopted different classification criteria. The TIANTAI ZONG, for example, based its classification schema on the different (chronological) stages of the Buddha's teaching career, the content of those teachings, and the varying methods he used in preaching to his audience (see WUSHI BAJIAO). The HUAYAN ZONG, following the lead of FAZANG and CHENGGUAN, divided scriptures into five levels based on the profundity of their respective teachings: HĪNAYĀNA (viz., the ĀGAMAs), elementary MAHĀYĀNA (viz., YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA), advanced Mahāyāna (SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA), sudden teachings (typically CHAN), and perfect teachings (AVATAMSAKASuTRA). Most exegetes placed the central scripture of their schools at the apex of their classificatory hierarchy, thereby using the tenet-classification system as a polemical tool to demonstrate the superiority of their own traditions. See also SIDDHĀNTA.

Jitāri. [alt. Jetāri] (T. Dgra las rnam rgyal) (fl. c. 940-980). Sanskrit proper name of the author of the Hetutattopadesa and a number of short works on PRAMĀnA in the tradition that follows DHARMAKĪRTI; later Tibetan doxographers (see SIDDHĀNTA) characterize him as interpreting Dharmakīrti's works from a MADHYAMAKA perspective, leading them to include him in a YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA school following the false aspect (alīkākara) position. A Jitāri also appears in the list of the eighty-four MAHĀSIDDHAs as a tantric adept; he is also listed as a teacher of ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA.

Jizang. (J. Kichizo; K. Kilchang 吉藏) (549-623). In Chinese, "Storehouse of Auspiciousness"; Chinese Buddhist monk of originally Parthian descent and exegete within the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian thought. At a young age, he is said to have met the Indian translator PARAMĀRTHA, who gave him his dharma name. Jizang is also known to have frequented the lectures of the monk Falang (507-581) with his father, who was also ordained monk. Jizang eventually was ordained by Falang, under whom he studied the so-called Three Treatises (SAN LUN), the foundational texts of the Chinese counterpart of the Madhyamaka school: namely, the Zhong lun (MuLAMADHYAMAKĀRIKĀ), BAI LUN (*sATAsĀSTRA), and SHI'ERMEN LUN (*Dvādasamukhasāstra). At the age of twenty-one, Jizang received the full monastic precepts. After Falang's death in 581, Jizang moved to the monastery of Jiaxiangsi in Huiji (present-day Zhejiang province). There, he devoted himself to lecturing and writing and is said to have attracted more than a thousand students. In 598, Jizang wrote a letter to TIANTAI ZHIYI, inviting him to lecture on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA. In 606, Emperor Yang (r. 604-617) constructed four major centers of Buddhism around the country and assigned Jizang to one in Yangzhou (present-day Jiangsu province). During this period, Jizang composed his influential overview of the doctrines of the Three Treatises school, entitled the SAN LUN XUANYI. Jizang's efforts to promote the study of the three treatises earned him the name "reviver of the San lun tradition." Jizang was a prolific writer who composed numerous commentaries on the three treatises, the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, etc., as well as an overview of Mahāyāna doctrine, entitled the Dasheng xuan lun.

JNānagarbha. (T. Ye shes snying po) (c. 700-760). Indian scholar of the syncretic Yogācāra-Madhyamaka school of philosophy, identified by the Tibetan tradition as a proponent of YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. He is counted in Tibet, together with sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA, as one of the "three Eastern Svātantrikas," suggesting that he was from Bengal. He is said to have been the disciple of srīgupta and the teacher of sāntaraksita. His most famous work is the SATYADVAYAVIBHAnGA ("Analysis of the Two Truths").

JNānagupta. (C. Shenajueduo; J. Janakutta; K. Sanagulta 闍那崛多) (523-600). Indian monk from GANDHĀRA, who arrived in China around 559 and became a prolific translator of Indian materials into Chinese; some thirty-five of his translations are still extant and preserved in the Chinese canon (DAZANGJING). He is perhaps best known for his retranslation of the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), which included portions of the scripture that did not appear in KUMĀRAJĪVA's pioneering translation made two centuries before, especially the important "Chapter on Devadatta." He also translated the AdhyāsayasaNcodana, the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, the Abhiniskramanasutra (a possible translation of the MAHĀVASTU), and several DHĀRAnĪ sutras.

JNānasārasamuccaya. (T. Ye shes snying po kun las btus pa). A treatise of MADHYAMAKA scholasticism, traditionally attributed to ĀRYADEVA, but probably composed by a Madhyamaka exegete following the development of Madhyamaka and YOGĀCĀRA; the author sets forth Madhyamaka positions and denies the reality of consciousness (VIJNĀNA). It describes the doctrines of the later Indian philosophical schools, both Hindu and Buddhist. Although the work does not contain overtly tantric elements, it may be the work of the so-called tantric Āryadeva or Āryadevapāda. There is a commentary on the text by Bodhibhadra (c. 1000), the JNānasārasamuccayanibandhana.

jNeyāvarana. (T. shes bya'i sgrib pa; C. suozhizhang; J. shochisho; K. sojijang 所知障). In Sanskrit, "cognitive obstructions," or "noetic obscurations"; the second of the two categories of obstructions (ĀVARAnA), together with the afflictive obstructions (KLEsĀVARAnA), that must be overcome in order to perfect the BODHISATTVA path and achieve buddhahood. In the YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA systems, the cognitive obstructions are treated as subtler hindrances that serve as the origin of the afflictive obstructions, and result from fundamental misapprehensions about the nature of reality. According to Yogācāra, because of the attachment deriving ultimately from the reification of what are actually imaginary external phenomena, conceptualization and discrimination arise in the mind, which lead in turn to pride, ignorance, and wrong views. Based on these mistakes in cognition, then, the individual engages in defiled actions, such as anger, envy, etc., which constitute the afflictive obstructions. The afflictive obstructions may be removed by followers of the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and beginning BODHISATTVA paths, by applying various antidotes or counteragents (PRATIPAKsA) to the afflictions (KLEsA); overcoming these types of obstructions will lead to freedom from further rebirth. The cognitive obstructions, however, are more deeply ingrained and can only be overcome by advanced bodhisattvas who seek instead to achieve buddhahood, by perfecting their understanding of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Buddhas, therefore, are the only class of beings who have overcome both types of obstructions and thus are able simultaneously to cognize all objects of knowledge in the universe; this is one of the sources for their unparalleled skills as teachers of sentient beings. The jNeyāvarana are therefore sometimes translated as "obstructions to omniscience."

Jueguan lun. (J. Zetsukanron; K. Cholgwan non 絶觀論). In Chinese, "Extinguishing Cognition Treatise," (translated into English as A Dialogue on the Contemplation-Extinguished), attributed to the legendary Indian founder of the CHAN school, BODHIDHARMA. The treatise largely consists of an imaginary dialogue between a certain learned man named Master Entrance-into-Principle (Ruli xiansheng) and his student Conditionality (Yuanmen), which unfolds as a series of questions and answers. In this dialogue, Entrance-into-Principle continuously negates the premises that underlie the questions his student Conditionality raises about the mind and its pacification, the nature of enlightenment, as well as other matters related to practice, meditation, and attainment. For example, in the opening dialogue, Conditionality asks, "What is the mind? How do we pacify it?" Master Entrance-into-Principle replies, "Neither positing 'mind' nor trying to 'pacify' it-this is pacifying it." By rejecting the dualistic perspectives inherent in Conditionality's questions, the Master finally opens his student to an experience of the pure wisdom that transcends all dualities. This style of negative argumentation, derived from MADHYAMAKA antecedents, is believed to be characteristic of the NIUTOU ZONG of the Chan school; the treatise is therefore often assumed to have been written by an adherent of that school, perhaps even by its seventh-century founder NIUTOU FARONG himself, or else during the zenith of the Niutou school in the third quarter of the eighth century. The treatise also makes use of Daoist terminology and thus serves as a valuable source for studying Chinese reinterpretations of sophisticated Buddhist doctrines. A controversial argument claiming that insentient beings also possess the buddha-nature (FOXING) also appears in the Jueguan lun. The treatise seems to have gone through several editions, some of which were preserved in the DUNHUANG caves in Chinese Xinjiang.

Kakacupamasutta. (C. Moulipoqunna jing; J. Murihagunnakyo; K. Morip'agunna kyong 牟犁破群那經). In Pāli, "Simile of the Saw Discourse"; the twenty-first sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 193rd SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA). According to the Pāli recension, the Buddha preached this sutta at Sāvatthi (sRĀVASTĪ), in conjunction with the admonishment of the monk Moliya Phagguna, who was overly friendly with nuns and angry at others' criticism of his behavior. Moliya Phagguna remained recalcitrant even after being admonished; in response, the Buddha spoke to his disciples of the harmfulness of anger and of the need for patience even in the most heinous of circumstances, such as if someone were sawing off one's limbs. Instead of giving in to hatred, such an event would offer an opportunity to develop loving-kindness by radiating loving thoughts even to one's attackers.

Kālāmasutta. (C. Qielan jing; J. Garankyo; K. Karam kyong 伽藍經). In Pāli, "Instruction to the Kālāmas"; popular Western designation for a Pāli sutta (SuTRA) in the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA; delivered to the Kālāma people of Kesaputta, which is more commonly titled in modern Southeast Asian editions of the Pāli canon as the Kesamuttisutta or Kesaputtisutta. (A separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the sixteenth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA; the Sinographs Qielan are a transcription of Kālāma, so this seems to have been the title used for the scripture in the northwest Indian tradition). The sermon is prominently cited in Western writings on Buddhism for its advocacy of free inquiry and a putatively rational approach to religion, which is exempt from intolerance and dogmatism. In classical commentarial materials, however, the text is not interpreted in this way and is rarely mentioned. According to the Pāli recension, the Kālāmas had been visited by many religious teachers and had received conflicting testimony from them on what constituted the religious life; they also were put off by these teachers' tendency to praise only their own dogmas and to revile those of their rivals. Confused, the Kālāmas asked the Buddha to arbitrate. In his response, the Buddha rejects the validity of testimony simply because it is widely known, grounded in "tradition" (anussava; S. ANUsRAVA), appearing in scripture, or taught by a respected teacher. All these standards are said to be unreliable for understanding truth and falsity. Instead, the Buddha encourages them to follow what they themselves learn through their own training to be blamable or praiseworthy, harmful or beneficial. The Buddha then helps the Kālāmas to understand for themselves that the three afflictions of greed or craving (RĀGA; LOBHA), hatred (DVEsA; P. dosa), and delusion (MOHA) are harmful and should therefore be abandoned, while their absence is beneficial and should therefore be developed. The discourse concludes with the Buddha's instruction on how to project in all directions the four divine abidings (BRAHMAVIHĀRA) of loving-kindness (MAITRĪ), compassion (KARUnĀ), empathetic joy (MUDITĀ), and impartiality (UPEKsĀ) and a brief account of the solace that comes to those whose minds are free from hatred and defilement.

Kamalasīla. (T. Ka ma la shī la) (c. 740-795). One of the most important Madhyamaka authors of late Indian Buddhism, a major representative of the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka synthesis, and a participant in the famous BSAM YAS DEBATE. According to Tibetan doxographies, he was a proponent of the YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. Although little is known about his life, according to Tibetan sources he was a monk and teacher at NĀLANDĀ. Tibetan sources also count him as one of three (together with sĀNTARAKsITA and JNĀNAGARBHA) "Eastern Svātantrikas" (RANG RGYUD SHAR GSUM), suggesting that he was from Bengal. He was clearly a direct disciple of sāntaraksita, composing important commentaries on his teacher's two major works, the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA and the TATTVASAMGRAHA. The latter commentary, which is extant in Sanskrit, is an important source for both Hindu and Buddhist philosophical positions in the eighth century. sāntaraksita had gone to Tibet at the invitation of the Tibetan king KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN, where, with the assistance of PADMASAMBHAVA, he founded BSAM YAS, the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet. According to tradition, at the time of his death sāntaraksita warned that a mistaken philosophical view would become established in Tibet and advised the king to invite Kamalasīla to come to Tibet in order to dispel it. This mistaken view was apparently that of Heshang MOHEYAN, a Northern CHAN (BEI ZONG) monk who had developed a following at the Tibetan court. Kamalasīla was invited, and a debate was held between the Indian monk and his Chinese counterpart, with the king serving as judge. It is unclear whether a face-to-face debate took place or rather an exchange of documents. According to Tibetan sources, the king declared Kamalasīla the winner, named MADHYAMAKA as the official philosophical school of his realm, and banished the Chinese contingent. (Chinese records describe a different outcome.) This event, variously known as the BSAM YAS DEBATE, the Council of Bsam yas, and the Council of Lhasa, is regarded as one of the key moments in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. Three of Kamalasīla's most important works appear to have been composed in response to the issues raised in the debate, although whether all three were composed in Tibet is not established with certainty. These texts, each entitled BHĀVANĀKRAMA or "Stages of Meditation," set forth the process for the potential BODHISATTVA to cultivate BODHICITTA and then develop sAMATHA and VIPAsYANĀ and progress through the bodhisattva stages (BHuMI) to buddhahood. The cultivation of vipasyanā requires the use of both scripture (ĀGAMA) and reasoning (YUKTI) to understand emptiness (suNYATĀ); in the first Bhāvanākrama, he sets forth the three forms of wisdom (PRAJNĀ): the wisdom derived from hearing or learning (sRUTAMAYĪPRAJNĀ), the wisdom derived from thinking and reflection (CINTĀMAYĪPRAJNĀ), and the wisdom derived from meditation (BHĀVANĀMAYĪPRAJNĀ). This "gradual" approach, very different from what was advocated in the Chinese CHAN ZONG, is set forth in all three of the Bhāvanākrama, which, according to Tibetan tradition, were composed in Tibet after the Bsam yas debate, at the request of the king. However, only the third, and the briefest, directly considers, and refutes, the view of "no mental activity" (amanasikāra), which is associated with Moheyan. It was also during his time in Tibet that Kamalasīla composed his most important independent (i.e., noncommentarial) philosophical work, the MADHYAMAKĀLOKA, or "Illumination of the Middle Way," a wide-ranging exposition of the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka synthesis. It deals with a number of central epistemological and logical issues to articulate what is regarded as the defining tenet of the Yogācāra-Svātantrika-Madhyamaka school: that major YOGĀCĀRA doctrines, such as "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA), and the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA) are important in initially overcoming misconceptions, but they are in fact only provisional (NEYĀRTHA) teachings for those who have not yet understood the Madhyamaka view. The Madhyamakāloka is also important for its exploration of such central MAHĀYĀNA doctrines as the TATHĀGATAGARBHA and the question of the EKAYĀNA. On this latter point, Kamalasīla argues against the Yogācāra position that there are three final vehicles (for the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA, with some beings excluded from any path to liberation) in favor of the position that there is a single vehicle to buddhahood (BUDDHAYĀNA) for all beings. Kamalasīla is said to have been murdered in Tibet by partisans of the Chinese position, who caused his death by squeezing his kidneys.

kammatthāna. In Pāli, lit. "working ground," viz., "meditative topic"; a topic or object of meditation (BHĀVANĀ) used for training the mind and cultivating mental concentration (SAMĀDHI). The term originally referred to an occupation or vocation, such as farmer, merchant, or mendicant, but was adopted as a technical term to refer generically to various types of meditative exercises. The VISUDDHIMAGGA lists forty topics used for this purpose. First are ten "visualization devices" (KASInA)-devices that are constructed from the elements earth, water, fire, and air; the colors blue, yellow, red, and white, and light and space-to develop concentration. Kasina exercises can produce all four of the "meditative absorptions" (JHĀNA; DHYĀNA) associated with the realm of subtle materiality. Next are ten "loathsome topics" (asubha; see S. AsUBHABHĀVANĀ), such as the decaying of a corpse, which can lead only to the first meditative absorption (dhyāna). These are followed by ten "recollections" (P. anussati; S. ANUSMṚTI): viz., of (1) the Buddha, (2) the dhamma (DHARMA), (3) the sangha (SAMGHA), (4) morality, (5) generosity, (6) the divinities, (7) death, (8) the body, (9) the inbreath and outbreath (P. ānāpānasati, S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI), and (10) peace. Of these, recollection or mindfulness (P. sati; S. SMṚTI) of the inbreath and outbreath can produce all four meditative absorptions, while recollection of the body can produce the first absorption; the remaining recollections only lead to "access concentration" (UPACĀRASAMĀDHI), which immediately precedes but does not reach the level of the first absorption. Next are four "immaterial spheres" (arupāyatana), viz., the "sphere of infinite space" (ākāsānaNcāyatana, S. ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA); of "infinite consciousness" (viNNānaNcāyatana, S. VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA); of "nothingness" (ākiNcaNNāyatana, S. ĀKINCANYĀYATANA); and of "neither perception nor nonperception" (nevasaNNānāsaNNāyatana, S. NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA). Meditation on these objects involves the increasing refinement of the fourth absorption and leads to the acquisition of the "immaterial attainments" (ARuPASAMĀPATTI), also called "immaterial absorptions" (P. arupāvacarajhāna; S. ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA, see DHYĀNA, SAMĀPATTI). Four positive affective states or "divine abidings" (BRAHMAVIHĀRA; [alt. P. appamaNNa]; S. APRAMĀnA), are loving-kindness (mettā; MAITRĪ), compassion (KARUnĀ), altruistic or empathetic joy (MUDITĀ), and equanimity or impartiality (upekkhā; UPEKsĀ). Of these, loving-kindness, compassion, and altruistic joy can produce only the first three meditative absorptions, but equanimity can produce all four. There is one perception of the loathsomeness of food (āhāre patikkulasaNNā) and one analysis of the four elements (catudhātu vavatthāna), both of which can produce access concentration. Certain of these topics were said to be better suited to specific character types, such as the loathsome topics to persons with strong tendencies toward lust or the perception of the loathsomeness of food for gluttons; others, such as the meditation on the in- and outbreaths, were universally suitable to all character types. The Buddha was said to have had the ability to assess his disciples' character types and determine which topics of meditation would best suit them; as later generations lost this assessment ability, the number of kammatthānas in regular use dropped dramatically, with mindfulness of breathing being by far the most popular topic.

Kashmir-Gandhāra. [alt. Kāsmīra-Gandhāra]. A district in northwest India corresponding to modern Kashmir. According to Pāli tradition, this area was the destination of one of the nine Buddhist missions dispatched from Pātaliputta (S. PĀtALIPUTRA) to adjacent lands (paccantadesa) by the elder MOGGALIPUTTATISSA; this mission is said to have occurred during the reign of the Mauryan king AsOKA, following the third Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, THIRD) in the third century BCE. The elder Majjhantika (S. MADHYĀNTIKA) was said to have been in charge of the mission to this region. The third council at Pātaliputta and the nine Buddhist missions are known only in Pāli sources and are first recorded in the fifth century CE DĪPAVAMSA. Burmese chroniclers instead identify Kashmir-Gandhāra with the kingdom of Nanchao in what is the modern Chinese province of Yunnan. See also GANDHĀRA.

Khri srong lde btsan. (Trisong Detsen) (r. 754-799). A Tibetan ruler considered the second of three great religious kings (chos rgyal) during the Imperial Period, the other two being SRONG BTSAN SGAM PO and RAL PA CAN, and as a human incarnation of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITEsVARA. Inheriting the throne in 754 as the thirty-eighth monarch of the Yar klungs dynasty, Khri srong lde btsan directed several events that are considered milestones in Tibetan history. During the early years of his reign, he extended the boundaries of the Tibetan empire forged under his predecessors. In 763, the king's army occupied the imperial capital of Tang China at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), an action commemorated on a stele that was erected in front of the PO TA LA Palace. However, Khri srong lde btsan is best remembered for his patronage of Buddhism and support in founding Tibet's first Buddhist monastery of BSAM YAS. Later chronicles record that he actively suppressed the native BON religion, as well as the aristocratic clans who were its benefactors, although he never entirely proscribed early Bon rituals. Khri srong lde btsan invited the renowned Indian Buddhist preceptor sĀNTARAKsITA to oversee the project of building Bsam yas and to establish the first monastic order in Tibet. According to traditional accounts, local spirits inimical to Buddhism created obstacles that hindered the project, which prompted the Indian abbot to request Khri srong lde btsan to invite the powerful tantric master PADMASAMBHAVA to Tibet in order to aid in their subjugation, after which the establishment of the monastery was able to proceed. Khri srong lde btsan is said to have become a devotee of Padmasambhava, with one of his queens, YE SHES MTSHO RGYAL, becoming the yogin's consort and serving as scribe for many of his GTER MA teachings. Padmasambhava also revived the king's eight-year-old daughter PADMA GSAL after her death in order to bestow a special teaching. According to tradition, at the time of his death, sĀNTARAKsITA warned in his final testament that a mistaken philosophical view would become established in Tibet and advised the king to invite KAMALAsĪLA to come to Tibet in order to dispel it. The view was apparently that of the Northen Chan (BEI ZONG) monk Heshang Moheyan, who had developed a following at the Tibetan court. Kamalasīla was invited and a debate was held between the Indian monk and the Chinese monk, with the king serving as judge. It is unclear whether a face-to-face debate took place or rather an exchange of documents. According to Tibetan sources, the king declared Kamalasīla the winner, named MADHYAMAKA as the official philosophical school of his realm, and banished the Chinese party from his kingdom. (Chinese records describe a different outcome.) This event, variously known as the BSAM YAS DEBATE, the Council of Bsam yas, and the Council of Lhasa, is regarded as one of the key moments in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.

koti. (T. mtha'; C. juzhi; J. kutei; K. kuji 倶胝). In Sanskrit and Pāli, lit. the "end" of a scale and thus effectively referring to any large number; often translated by the Indian numerical term "crore," and variously numbering as one hundred thousand, ten million, one hundred million, or an infinity. Note this same sense of koti as "end" in various Sanskrit and Pāli compounds, such as BHuTAKOtI, lit. "end of reality," and thus "true end" or "ultimate state." The term can also have a negative connotation in the sense of "extreme," as in the case of practice or philosophical position far from the moderate. For its use in MADHYAMAKA philosophy, see CATUsKOtI.

ksana. (P. khana; T. skad cig; C. chana; J. setsuna; K. ch'alla 刹那). In Sanskrit, "instant" or "moment"; the shortest possible span of time, variously measured as either the ninth part of a thought moment or the 4,500th part of a minute. The term figures prominently in mainstream Buddhist discussions of impermanence and epistemology (see KsAnIKAVĀDA). Physical objects and mental events that persist over time are posited in fact to be merely a collection of these moments. As a result of ignorance, these are falsely perceived as lasting more than one moment. For example, sense experience is composed entirely of the perception of these moments of a given object, but this is not noticed by ordinary sense consciousness, and thought mistakenly projects continuity onto sense experience. The term therefore appears commonly in expositions of impermanence (ANITYA). According to the VAIBHĀsIKA school of abhidharma, ultimate truths (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) are only these indivisible instants of time and partless particles of matter (PARAMĀnU); one of the MADHYAMAKA arguments concerning emptiness (suNYATĀ) is that even the apparently smallest units of time and matter have parts. ¶ As the "right moment," ksana also has the denotation of an "opportune birth" (KsAnASAMPAD), referring specifically to birth at a time and place where a buddha or his teachings are present and with the faculties to be able to understand his teachings. This fortunate birth is contrasted with eight kinds of "inopportune births" (AKsAnA), where one by contrast will be born in a place or state where one is either incapable of learning anything from a buddha or, even if one could learn, no buddha is present in the world.

Kumārajīva. (C. Jiumoluoshi; J. Kumaraju; K. Kumarajip 鳩摩羅什) (344-409/413). The most influential translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese. He is regarded by tradition as the founder of the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG or "Three Treatises" branch of the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy. According to his hagiography, Kumārajīva was born in the Central Asian petty kingdom of KUCHA, where he was related to the royal family on his mother's side. In his youth, he studied SARVĀSTIVĀDA doctrine in Kashmir but was later converted to MAHĀYĀNA at the Central Asian oasis town of Kashgar by the monk BUDDHAYAsAS. When the Chinese general Lü Guang conquered Kucha in 383, he took Kumārajīva back with him to Liangzong near the Chinese outpost of DUNHUANG as a prize, only to lose the eminent scholar-monk to Yaoxing (r. 394-416) when the Latter Qin ruler reconquered the region in 401. During his eighteen years as a hostage, Kumārajīva apparently learned to speak and read Chinese and seems to have been one of the first foreign monks able to use the language fluently. A year later in 402, Yaoxing invited Kumārajīva to the capital of Chang'an, where he established a translation bureau under Kumārajīva's direction that produced some of the most enduring translations of Buddhist texts made in Chinese. The sheer number and variety of the translations made by Kumārajīva and his team were virtually unmatched until XUANZANG (600/602-664 CE). Translations of some seventy-four texts, in 384 rolls, are typically attributed to Kumārajīva, including various sutras, such as the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA, SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA, and VAJRACCHEDIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA, and important sāstras such as the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, sATAsĀSTRA, Dvādasamukhasāstra, and the DAZHIDU LUN. Because Kumārajīva was one of the first foreign monks to have learned Chinese well, he produced translations that were readily comprehensible as Chinese, and his translations remain the most widely read in East Asia of any translator's; indeed, where there are multiple translations of a scripture, it is almost inevitably Kumārajīva's that remains part of the living tradition. The accuracy of his translations is said to be attested by the fact that his tongue remained unburned during his cremation. Along with his correspondences with the monk LUSHAN HUIYUAN found in the DASHENG DAYI ZHANG, these translations laid the foundation for Mahāyāna thought, and especially Madhyamaka philosophy, in China. His many famous disciples include DAOSHENG, SENGZHAO, Daorong, and Sengrui, who are known collectively as the "four sages."

Kwallŭk. (J. Kanroku 觀勒) (d.u.). Early seventh-century Korean monk from the kingdom of Paekche, who arrived in Japan in 602 CE and was instrumental in transmitting Buddhism and Sinitic civilization to the Japanese isles. According to the account in the Nihon shoki, Kwallŭk was a specialist in the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy, who arrived in Japan also bringing documents on calendrics, astronomy, geometry, divination, and numerology to the Japanese court, which placed many students under his tutelage. Kwallŭk's interests were so diverse, in fact, that he was later chastised by the Japanese ruler for paying too much attention to astronomy and geography and confusing them with the "true vehicle" of Buddhism. Kwallŭk became arguably the most influential monk of his time and was eventually appointed in 624 by Queen Suiko (r. 593-628) to the new position of SoJo (saMgha primate), one of the earliest ecclesiastical positions created within the Japanese Buddhist church. His appointment to this position also indicates the prestige that monks from the Paekche kingdom enjoyed at the incipiency of Buddhism in Japan.

Lakkhanasutta. (C. Sanshi'er xiang jing; J. Sanjunisogyo; K. Samsibi sang kyong 三十二相經). In Pāli,"Discourse on the Marks," the thirtieth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 115th SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA). At ANĀTHAPIndADA's (P. Anāthapindika) park in sRĀVASTĪ (P. Sāvatthi), the Buddha explained to his disciples the thirty-two physical marks of a great man (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA) and explained how one endowed with these marks has only two possible destinies: becoming a wheel-turning monarch (CAKRAVARTIN) or a buddha. The Buddha then recounts the deeds he performed in his previous lives that engendered each of his own thirty-two physical marks.

laksana. (P. lakkhana; T. mtshan nyid; C. xiang; J. so; K. sang 相). In Sanskrit, a polysemous term for a "mark," "characteristic," "attribute," or "sign"; used in a variety of contexts to indicate either the principal characteristic or defining quality of something. As a primary characteristic, laksana refers to the distinguishing features of a factor (DHARMA), i.e., the factor "earth" (PṚTHIVĪ) may be characterized by its mark of "hardness," etc. ¶ The three defining characteristics (TRILAKsAnA) of all conditioned (SAMSKṚTA) things are their impermanence (anityatā), unsatisfactoriness (DUḤKHA), and lack of a perduring self (ANĀTMAN). ¶ The four characteristics (CATURLAKsAnA) governing all conditioned objects (SAMSKṚTALAKsAnA), as described in the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, are "origination," or birth (JĀTI); "continuance," or maturation (STHITI); "senescence," or decay (JARĀ); and "desinence," or death (ANITYA). The Sarvāstivāda school treated these four as "forces dissociated from thought" (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA), which exerted real power over compounded objects, escorting an object along from one force to another, until the force "desinence" extinguishes it; this rather tortured explanation was necessary in order to explain how factors that the school presumed existed in all three time periods (past, present, and future) nevertheless still appeared to undergo change. Some Sarvāstivāda ABHIDHARMA texts, however, accept only three characteristics, omitting continuance. ¶ The term laksana is also used with reference to the thirty-two major marks (DVĀTRIMsADVARALAKsAnA) of a great man (see MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA), which appear on the physical body (RuPAKĀYA) of either a buddha or on a wheel-turning monarch (CAKRAVARTIN); these are accompanied by eighty minor marks (ANUVYANJANA). ¶ The term laksana is also used in the YOGĀCĀRA school to refer to the three intrinsic characteristics (trilaksana) of all phenomena, and in this context is equivalent to the three qualities or natures (TRISVABHĀVA), viz., imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIsPANNA). ¶ In the MADHYAMAKA school, the term laksana is used to refer to the "signs" of intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA) that are falsely perceived by the senses as the result of ignorance. Ignorance mistakenly regards each phenomenon as having its own defining characteristic (SVALAKsAnA). ¶ In Buddhist epistemology, the term laksana is used for the specific or particular mark (svalaksana) and general or shared mark (SĀMĀNYALAKsAnA) of an object; the former is known only by nonconceptual knowledge; the latter is the object that appears when one thinks about something. See also NIMITTA.

laukikamārga. (T. 'jig rten pa'i lam; C. shijiandao; J. sekendo; K. segando 世間道). In Sanskrit, lit. "mundane path," those practices that precede the moment of insight (DARsANAMĀRGA) and thus result in a salutary rebirth in SAMSĀRA rather than liberation (VIMUKTI); also called laukika-BHĀVANĀMĀRGA (the mundane path of cultivation). In the five-stage soteriology of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school, the mundane path corresponds to the first two stages, the path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA) and the path of preparation (PRAYOGAMĀRGA), because they do not involve the direct perception of reality that transforms an ordinary person (PṚTHAGJANA) into a noble one (ĀRYA). The mundane path is developed when a practitioner has begun to cultivate the three trainings (TRIsIKsĀ) of morality (sĪLA), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) but has yet to eradicate any of the ten fetters (SAMYOJANA) or to achieve insight (DARsANA). The eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA) is also formulated in terms of the spiritual ascension from mundane (LAUKIKA) to supramundane (LOKOTTARA). For example, mundane right view (SAMYAGDṚstI), the first stage of the eightfold path, refers to the belief in the efficacy of KARMAN and its effects and the reality of a next life after death, thus leading to better rebirths; wrong view (MITHYĀDṚstI), by contrast, denies such beliefs and leads to unsalutary rebirths. After continuing on to cultivate the moral trainings of right speech, action, and livelihood based on this right view, the practitioner next devotes himself to right concentration (SAMYAKSAMĀDHI). Concentration then leads in turn to supramundane right view, which results in direct insight into the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and the removal of the initial fetters. ¶ In the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, a Mahāyāna work associated with the name of MAITREYA, the eightfold path is reformulated as a "worldly" path that a bodhisattva treads after the path of vision (darsanamārga), on the model of the Buddha's work for the world after his awakening beneath the BODHI TREE in BODHGAYĀ. The bodhisattva's supramundane vision, described by the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA), is an equipoise (SAMĀHITA) in which knowledge is beyond all proliferation (PRAPANCA) and conceptualization (VIKALPA); the states subsequent (pṛsthalabdha) to that equipoise are characterized as the practice of skillful means (UPĀYA) to lead others to liberation, on the model of the Buddha's compassionate activities for the sake of others. The practice serves to accumulate the bodhisattva's merit collection (PUnYASAMBHĀRA); there is no further vision to be gained, only a return to the vision in the supramundane stages characterized as the fundamental (maula) stages of the ten bodhisattva stages (BODHISATTVABHuMI) or a supramundane cultivation (lokottarabhāvanā). All other acts are laukika ("worldly") skillful means.

laukika. (P. lokiya; T. 'jig rten pa; C. shijian; J. seken; K. segan 世間). In Sanskrit, "mundane" or "worldly"; anything pertaining to the ordinary world or to the practices of unenlightened sentient beings (PṚTHAGJANA) in distinction from the noble ones (ĀRYA), who have directly perceived reality. The "worldly" embraces all the contaminated (SĀSRAVA) or conditioned (SAMSKṚTA) phenomena of the three realms of existence (LOKADHĀTU), since these are subject to impermanence (anityatā). In the context of the status of practitioners, laukika refers to ordinary sentient beings (pṛthagjana); more specifically, in the fifty-two-stage BODHISATTVA path, laukika usually indicates practitioners who are at the stage of the ten faiths (C. shixin), ten understandings (C. shijie), or ten practices (C. shixing), while "supramundane" (LOKOTTARA) refers to more enlightened practitioners, such as bodhisattvas who are on the ten stages (DAsABHuMI). But even seemingly transcendent dharmas can be considered mundane if they are changeable by nature, e.g., in the MADHYAMAKA (C. SAN LUN ZONG) exegete JIZANG's (549-623) Shengman baoku ("Treasure Store of the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA"); mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKĀYA) produced by bodhisattvas on the eighth through the tenth bodhisattva stages (see BODHISATTVABHuMI; DAsABHuMI) may still be designated "mundane" because they are subject to change. FAZANG's HUAYAN WUJIAO ZHANG ("Essay on the Five Teachings According to Huayan") parses these stages even more precisely: of the ten stages (dasabhumi) of the path leading to buddhahood, stages one through three belong to the mundane (laukika); the fourth to the seventh stages are supramundane (lokottara) from the standpoint of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) of sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA; and the eighth to the tenth stages transcend even the supramundane and belong to the one vehicle (EKAYĀNA). In Indian YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA works, and commonly in the Tibetan commentarial tradition, laukika and lokottara are used to differentiate paths in the mindstreams of noble (ĀRYA) beings in any vehicle (YĀNA), who have directly witnessed the true reality (TATTVA) of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. The last instants before the lokottara stage are given the name LAUKIKĀGRADHARMA (highest worldly factors); this is the last stage of the PRAYOGAMĀRGA in the five path (PANCAMĀRGA) system. The ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA says that the first lokottaradharma, the first instant of the sixteen-instant path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), happens in a single meditative sitting. Even after the supramundane awakening, all subsequent attainments (PṚstHALABDHA) are mundane, with the exception of the knowledge in equipoise (SAMĀHITAJNĀNA) when the initial vision is revisited in a process of habituation, leading to a union of subsequent states and equipoise in the final lokottara experience of full enlightenment.

La Vallée Poussin, Louis de. (1869-1938). Pioneering Belgian scholar of Buddhism, who is considered the founder of the Franco-Belgian school of European Buddhist Studies and one of the foremost European scholars of Buddhism during the twentieth century. La Vallée Poussin studied Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese under SYLVAIN LÉVI at the Sorbonne in Paris and HENDRIK KERN at Leiden, before becoming a professor of comparative Greek and Latin grammar at the University of Ghent in 1895, where he taught for the next three decades. La Vallée Poussin became especially renowned for his multilingual approach to Buddhist materials, in which all available recensions of a text in the major canonical languages of the Buddhist tradition were carefully studied and compared. Indicative of this approach is La Vallée Poussin's massive French translation of VASUBANDHU's ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA (later translated into English in four volumes), which uses the Chinese recension (in an annotated Japanese edition) as the textus receptus but draws heavily on Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan materials in order to present a comprehensive, annotated translation of the text, placed squarely within the broader context of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA. La Vallée Poussin also published the first complete renderings in a Western language of DHARMAPĀLA/XUANZANG's CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi) and sĀNTIDEVA's BODHICARYĀVATĀRA. He also published editions, translations, and studies of central YOGĀCĀRA, MADHYAMAKA, and tantric texts, in addition to a number of significant topical studies, including one on the Buddhist councils (SAMGĪTI). In 1916, his Hibbert Lectures at Manchester College, Oxford, were published as The Way to Nirvāna: Six Lectures on Ancient Buddhism as a Discipline of Salvation. Of his many students, perhaps the most renowned was the Belgian ÉTIENNE LAMOTTE.

Leg bshad snying po. (Lekshe Nyingpo). In Tibetan, "The Essence of Eloquence," by TSONG KHA PA BLO BZANG GRAGS PA; its full title in Tibetan is Drang nges legs bshad snying po ("Essence of Eloquence on the Provisional and Definitive"). It is the most famous of the five texts that Tsong kha pa wrote on the view of emptiness (suNYATĀ). In it, he explores the categories of the provisional (NEYĀRTHA) and the definitive (NITĀRTHA) as they are presented in the YOGĀCĀRA (CITTAMĀTRA), *SVĀTANTRIKA, and *PRĀSAnGIKA schools. In 1402, at the age of forty-five, he completed LAM RIM CHEN MO, which concludes with a long and complex section on VIPAsYANĀ. Five years later, when he was fifty, he began writing a commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, entitled Rigs pa'i rgya mtsho ("Ocean of Reasoning"), at a hermitage above what would become SE RA monastery on the northern outskirts of LHA SA. While writing his commentary on the first chapter, he foresaw interruptions if he remained there and so moved to another hermitage nearby, called Rwa kha brag ("Goat-face Crag"). At this time, a representative of the Chinese emperor arrived in Lha sa bearing an invitation from the Ming emperor to come to teach the dharma at his court. Tsong kha pa left his hermitage in order to meet with him. Citing his advancing age and the wish to remain in retreat, Tsong kha pa sent images of the Buddha in his stead. Returning to his hermitage, he set aside for the time being his commentary on Nāgārjuna and began writing Legs bshad snying po. After completing it in 1408, he returned to his commentary on Nāgārjuna's text. In 1415, he wrote his medium length LAM RIM text, known as Lam rim 'bring, which contains a substantial exposition of vipasyanā. At the age of sixty-one, one year before his death, he composed a commentary on CANDRAKĪRTI's MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA. Among his works on Madhyamaka, Legs bshad snying po is considered the most daunting, called his iron bow and iron arrow. Just as it is hard to pull an iron bow to its full extent, but if one can, the arrow will travel far, in the same way, the words-not to mention the meaning-of this text are difficult to understand but, when understood, are said to yield great insight. It has been viewed by generations of Tibetan scholars as a work of genius, known for its often cryptic brevity, but yielding profound insight if pursued with analytical fortitude. (The metaphor of the iron bow may also be a polite allusion to the fact that the book is so abstruse and sometimes apparently self-contradictory that it takes considerable effort to attempt to construct a consistent account of Tsong kha pa's position.) Within the DGE LUGS sect, Legs bshad snying po is regarded as the foremost philosophical tome in the eighteen volumes of Tsong kha pa's collected works, presenting a particular challenge, both as an avenue to approach reality and as an elaborate exercise in constructing his thought.

Legs bshad gser 'phreng. (Lekshe Sertreng). In Tibetan, "Golden Garland of Eloquence," TSONG KHA PA BLO BZANG GRAGS PA's explanation of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) based on the commentaries of BU STON RIN CHEN GRUB and Nya dbon Kun dga' dpal. The text is composed in the GSANG PHU NE'U THOG commentarial tradition founded by RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB, using the words of the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA and Haribhadra's short commentary (ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRAVIVṚTI) as a framework. Legs bshad gser phreng privileges the views of Indian YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA writers, particularly Ārya VIMUKTISENA, and accords great respect to the work of RNGOG. It already reveals Tsong kha pa's antipathy for the distinctive GZHAN STONG ("emptiness of other") view of DOL PO PA SHES RAB RGYAL MTSHAN, but it eschews the strong sectarian tendencies that begin to appear after the death of Tsong kha pa in the early fifteenth century. As an early work of Tsong kha pa, some of the views it espouses were rejected by later DGE LUGS scholars.

Lokātītastava. (T. 'Jig rten las 'das par bstod pa). In Sanskrit, "In Praise of the Supramundane One"; an Indian philosophical work written in the form of a praise of the Buddha by the MADHYAMAKA master NĀGĀRJUNA. In the Tibetan tradition, there are a large number of such praises (called bstod tshogs or STAVAKĀYA), in contrast to the set of philosophical texts (called rigs tshogs or YUKTIKĀYA) attributed to Nāgārjuna, among which the ACINTYASTAVA, Lokātītastava, NIRAUPAMYASTAVA, and PARAMĀRTHASTAVA are extant in Sanskrit and generally accepted to be his work; these four works together are known as the CATUḤSTAVA. It is less certain that he is the author of the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA ("Hymn to the Dharmadhātu") of which only fragments are available in the original. The Lokātītastava is a work in twenty-eight verses. The first part of the text refutes the independent existence of the aggregates (SKANDHA) that constitute the person; the second part of the text refutes the ultimate existence of the world; and the third part states that the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ) leads to liberation. The content of the work accords with that of the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, although here, the Buddha is addressed directly and quoted in many of the stanzas.

Longchisi. (龍池寺). In Chinese, "Monastery of the Dragon Pool"; located on ZHONGNANSHAN near the former Chinese capital of Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). According to DAOXUAN (596-667 CE), in 601 CE a Buddhist monk named Daopan (532-615 CE) assembled some disciples around a pond by Mt. Zhongnan, where they built this monastery. The name refers to the legend of a dragon king (see NĀGA), who flooded an entire kingdom so that he could use it as a pool in which to reside. He was later converted to Buddhism by MADHYĀNTIKA, one of ĀNANDA's two main disciples. In another account, it is said that the monastery already existed when Emperor Wen (r. 581-604 CE) of the Sui dynasty ordered its renovation in 587 CE, whereupon it was given the name Longchi Monastery. In this account, Daopan was already in residence at the monastery, which enjoyed the patronage of several influential court officials. Many eminent monks in addition to Daopan are buried here. They include Kongzang (569-642 CE), Huiman (589-642 CE), Jingxuan (569-611 CE), Huizan (536-607 CE), and Pukuang (548-620). It is also said that the HUAYAN master FAZANG (643-712 CE) was active at the monastery, where, at the behest of the Tang Emperor Ruizong (r. 684-690 CE and 710-712 CE), he famously performed a ritual to pray for snow in order to stave off a severe drought the region was experiencing. (There are conflicting accounts, however, as to whether this event occurred at Longchisi or WUZHENSI.)

Madhupindikasutta. (C. Miwanyu jing; J. Mitsugan'yukyo; K. Mirhwanyu kyong 蜜丸喩經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Honey Ball," the eighteenth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 115th SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, along with an untitled recension of unidentified affiliation in the EKOTTARĀGAMA). The Buddha addresses a prince named Dandapāni, describing his teachings as avoiding discord with beings in this world, as indifference to perceptions, as abandoning doubts, and as not craving for existence. The disciple Mahākaccāna (S. MAHĀKĀTYĀYANA) then further explicates the sermon's meaning and the Buddha praises his erudition. The AttHASĀLINĪ cites the Madhupindikasutta as an example of a scripture that, although preached by a disciple, still qualifies as the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) because Mahākaccāna's exegesis is based on a synopsis given first by the Buddha. The Madhupindikasutta is best known for its discussion of how the process of sensory perception culminates in conceptual proliferation (P. papaNca; S. PRAPANCA). Any sentient being will be subject to an impersonal causal process of perception in which consciousness (P. viNNāna; S. VIJNĀNA) occurs conditioned by a sense base and a sense object; the contact between these three brings about sensory impingement (P. phassa; S. SPARsA), which in turn leads to sensation (VEDANĀ). At that point, however, the sense of ego intrudes and this process then becomes an intentional one, whereby what one feels, one perceives (P. saNNā; S. SAMJNĀ); what one perceives, one thinks about (P. vitakka; S. VITARKA); and what one thinks about, one conceptualizes (papaNca). However, by allowing oneself to experience sensory objects not as things-in-themselves but as concepts invariably tied to one's own point of view, the perceiving subject now becomes the hapless object of an inexorable process of conceptual subjugation: viz., what one conceptualizes becomes proliferated conceptually (P. papaNcasaNNāsankhā; a term apparently unattested in Sanskrit) throughout all of one's sensory experience in the past, present, and future. The consciousness thus ties together everything that can be experienced in this world into a labyrinthine network of concepts, all tied to oneself and projected into the external world as craving (TṚsnĀ), conceit (MĀNA), and wrong views (DṚstI), thus creating bondage to SAMSĀRA. The goal of training is a state of mind in which this tendency toward conceptual proliferation is brought to an end (P. nippapaNca; S. NIsPRAPANCA).

madhya. :::centre; middle; central

madhyamadesa. (P. majjhimadesa; T. yul dbus; C. zhongguo; J. chugoku; K. chungguk 中國). In Sanskrit, "central land"; a term used to refer to the region of the Buddha's activities in what is today northeastern India, said to encompass an area some nine hundred leagues (YOJANA) in circumference. The term is also used more figuratively to refer to a civilized region, especially a region in which Buddhism has been established. Thus, it is considered to be fortunate not simply to be reborn as a human but to be reborn as a human in such a central region, where one will have ready access to the teachings of Buddhism. See KsAnASAMPAD.

Madhyamāgama. (P. Majjhimanikāya; T. Dbu ma'i lung; C. Zhong ahan jing; J. Chuagongyo; K. Chung aham kyong 中阿含觀). In Sanskrit, the "Medium [Length] Scriptures"; the division of the Sanskrit SuTRAPItAKA corresponding closely to, but also substantially larger, than the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA of the Pāli canon. The Madhyamāgama collection is no longer extant in an Indic language but is preserved in its entirety in a Chinese translation made by Gautama SaMghadeva between 397 and 398; a few fragments of a Sanskrit recension have been discovered (such as at TURFAN), and there are Tibetan translations of some individual sutras from the collection. The extant Sanskrit fragments are ascribed to the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school; since these fragments correspond closely to the Chinese renderings, it is generally accepted that the Chinese translation of the Madhyamāgama represents the Sarvāstivāda school's recension of this collection. The Madhyamāgama contains 222 sutras, eighty of which correspond to suttas in the Pāli AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, eleven to suttas in the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, and twelve to suttas in the DĪGHANIKĀYA. Of the Pāli Majjhimanikāya's 152 suttas, ninety-eight have corresponding recensions in the Madhyamāgama. See also ĀGAMA.

madhyama gatih ::: [the middle status].

Madhyamaka: Another name for the Buddhist school of Sunyavada (s.v.), so-called because it assumes a middle path (madhyama) between theories clinging to the knowableness of the noumenal and the sufficiency of the phenomenal. -- K.F.L.

Madhyamakahṛdaya. (T. Dbu ma'i snying po). In Sanskrit, "Essence of the Middle Way"; the major work of the sixth-century Indian MADHYAMAKA (and, from the Tibetan perspective, SVĀTANTRIKA) master BHĀVAVIVEKA (also referred to as Bhavya and Bhāviveka). The text is written in verse, accompanied by the author's extensive prose commentary, entitled the TARKAJVĀLĀ. The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan, the TARKAJVĀLĀ only in Tibetan. The work is in eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in Bhāvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNāna), and omniscience (SARVAJNĀTĀ). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and Bhāvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRĀVAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, SāMkhya, Vaisesika, Vedānta, and MīmāMsā. These chapters (along with sĀNTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are a valuable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and the other Indian philosophical schools of the day. The chapter on the srāvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the mainstream Buddhist schools as to why the Mahāyāna SuTRAs are not the word of the Buddha. Bhāvaviveka's response to these charges, as well as his refutation of Yogācāra in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited.

MadhyamakālaMkāra. (T. Dbu ma rgyan). In Sanskrit, "Ornament of the Middle Way"; a verse work in ninety-seven stanzas by the eighth-century Indian master sĀNTARAKsITA; it is accompanied by a prose commentary (vṛtti) by the author. Both the root text and commentary are lost in the original Sanskrit (although verses cited elsewhere remain) but preserved in Tibetan translation. Whereas sāntaraksita's other major work, the TATTVASAMGRAHA, is valued largely for its detailed discussion of competing Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools of Indian philosophy, the MadhyamakālaMkāra, which was composed later, is regarded as the foundational text of the YOGĀCĀRA-MADHYAMAKA synthesis that occurred in late Indian Buddhism, what Tibetan doxographers would dub YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. sāntaraksita argues that the proper method for gaining realization of reality is to first come to the Yogācāra understanding that external objects do not exist and then move to the Madhyamaka view that mind also is empty of self. The MadhyamakālaMkāra famously states (at stanzas 92-93), "Through relying on mind-only, the nonexistence of external objects should be known. Relying on this [Madhyamaka] mode, it should be known that this [mind] also is completely selfless. Those who, having mounted the chariot of the two modes, grasp the reins of reasoning thereby attain the state of a Mahāyānist exactly as it is." sāntaraksita argues that anything that has intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA) must be intrinsically either one or many. Whatever is neither intrinsically one nor many must lack intrinsic nature. He then goes on to subject a wide range of important philosophical categories to this reasoning in an effort to demonstrate that nothing is endowed with intrinsic nature. These categories include the conditioned (such as the elements of earth, water, fire, and wind), the unconditioned (NIRVĀnA), the person (PUDGALA) asserted by the VĀTSĪPUTRĪYAs, and space (ĀKĀsA). He continues on to apply this same reasoning to the major categories of consciousness of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, focusing upon VAIBHĀsIKA, SAUTRĀNTIKA, and the various subschools of VIJNĀNAVĀDA. In the course of this section, he considers such important topics in Buddhist epistemology as whether or not the object casts an image or "aspect" (ĀKĀRA), toward the perceiving consciousness, and whether reflexivity (SVASAMVEDANA) exists. He concludes that consciousness lacks intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA). Roughly the last third of the text is devoted to an exposition of the two truths (SATYADVAYA). He concludes by stating that the follower of the Buddha has compassion for those who hold mistaken philosophical views.

Madhyamakāloka. (T. Dbu ma snang ba). In Sanskrit, "Illumination of the Middle Way"; the major independent (as opposed to commentarial) work of the late eighth-century Indian master KAMALAsĪLA. The work is preserved only in Tibetan translation. While the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA of Kamalasīla's teacher, sĀNTARAKsITA, is considered the foundational philosophical text of the YOGĀCĀRA-MADHYAMAKA synthesis, the Madhyamakāloka is its most important and detailed exposition. As such, it deals with a number of central epistemological and logical issues to articulate what is regarded as the defining tenet of the YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA school: that major YOGĀCĀRA doctrines, such as "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA) and the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), are important in initially overcoming misconceptions, but they are in fact only provisional (NEYĀRTHA) teachings for those who have not yet understood the Madhyamaka view. The Madhyamakāloka is also important for its exploration of such central MAHĀYĀNA doctrines as the TATHĀGATAGARBHA and the question of the EKAYĀNA. On this latter point, Kamalasīla argues against the Yogācāra position that there are three final vehicles (sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA, and BODHISATTVA vehicles, with some beings excluded from any path to liberation; see SAMUCCHINNAKUsALAMuLA; ICCHANTIKA) in favor of the position that there is a single vehicle to buddhahood for all beings.

Madhyamakaratnapradīpa. (T. Dbu ma rin po che'i sgron ma). In Sanskrit, "Jeweled Lamp for the Middle Way"; a work of MADHYAMAKA philosophy attributed to Bhavya or BHĀVAVIVEKA. However, because the work contains references to CANDRAKĪRTI and DHARMAKĪRTI, who lived after Bhāvaviveka, some scholars do not consider it to be the work of the author of the PRAJNĀPRADĪPA, but by a later scholar by that name, sometimes referred to as Bhavya II. The work begins with a discussion of the two truths (SATYADVAYA) and then goes on to offer criticisms of the positions of both non-Buddhist and Buddhist philosophical schools, with the latter including VAIBHĀsIKA and SAUTRĀNTIKA, as well as YOGĀCĀRA. The text continues with a presentation and defense of the Madhyamaka interpretation of the two truths, followed by a presentation of the practices of the BODHISATTVA and of the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of the Buddha. The text concludes with a paean to NĀGĀRJUNA and the benefits of following his teachings.

MadhyamakārthasaMgraha. (T. Dbu ma'i don bsdus pa). In Sanskrit, "Summary of the Meaning of the Middle Way"; a brief text in verse attributed to BHĀVAVIVEKA. As the title suggests, it provides a brief outline of the basic topics of MADHYAMAKA philosophy, such as the middle way between the extremes of existence and nonexistence, Madhyamaka reasoning, and the two truths.

Madhyamakasāstra. (T. Dbu ma'i bstan bcos; C. Zhong lun; J. Churon; K. Chung non 中論). In Sanskrit, "Treatise on the Middle Way"; an alternative title of the magnum opus of the second-century Indian exegete NĀGĀRJUNA. See MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ.

Madhyamaka. (T. Dbu ma pa; C. San lun zong/Zhongguan; J. Sanronshu/Chugan; K. Sam non chong/Chunggwan 三論/中). In Sanskrit, "Middle Way (school)"; a proponent or follower of the middle way" (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD); Buddhism is renowned as the middle way between extremes, a term that appears in the Buddha's first sermon (see P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA) in which he prescribed a middle path between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Thus, all proponents of Buddhism are in a sense proponents of the middle way, for each school of Buddhist philosophy identifies different versions of the two extremes and charts a middle way between them. The term Madhyamaka has however come to refer more specifically to the school of Buddhist philosophy that sets forth a middle way between the extreme of eternalism (sĀsVATADṚstI) and the extreme of annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI). The Madhyamaka school derives from the works of NĀGĀRJUNA, the c. second century CE philosopher who is traditionally regarded as its founder. His major philosophical works, especially his MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ (a.k.a. MADHYAMAKAsĀSTRA), as well as the writings of his disciple ĀRYADEVA, provide the locus classicus for the school (which only seems to have been designated the Madhyamaka school after Āryadeva's time). Commentaries on their works (by such figures as BUDDHAPĀLITA, BHĀVAVIVEKA, and CANDRAKĪRTI) provide the primary medium for philosophical expression in the school. Madhyamaka was highly influential in Tibet, where it was traditionally considered the highest of the four schools of Indian Buddhist philosophy (Madhyamaka, YOGĀCĀRA, SAUTRĀNTIKA, and VAIBHĀsIKA). Tibetan exegetes discerned two branches in the Madhyamaka, the PRĀSAnGIKA (associated with Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti) and the SVĀTANTRIKA (associated with Bhāvaviveka and sĀNTARAKsITA). The works of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva were also widely studied in East Asia, forming the basis of the "Three Treatises" school (C. SAN LUN ZONG; K. Sam non chong; J. Sanronshu), where the three treatises are the ZHONG LUN (the "Middle Treatise," or Madhyamakasāstra), the SHI'ERMEN LUN ("Twelve Gate Treatise," or *Dvādasamukhasāstra), and the BAI LUN ("Hundred Verses Treatise," *sATAsĀSTRA), the latter two attributed to Āryadeva. The Madhyamaka school is most renowned for its exposition of the nature of reality, especially its deployment of the doctrines of emptiness (suNYATĀ) and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). Because of its central claim that all phenomena are devoid or empty (sunya) of intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA), its proponents are also referred to as suNYAVĀDA and Niḥsvabhāvavāda. The doctrine of emptiness has also led to the charge, going back to the time of Nāgārjuna and continuing into the contemporary era, that the Madhyamaka is a form of nihilism, a charge that Nāgārjuna himself deftly refuted. Central to Madhyamaka philosophy is the relation between emptiness and dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). Dependent origination in its Madhyamaka interpretation refers not only to the twelvefold chain but more broadly to the fact that all phenomena arise in dependence on other factors. Hence, everything is dependent, and thus is empty of independent and intrinsic existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA). As Nāgārjuna states, "Because there are no phenomena that are not dependently arisen, there are no phenomena that are not empty." This analysis becomes key to the Madhyamaka articulation of the middle way: because everything is dependently arisen, the extreme of annihilation (UCCHEDĀNTA) is avoided; because everything is empty, the extreme of permanence (sĀSVATĀNTA) is avoided. Although most of the major schools of Buddhist philosophy speaks of the two truths-the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and the conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA)-this category is especially important for Madhyamaka, which must simultaneously proclaim the emptiness of all phenomena (the ultimate truth) while describing the operations of the world of cause and effect and the processes governing the path to enlightenment (all of which are deemed conventional truths). Although the true character of conventional truth is misperceived as a result of ignorance (AVIDYĀ), conventional truths themselves are not rejected; as Nāgārjuna states, "Without relying on the conventional, the ultimate cannot be taught; without understanding the ultimate, NIRVĀnA is not attained." The precise nature of the two truths and their relation is explored in detail in the Madhyamaka treatises, most famously in the sixth chapter of Candrakīrti's MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA. Although most renowned for its doctrine of emptiness, Madhyamaka is a MAHĀYĀNA school and, as such, also offers detailed expositions of the path (MĀRGA) to the enlightenment. These works that focus on soteriological issues include the SUHṚLLEKHA and RATNĀVALĪ of Nāgārjuna, the CATUḤsATAKA of Āryadeva, the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA of Candrakīrti, the BODHICARYĀVATĀRA of sĀNTIDEVA, the BHĀVANĀKRAMA of KAMALAsĪLA, and the BODHIPATHAPRADĪPA of ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA.

Madhyamakāvatārabhāsya. (S). See MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA.

Madhyamakāvatāra. (T. Dbu ma la 'jug pa). In Sanskrit, "Entrance to the Middle Way" (translated also as "Supplement to the Middle Way"); the major independent (as opposed to commentarial) work of the seventh-century Indian master CANDRAKĪRTI, who states that it is intended as an avatāra (variously rendered as "primer," "entrance," and "supplement") to NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. The work is written in verse, to which the author provides an extensive prose commentary (bhāsya). The work is organized around ten "productions of the aspiration to enlightenment" (BODHICITTOTPĀDA), which correspond to the ten stages (BHuMI) of the bodhisattva path (drawn largely from the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA) and their respective perfections (PĀRAMITĀ), describing the salient practices and attainments of each. These are followed by chapters on the qualities of the bodhisattva, on the stage of buddhahood, and a conclusion. The lengthiest (comprising approximately half of the work) and most important chapter of the text is the sixth, dealing with the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ). This is one of the most extensive and influential expositions in Indian literature of Madhyamaka philosophical positions. In it, Candrakīrti provides a detailed discussion of the two truths-ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA)-arguing that all things that have these two natures and that conventional truths (which he glosses as "concealing truths") are not in fact true because they appear falsely to the ignorant consciousness. He also discusses the crucial question of valid knowledge (PRAMĀnA) among the unenlightened, relating it to worldly consensus (lokaprasiddha). The sixth chapter also contains one of the most detailed refutations of YOGĀCĀRA in MADHYAMAKA literature, treating such topics as the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), the foundational consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA), and the statements in the sutras that the three realms of existence are "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA). This chapter also contains Candrakīrti's most famous contribution to Madhyamaka reasoning, the sevenfold reasoning designed to demonstrate the absence of a personal self (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA). Adding to and elaborating upon a fivefold reasoning found in Nāgārjuna's Mulamadhyamakakārikā, Candrakīrti argues that the person does not intrinsically exist because of it: (1) not being the aggregates (SKANDHA), (2) not being other than the aggregates, (3) not being the basis of the aggregates, (4) not depending on the aggregates, (5) not possessing the aggregates, (6) not being the shape of the aggregates, and (7) not being the composite of the aggregates. He illustrates this reasoning by applying it to the example of a chariot, which, he argues, is not to be found among its constituent parts. The sixth chapter concludes with a discussion of the sixteen and the twenty forms of emptiness (suNYATĀ), which include the emptiness of emptiness (suNYATĀsuNYATĀ). The work was the most widely studied and commented upon Madhyamaka text in Tibet among all sects, serving, for example, as one of the "five texts" (ZHUNG LNGA) that formed the DGE LUGS scholastic curriculum. The work is preserved only in Tibetan, although a Sanskrit manuscript of verses has been discovered in Tibet.

madhyamapratipad. (P. majjhimapatipadā; T. dbu ma'i lam; C. zhongdao; J. chudo; K. chungdo 中道). In Sanskrit, "middle way"; a well-known description of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA), with two important denotations. As set forth by the Buddha in his first sermon, the "Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma" (P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA; S. DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), the middle way refers to a religious path between the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification or extreme asceticism, extremes that the Buddha himself experienced prior to his enlightenment, the former during his youth as a prince, and the latter during his practice of self-mortification. In this first sermon, the Buddha identifies the middle way between these two extremes as the eightfold path (S. ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). As expounded by NĀGĀRJUNA and his followers, the middle way is a philosophical position between the extremes of permanence (sĀsVATĀNTA) and annihilation (UCCHEDĀNTA) (sometimes also called the extremes of existence and nonexistence; see ANTAGRĀHADṚstI). Although the precise meaning of this interpretation of the middle way is widely discussed and debated, one interpretation identifies the extreme of permanence as the position that everything exists ultimately and the extreme of annihilation as the position that nothing exists even conventionally, with the middle way being the position that nothing exists ultimately but everything exists conventionally.

Madhyama (Sanskrit) Madhyamā [feminine of madhyama] One of the states of vach (mystic speech), which is of four kinds according to its differentiation: para, pasyanti, madhyama, and vaikhari. The madhyama vach is the link between the mental form (in the Logos) and the manifested form (in matter). It corresponds mystically to the Light of the Logos. Vach, though often equivalent to Logos, is the feminine counterpart of Brahma, the masculine side of the Logos. Thus Vach is the spiritual aspect of prakriti.

Madhyama (Sanskrit) Madhyama The fourth or middle tone of the seven primary notes of the Hindu musical scale.

madhyama [vak] ::: [the middle gradation of speech].

madhyamika (Buddhists) ::: [the name of a school of Buddhists].

Madhyamikas (Sanskrit) Mādhyamika-s Belonging to the middle way; a sect mentioned in the Vishnu-Purana, probably at first a sect of Hindu atheists. A school of the same name was founded later in Tibet and China, and as it adopted some of the esoteric principles taught by Nagarjuna, one of the great founders of the esoteric Mahayana system, it had certain elements of esoteric truth. But because of its tendency by means of thesis and antithesis to reduce everything into contrary categories, and then to deny both, it may be called a school of Nihilists for whom everything is an illusion and an error in the world of thought, in the subjective as well as in the objective universe. This school is a good example of the danger of wandering too far in mere intellectual disquisition from the fundamental bases of the esoteric philosophy, for such merely brain-mind activity will infallibly lead to a philosophy of barren negation.

Madhyāntavibhāga. (T. Dbus mtha' rnam 'byed; C. Bianzhongbian lun; J. Benchubenron; K. Pyonjungbyon non 辯中邊論). In Sanskrit, "Differentiation of the Middle Way and the Extremes"; one of the five works (together with the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA) said to have been presented to ASAnGA by the bodhisattva MAITREYA in the TUsITA heaven. (More precisely, the title Madhyāntavibhāga refers to the Madhyāntavibhāgakārikā attributed to Maitreya; VASUBANDHU. wrote a commentary to the text, entitled Madhyāntavibhāgabhāsya, and STHIRAMATI wrote a commentary entitled Madhyāntavibhāgatīkā). Written in verse, it is one of the most important YOGĀCĀRA delineations of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), especially as they figure in the path to enlightenment, where the obstacles created by the imaginary (PARIKALPITA) are overcome ultimately by the antidote of the consummate (PARINIsPANNA). The "middle way" exposed here is that of the Yogācāra, and is different from that of NĀGĀRJUNA, although the names of the two extremes to be avoided-the extreme of permanence (sĀsVATĀNTA) and the extreme of annihilation (UCCHEDĀNTA)-are the same. Here the extreme of permanence is the existence of external objects, the imaginary nature (PARIKALPITASVABHĀVA). The extreme of annihilation would seem to include Nāgārjuna's emptiness of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The middle way entails upholding the existence of consciousness (VIJNĀNA) as the dependent nature (PARATANTRASVABHĀVA) and the existence of the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNASVABHĀVA). The work is divided into five chapters, which consider the three natures, the various forms of obstruction to be abandoned on the path, the ultimate truth according to YOGĀCĀRA, the means of cultivating the antidotes to the defilements, and the activity of the MAHĀYĀNA path. See also MAITREYANĀTHA.

Madhyāntika. (P. Majjhantika; T. Nyi ma gung pa; C. Motiandi; J. Matsudenchi/Madenchi; K. Malchonji 末田地). The third of the five teachers (dharmācārya) mentioned in Indian Sanskrit texts as the initial successors of the Buddha: viz., MAHĀKĀsYAPA, ĀNANDA, Madhyāntika, sĀnAKAVĀSIN, and UPAGUPTA. The AsOKĀVADĀNA records that he lived a hundred years after the Buddha's death and, after becoming an ARHAT, was sent by his teacher Ānanda to disseminate Buddhism in Kashmir (see KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA). According to BUDDHAGHOSA's fifth-century CE VINAYA commentary, the SAMANTAPĀSĀDIKĀ, Madhyāntika was the preceptor of MAHINDA (S. Mahendra), the son of King Asoka (S. AsOKA), who converted the Sinhalese king DEVĀNAMPIYATISSA to Buddhism in the third century BCE, thus inaugurating Buddhism in Sri Lanka. According to that same text, after the third Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, THIRD), Madhyāntika traveled to Kashmir, where he led countless Kashmiris to enlightenment and ordained a thousand as novice monks (sRĀMAnERA). He is also said to have tamed a malevolent NĀGA living in a lake there. The DA TANG XIYU JI by the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG (600/602-664) records that the Buddha predicted before his PARINIRVĀnA that Madhyāntika would travel to Udyāna in Kashmir to disseminate the dharma. Fifty years after the Buddha's death, Madhyāntika heard this prediction from his teacher Ānanda and set out on a successful mission to that region. Xuanzang reports that, in Udyāna, Madhyāntika supervised the carving of a hundred-foot-high wooden image of MAITREYA Buddha; Madhyāntika used his spiritual powers to send a sculptor directly to the TUsITA heaven (on three separate occasions, according to the account) so he would be able to accurately model the image after the person of Maitreya himself. Sanskrit VINAYA materials, including those from the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA and MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA schools, typically list Madhyāntika as the third successor of the Buddha. He is also subsequently listed as the third Indian patriarch (ZUSHI) in early Chinese records of dharma transmission (CHUANFA), such as the FU FAZANG YINYUAN ZHUAN and the CHU SANZANG JIJI, as well as in early Chan genealogical records, such as the CHUAN FABAO JI and the LIDAI FABAO JI. Later Chan lineage texts compiled after about the early ninth century, such as the BAOLIN ZHUAN and the JINGDE CHUANDENG LU, eliminate him from the roster and move sānakavāsin up to the position of third patriarch.

Madhya (Sanskrit) Madhya The middle; as an adjective, middle, center, interior as contrasted with outer; also intermediate as contrasted with either extreme or end. As a neuter noun, 10,000,000 trillions or 10 quintillion (10,000,000,000,000,000,000).

madhyendriya. (T. dbang po 'bring; C. zhonggen; J. chukon; K. chunggŭn 中根). In Sanskrit, "average faculties"; a term used to describe those disciples of the Buddha whose intellectual capacity is between that of the least intelligent (MṚDVINDRIYA) and the most intelligent (TĪKsnENDRIYA), and thus average. The term appears particularly in discussions of UPĀYA, the Buddha's ability to adapt his teachings to the intellects, interests, and aspirations of his disciples. Thus, in consideration of the abilities of his audience, the Buddha would teach different things to different people, sometimes extolling a particular practice to those of middling and lesser faculties, knowing that they were temporarily unable to practice the highest teaching. Precisely what constitutes the Buddha's highest teaching is a point of considerable disagreement over the course of Buddhist thought, with the advocates of one faction consigning the teaching held to be highest by another faction to the category of teachings intended for those of middling or lesser faculties.

Mahādhammasamādānasutta. (C. Shoufa jing; J. Juhokyo; K. Subop kyong 受法經). In Pāli, the "Larger Discourse on Undertaking the DHARMA"; the forty-sixth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 175th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA grove at Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha explains the different consequences that befall those who act with ignorance and those who act with wisdom. He then describes four ways of undertaking things in this life and the good and bad consequences that accrue to one who follows these ways. The first way is to live a painful life now, followed by a painful future existence; the second way is to live a pleasant life now, followed by a painful existence; the third way is to live a painful life now, followed by a pleasant existence; the fourth way is to live a pleasant life now, followed by a pleasant existence. The Buddha illustrates his points using the similes of a bitter gourd of poison, a bronze cup of a flavorful poisoned beverage, a medicine made from cow's urine, and a flavorful medicinal drink.

Mahādukkhakkhandhasutta. (C. Kuyin jing; J. Kuongyo; K. Koŭm kyong 苦陰經). In Pāli, the "Greater Discourse on the Mass of Suffering"; the thirteenth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the ninety-ninth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to his disciples at Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) to refute the claims of naked JAINA ascetics that their teachings were identical to the teachings of the Buddha. The Buddha explains the full implications of sensual pleasures, the advantages of renouncing them, and the path needed to escape from their influence. Finally he asserts that outside his teachings these truths are unknown, and that only a buddha and his disciples can teach of them.

Mahāgosingasutta. (C. Niujiaosuoluolin jing; J. Gokakusararingyo; K. Ugaksararim kyong 牛角娑羅林經). In Pāli, the "Greater Discourse in Gosinga Park"; the thirty-second sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 184th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA). On a beautiful moonlit night, while dwelling in the Gosinga woodland park, sĀRIPUTRA asks the eminent monks ĀNANDA, REVATA, ANIRUDDHA, MAHĀKĀsYAPA, and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA what kind of mendicant might adorn the park with their virtues. Each expresses his view, to which sāriputra adds his own. The Buddha confirms their opinions, noting that each ideal in its own way would be an adornment to the Gosinga park.

Mahāhatthipadopamasutta. (C. Xiangjiyu jing; J. Zoshakuyugyo; K. Sangjogyu kyong 象跡喩經). In Pāli, the "Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint"; the twenty-eighth sutta contained in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the thirtieth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA), preached by Sāriputta (S. sĀRIPUTRA) to an assembly of monks at the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). Using the simile of the elephant's footprint, Sāriputta explains how just as the footprints of all animals can be contained in the footprint of an elephant, so all wholesome phenomena were contained in the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. He expounds on the four truths in terms of the four elements (MAHĀBHuTA) of earth, water, fire, and air, and the dependent origination (P. paticcasamuppāda; S. PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) of the five aggregates (P. khandha; S. SKANDHA).

Mahāssapurasutta. (C. Mayi jing; J. Meyukyo; K. Maŭp kyong 馬邑經). In Pāli, the "Greater Discourse at Assapura"; the thirty-ninth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 182nd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, and another recension of unidentified affiliation in the EKOTTARĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a group of monks dwelling in the market town of Assapura in the Anga country. The people of Assapura were greatly devoted to the Buddha and were generous in their support of the monks. In recognition of their generosity, the Buddha admonished his disciples to strive ardently in their practice of the path to liberation by delivering a discourse on what makes one a true recluse. He describes the path in stages, beginning with the avoidance of evil deeds through the restraint of bodily and verbal actions, followed by the avoidance of evil thoughts through the mental restraint of meditation. This provides the foundation for the cultivation of four stages of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA), which, in turn, facilitates the eradication of contaminants (P. āsava; S. ĀSRAVA) through the practice of insight (P. vipassanā; S. VIPAsYANĀ) and the attainment of final liberation in NIRVĀnA.

Mahāsuddassanasuttanta. (C. Dashanjian wang jing; J. Daizenkennokyo; K. Taeson'gyon wang kyong 大善見王經). In Pāli, the "Great Discourse on King Suddassana"; the seventeenth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the fifty-eighth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to ĀNANDA in the town of Kusināra (S. KUsINAGARĪ) while he lay dying beneath twin sāla (S. sĀLA) trees in the grove of the Mallas. Ānanda begs the Buddha not to pass away in such an insignificant town, whereupon the Buddha recounts to him the former splendor of the place eons ago, when the city was governed by the CAKRAVARTIN Suddassana (S. Sudarsana). After recounting the king's virtues, the Buddha reveals that he himself had been Suddassana in a previous life while he was a BODHISATTVA. Thus, the Buddha concludes, Kusināra is indeed a suitable place for the final demise (parinibbāna; S. PARINIRVĀnA) of a buddha.

Mahātanhāsankhayasutta. (C. Tudi jing; J. Dateikyo; K. Toje kyong 帝經). In Pāli, the "Great Discourse on the Destruction of Craving"; the thirty-eighth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 201st sutra in the Chinese translations of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha at the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) to the monk Sāti, who held the mistaken view that the Buddha taught that consciousness (P. viNNāna; S. VIJNĀNA) transmigrates from life to life. The Buddha reprimands Sāti, telling him he never taught such a view, but that consciousness arises only due to causes and conditions and never otherwise. He continues with a lengthy discourse on dependent origination (P. paticcasamuppāda; S. PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) in which he describes how all worldly phenomena come into being and pass away according to the law of cause and effect.

Mahāvedallasutta. (C. Dajuchiluo jing; J. Daikuchirakyo; K. Taeguch'ira kyong 大拘絺羅經). In Pāli, "Greater Discourse on Points of Doctrine"; the forty-third sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); expounded by Sāriputra (S. sĀRIPUTRA) to the monk Mahākotthita (S. KAUstHILA) at Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) in the JETAVANA grove. Mahākotthita approached sāriputra and questioned him concerning a number of points of doctrine preached by the Buddha. These included, what is wisdom (PRAJNĀ); what is consciousness (VIJNĀNA) and its relation to wisdom; what is sensation (VEDANĀ); what is perception (SAMJNĀ) and what is the relation between sensation, perception, and consciousness; what is knowable by the mind alone; what is existence and how many kinds of existence are there; what is the first meditative absorption (DHYĀNA); what are the five sense faculties (INDRIYA); and what are the various kinds of deliverance attained through meditation (VIMUKTI). sāriputra answered all of questions put to him to Mahākotthiya's satisfaction.

MahāyānasutrālaMkāra. [alt. SutrālaMkāra] (T. Theg pa chen po'i mdo sde'i rgyan; C. Dasheng zhuangyan jing lun; J. Daijo shogongyoron; K. Taesŭng changomgyong non 大乘莊嚴經論). In Sanskrit, the "Ornament for the Mahāyāna Sutras"; one of the five works (together with the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA) said to have been presented to ASAnGA by the bodhisattva MAITREYA in the TUsITA heaven (see also MAITREYANĀTHA). Written in verse, the text offers a systematic presentation of the practices of the bodhisattva from the standpoint of the YOGĀCĀRA school and is one of the most important of the Indian Mahāyāna sĀSTRAs. Its twenty-one chapters deal with (1) the proof that the MAHĀYĀNA sutras are the word of the Buddha; (2) taking refuge in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA); (3) the lineage (GOTRA) of enlightenment necessary to undertake the bodhisattva path; (4) the generation of the aspiration to enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA); (5) the practice of the BODHISATTVA; (6) the nature of reality, described from the Yogācāra perspective; (7) the attainment of power by the bodhisattva; (8) the methods of bringing oneself and others to maturation; (9) enlightenment and the three bodies of a buddha (TRIKĀYA); (10) faith in the Mahāyāna; (11) seeking complete knowledge of the dharma; (12) teaching the dharma; (13) practicing in accordance with the dharma; (14) the precepts and instructions received by the bodhisattva; (15) the skillful methods of the bodhisattva; (16) the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) and the four means of conversion (SAMGRAHAVASTU), through which bodhisattvas attract and retain disciples; (17) the worship of the Buddha; (18) the constituents of enlightenment (BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA); (19) the qualities of the bodhisattva; and (20-21) the consummation of the bodhisattva path and the attainment of buddhahood. There is a commentary (BHĀsYA) by VASUBANDHU and a subcommentary by STHIRAMATI.

Mahāyāna. (T. theg pa chen po; C. dasheng; J. daijo; K. taesŭng 大乘). In Sanskrit, "great vehicle"; a term, originally of self-appellation, which is used historically to refer to a movement that began some four centuries after the Buddha's death, marked by the composition of texts that purported to be his words (BUDDHAVACANA). Although ranging widely in content, these texts generally set forth the bodhisattva path to buddhahood as the ideal to which all should aspire and described BODHISATTVAs and buddhas as objects of devotion. The key doctrines of the Mahāyāna include the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ), the skillful methods (UPĀYAKAUsALYA) of a buddha, the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of a buddha, the inherency of buddha-nature (BUDDHADHĀTU; TATHĀGATAGARBHA), and PURE LANDs or buddha-fields (BUDDHAKsETRA). The term Mahāyāna is also appended to two of the leading schools of Indian Buddhism, the YOGĀCĀRA and the MADHYAMAKA, because they accepted the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha. However, the tenets of these schools were not restricted to expositions of the philosophy and practice of the bodhisattva but sought to set forth the nature of wisdom and the constituents of the path for the ARHAT as well. The term Mahāyāna often appears in contrast to HĪNAYĀNA, the "lesser vehicle," a pejorative term used to refer to those who do not accept the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, and Mongolia, and therefore is sometimes referred to as "Northern Buddhism," especially in nineteenth-century sources. Because of the predominance of the Mahāyāna in East Asia and Tibet, it is sometimes assumed that the Mahāyāna displaced earlier forms of Buddhism (sometimes referred to by scholars as "Nikāya Buddhism" or "MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS") in India, but the testimony of Chinese pilgrims, such as XUANZANG and YIJING, suggests that the Mahāyāna remained a minority movement in India. These pilgrims report that Mahāyāna and "hīnayāna" monks lived together in the same monasteries and followed the same VINAYA. The supremacy of the Mahāyāna is also sometimes assumed because of the large corpus of Mahāyāna literature in India. However, scholars have begun to speculate that the size of this corpus may not be a sign of the Mahāyāna's dominance but rather of its secondary status, with more and more works composed but few gaining adherents. Scholars find it significant that the first mention of the term "Mahāyāna" in a stone inscription does not appear in India until some five centuries after the first Mahāyāna sutras were presumably composed, perhaps reflecting its minority, or even marginal, status on the Indian subcontinent. The origins of the Mahāyāna remain the subject of scholarly debate. Earlier theories that saw the Mahāyāna as largely a lay movement against entrenched conservative monastics have given way to views of the Mahāyāna as beginning as disconnected cults (of monastic and sometimes lay members) centered around an individual sutra, in some instances proclaimed by charismatic teachers called DHARMABHĀnAKA. The teachings contained in these sutras varied widely, with some extolling a particular buddha or bodhisattva above all others, some saying that the text itself functioned as a STuPA. Each of these sutras sought to represent itself as the authentic word of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha, which was more or less independent from other sutras; hence, the trope in so many Mahāyāna sutras in which the Buddha proclaims the supremacy of that particular text and describes the benefits that will accrue to those who recite, copy, and worship it. The late appearance of these texts had to be accounted for, and various arguments were set forth, most making some appeal to UPĀYA, the Buddha's skillful methods whereby he teaches what is most appropriate for a given person or audience. Thus, in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the Buddha famously proclaims that the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA) that he had previously set forth were in fact expedient stratagems to reach different audiences and that there is in fact only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA), revealed in the Saddharmapundarīkasutra, the BUDDHAYĀNA, which had been taught many times in the past by previous buddhas. These early Mahāyāna sutras seem to have been deemed complete unto themselves, each representing its own world. This relatively disconnected assemblage of various cults of the book would eventually become a self-conscious scholastic entity that thought of itself as the Mahāyāna; this exegetical endeavor devoted a good deal of energy to surveying what was by then a large corpus of such books and then attempting to craft the myriad doctrines contained therein into coherent philosophical and religious systems, such as Yogācāra and Madhyamaka. The authority of the Mahāyāna sutras as the word of the Buddha seems to have remained a sensitive issue throughout the history of the Mahāyāna in India, since many of the most important authors, from the second to the twelfth century, often offered a defense of these sutras' authenticity. Another influential strand of early Mahāyāna was that associated with the RĀstRAPĀLAPARIPṚCCHĀ, KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA, and UGRAPARIPṚCCHĀ, which viewed the large urban monasteries as being ill-suited to serious spiritual cultivation and instead advocated forest dwelling (see ARANNAVĀSI) away from the cities, following a rigorous asceticism (S. dhutaguna; P. DHUTAnGA) that was thought to characterize the early SAMGHA. This conscious estrangement from the monks of the city, where the great majority of monks would have resided, again suggests the Mahāyāna's minority status in India. Although one often reads in Western sources of the three vehicles of Buddhism-the hīnayāna, Mahāyāna, and VAJRAYĀNA-the distinction of the Mahāyāna from the vajrayāna is less clear, at least polemically speaking, than the distinction between the Mahāyāna and the hīnayāna, with followers of the vajrayāna considering themselves as following the path to buddhahood set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras, although via a shorter route. Thus, in some expositions, the Mahāyāna is said to subsume two vehicles, the PĀRAMITĀYĀNA, that is, the path to buddhahood by following the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) as set forth in the Mahāyāna sutras, and the MANTRAYĀNA or vajrayāna, that is, the path to buddhahood set forth in the tantras.

Maitreyanātha. (T. Byams mgon; C. Cizun; J. Jison; K. Chajon 慈尊). In Sanskrit, the "Protector Maitreya"; an epithet of MAITREYA, the future buddha. The Sanskrit compound can also be read as "Protected by Maitreya," and scholars have presumed that this is the name of an Indian scholar and contemporary of ASAnGA (fourth century CE), whom they credit with the authorship of some or all of the "five books of Maitreya," the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA; all of which, according to tradition, were presented to Asanga in the TUsITA heaven by the BODHISATTVA Maitreya.

Majjhimanikāya. (S. MADHYAMĀGAMA). In Pāli, "Collection of Middle [Length] Discourses"; the second of the five divisions of the Pāli SUTTAPItAKA, the others being the DĪGHANIKĀYA, SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, and KHUDDAKANIKĀYA. The Majjhimanikāya contains 152 suttas (S. SuTRA) divided into three major parts, with fifty suttas in each of the first two parts and fifty-two in the third. Each one of these parts is further subdivided into five sections (vagga). The suttas are not arranged in any particular order, although suttas with broadly related themes (e.g., the six sense faculties, or INDRIYA), similar styles (e.g., suttas that contain a shorter, and often verse, summary of doctrine followed by longer expositions) or target audiences (e.g., discourses to householders, monks, religious wanderers, or brāhmanas) are sometimes grouped together in the same section. The enlightenment cycle of Gotama (S. GAUTAMA) Buddha finds some of its earliest expressions in several suttas in this nikāya. For example, the ARIYAPARIYESANĀSUTTA does not include the famous story of the prince's chariot rides but says instead, "Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished otherwise and wept with tearful faces, I shaved off my hair and beard, put on the yellow robe, and went forth from the home life into homelessness." There is sometimes overlap between nikāyas; for example, the SATIPAttHĀNASUTTA of the Majjhimanikāya appears as the first section of the Mahāsatipatthānasutta of the Dīghanikāya. Not all of the suttas are spoken by the Buddha; for example, ĀNANDA delivers the Gopakamoggallānasutta after the Buddha's passage into PARINIRVĀnA. The Sanskrit counterpart of the Majjhimanikāya is the MADHYAMĀGAMA, which is the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school's recension of this collection. In the Chinese translation, ninety-eight of the Madhyamāgama's 222 sutras correspond to suttas found in the Majjhimanikāya, eighty appear in the Anguttaranikāya, twelve to the Dīghanikāya, and eleven to the SaMyuttanikāya.

Mantradhyana: A Sanskrit term for spiritual awareness produced or reinforced by incantations.

Māratajjanīyasutta. (C. Xiangmo jing; J. Gomakyo; K. Hangma kyong 降魔經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Rebuke to Māra"; the fiftieth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension is the 131st sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA; there are also two other independent translations); the scripture is an account of an encounter between MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA (P. Mahāmoggallāna) and the divinity MĀRA, the personification of evil. According to the Pāli recension, Mahāmoggallāna was in the Bhesakalā grove at SuMsumāragiri in the Bhagga country when Māra entered his belly. Mahāmoggallāna coaxed Māra to stop vexing him by relating how in a previous life, during the time of Kakusandha Buddha, he had been Māra's uncle. He warns Māra of the dangers that befall those who create trouble for the Buddha and his disciples.

mayi sarvani karmani samnyasyadhyatmacetasa ::: with a consciousness identified with the Self, renouncing all actions into Me. [Gita 3.30]

Mean: In general, that which in some way mediates or occupies a middle position among various things or between two extremes. Hence (especially in the plural) that through which an end is attained; in mathematics the word is used for any one of various notions of average; in ethics it represents moderation, temperance, prudence, the middle way. In mathematics:   The arithmetic mean of two quantities is half their sum; the arithmetic mean of n quantities is the sum of the n quantities, divided by n. In the case of a function f(x) (say from real numbers to real numbers) the mean value of the function for the values x1, x2, . . . , xn of x is the arithmetic mean of f(x1), f(x2), . . . , f(xn). This notion is extended to the case of infinite sets of values of x by means of integration; thus the mean value of f(x) for values of x between a and b is ∫f(x)dx, with a and b as the limits of integration, divided by the difference between a and b.   The geometric mean of or between, or the mean proportional between, two quantities is the (positive) square root of their product. Thus if b is the geometric mean between a and c, c is as many times greater (or less) than b as b is than a. The geometric mean of n quantities is the nth root of their product.   The harmonic mean of two quantities is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of their reciprocals. Hence the harmonic mean of a and b is 2ab/(a + b).   The weighted mean or weighted average of a set of n quantities, each of which is associated with a certain number as weight, is obtained by multiplying each quantity by the associated weight, adding these products together, and then dividing by the sum of the weights. As under A, this may be extended to the case of an infinite set of quantities by means of integration. (The weights have the role of estimates of relative importance of the various quantities, and if all the weights are equal the weighted mean reduces to the simple arithmetic mean.)   In statistics, given a population (i.e., an aggregate of observed or observable quantities) and a variable x having the population as its range, we have:     The mean value of x is the weighted mean of the values of x, with the probability (frequency ratio) of each value taken as its weight. In the case of a finite population this is the same as the simple arithmetic mean of the population, provided that, in calculating the arithmetic mean, each value of x is counted as many times over as it occurs in the set of observations constituting the population.     In like manner, the mean value of a function f(x) of x is the weighted mean of the values of f(x), where the probability of each value of x is taken as the weight of the corresponding value of f(x).     The mode of the population is the most probable (most frequent) value of x, provided there is one such.     The median of the population is so chosen that the probability that x be less than the median (or the probability that x be greater than the median) is ½ (or as near ½ as possible). In the case of a finite population, if the values of x are arranged in order of magnitude     --repeating any one value of x as many times over as it occurs in the set of observations constituting the population     --then the middle term of this series, or the arithmetic mean of the two middle terms, is the median.     --A.C. In cosmology, the fundamental means (arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic) were used by the Greeks in describing or actualizing the process of becoming in nature. The Pythagoreans and the Platonists in particular made considerable use of these means (see the Philebus and the Timaeus more especially). These ratios are among the basic elements used by Plato in his doctrine of the mixtures. With the appearance of the qualitative physics of Aristotle, the means lost their cosmological importance and were thereafter used chiefly in mathematics. The modern mathematical theories of the universe make use of the whole range of means analyzed by the calculus of probability, the theory of errors, the calculus of variations, and the statistical methods. In ethics, the 'Doctrine of the Mean' is the moral theory of moderation, the development of the virtues, the determination of the wise course in action, the practice of temperance and prudence, the choice of the middle way between extreme or conflicting decisions. It has been developed principally by the Chinese, the Indians and the Greeks; it was used with caution by the Christian moralists on account of their rigorous application of the moral law.   In Chinese philosophy, the Doctrine of the Mean or of the Middle Way (the Chung Yung, literally 'Equilibrium and Harmony') involves the absence of immoderate pleasure, anger, sorrow or joy, and a conscious state in which those feelings have been stirred and act in their proper degree. This doctrine has been developed by Tzu Shu (V. C. B.C.), a grandson of Confucius who had already described the virtues of the 'superior man' according to his aphorism "Perfect is the virtue which is according to the mean". In matters of action, the superior man stands erect in the middle and strives to follow a course which does not incline on either side.   In Buddhist philosophy, the System of the Middle Way or Madhyamaka is ascribed more particularly to Nagarjuna (II c. A.D.). The Buddha had given his revelation as a mean or middle way, because he repudiated the two extremes of an exaggerated ascetlsm and of an easy secular life. This principle is also applied to knowledge and action in general, with the purpose of striking a happy medium between contradictory judgments and motives. The final objective is the realization of the nirvana or the complete absence of desire by the gradual destruction of feelings and thoughts. But while orthodox Buddhism teaches the unreality of the individual (who is merely a mass of causes and effects following one another in unbroken succession), the Madhyamaka denies also the existence of these causes and effects in themselves. For this system, "Everything is void", with the legitimate conclusion that "Absolute truth is silence". Thus the perfect mean is realized.   In Greek Ethics, the doctrine of the Right (Mean has been developed by Plato (Philebus) and Aristotle (Nic. Ethics II. 6-8) principally, on the Pythagorean analogy between the sound mind, the healthy body and the tuned string, which has inspired most of the Greek Moralists. Though it is known as the "Aristotelian Principle of the Mean", it is essentially a Platonic doctrine which is preformed in the Republic and the Statesman and expounded in the Philebus, where we are told that all good things in life belong to the class of the mixed (26 D). This doctrine states that in the application of intelligence to any kind of activity, the supreme wisdom is to know just where to stop, and to stop just there and nowhere else. Hence, the "right-mean" does not concern the quantitative measurement of magnitudes, but simply the qualitative comparison of values with respect to a standard which is the appropriate (prepon), the seasonable (kairos), the morally necessary (deon), or generally the moderate (metrion). The difference between these two kinds of metretics (metretike) is that the former is extrinsic and relative, while the latter is intrinsic and absolute. This explains the Platonic division of the sciences into two classes: those involving reference to relative quantities (mathematical or natural), and those requiring absolute values (ethics and aesthetics). The Aristotelian analysis of the "right mean" considers moral goodness as a fixed and habitual proportion in our appetitions and tempers, which can be reached by training them until they exhibit just the balance required by the right rule. This process of becoming good develops certain habits of virtues consisting in reasonable moderation where both excess and defect are avoided: the virtue of temperance (sophrosyne) is a typical example. In this sense, virtue occupies a middle position between extremes, and is said to be a mean; but it is not a static notion, as it leads to the development of a stable being, when man learns not to over-reach himself. This qualitative conception of the mean involves an adaptation of the agent, his conduct and his environment, similar to the harmony displayed in a work of art. Hence the aesthetic aspect of virtue, which is often overstressed by ancient and neo-pagan writers, at the expense of morality proper.   The ethical idea of the mean, stripped of the qualifications added to it by its Christian interpreters, has influenced many positivistic systems of ethics, and especially pragmatism and behaviourism (e.g., A. Huxley's rule of Balanced Excesses). It is maintained that it is also involved in the dialectical systems, such as Hegelianism, where it would have an application in the whole dialectical process as such: thus, it would correspond to the synthetic phase which blends together the thesis and the antithesis by the meeting of the opposites. --T.G. Mean, Doctrine of the: In Aristotle's ethics, the doctrine that each of the moral virtues is an intermediate state between extremes of excess and defect. -- O.R.M.

Mi bskyod rdo rje. (Mikyo Dorje) (1507-1554). Tibetan Buddhist master recognized as the eighth KARMA PA, revered as one of the most dynamic teachers in his lineage. He was born in eastern Tibet and as a newborn child is said to have declared, "I am the Karma pa." Although a rival candidate was simultaneously promoted in A mdo, prominent BKA' BRGYUD lamas identified Mi bskyod rdo rje as the reincarnation of the seventh Karma pa. His enthronement took place on 1513 at RI BO CHE monastery. He received an invitation from the Chinese emperor Wuzong Zhengde (r. 1506-1522) who dispatched a military troop as an escort. The Karma pa declined the invitation, divining that the emperor would soon die. When the military escort returned to court, they found the emperor had indeed passed away. Mi bskyod rdo rje was famed as both a meditation master and scholar. He wrote dozens of works, including philosophical treatises on MADHYAMAKA and ABHIDHARMA, tantric commentaries, poetry, works on linguistics, SĀDHANAs, liturgies, and other ritual texts; his collected works comprise over thirty volumes. His artwork contributed to the establishment of a new painting style in eastern Tibet, known as the karma sgar bris, or "karmapa encampment" style.

middle way. See MADHYAMAPRATIPAD.

Mi pham 'Jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho. (Mipam Jamyang Namgyal Gyatso) (1846-1912). A prominent Tibetan Buddhist scholar of the RNYING MA sect and a leading figure in the RIS MED or so-called nonsectarian movement of eastern Tibet. He is often known as Mi pham rgya mtsho or 'Ju Mi pham in reference to his clan name. As a young child he excelled at study-it is said that he composed his first text at age seven-and quickly mastered a broad range of traditional Buddhist learning, from MAHĀYĀNA sutras to tantric rituals, as well as subjects such as logic, astrology, grammar, medicine, and the arts. His ease in learning a vast body of scriptures was ascribed to his devotion to the BODHISATTVA of wisdom MANJUsRĪ. He is said to have read the entire BKA' 'GYUR seven times. He studied with and received transmission from many of the leading scholars of the day, including DPAL SPRUL RIN PO CHE and 'JAM MGON KONG SPRUL. His principal guru was the luminary 'JAM DBYANGS MKHYEN BRTSE DBANG PO. Unlike many other prominent Rnying ma lamas of his time, he was not actively involved in the discovery and revelation of treasure (GTER MA). He is especially renowned for his strikingly original, and often controversial, commentaries on important Indian treatises-scriptural exegesis of Indian works being relatively rare among his contemporary Rnying ma scholars. These works include his commentary on the ninth chapter of sĀNTIDEVA's BODHICARYĀVATĀRA and his commentary on sĀNTARAKsITA's MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA. In other works, he sought to reveal the philosophical profundity of the RDZOGS CHEN teachings.

mithyāsaMvṛti. (T. log pa'i kun rdzob). In Sanskrit, "false conventionality"; a term that occurs in MADHYAMAKA philosophy, where two types of conventionalities are enumerated: real conventionalities (TATHYASAMVṚTI) and false conventionalities. A real conventionality is a conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA) in the sense that it is not the object of an ultimate consciousness and is falsely imagined to possess SVABHĀVA, or intrinsic existence. Even though it may be falsely conceived, it is not however utterly nonexistent (like a false conventionality) because a real conventionality is capable of performing a function (ARTHAKRIYĀ) in accordance with its appearance. For example, the water in a lake would be a true conventionality because it can perform the function of water, whereas as the water in a mirage would be a false conventionality because it could not perform the function of a water. Only a real conventionality is a conventional truth; it is true in the sense that it can perform a function; a false conventionality is not a conventional truth because it does not exist even conventionally.

Mkhas grub Dge legs dpal bzang. (Kedrup Gelek Palsang) (1385-1438). Also known as Mkhas grub rje, an early leader of the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism, who trained first under the influential scholar Red mda' ba Gzhon nu blo gros (Rendawa Shonu Lodro, 1349-1412). At the age of twenty-three he met TSONG KHA PA, who became his principal GURU. Mkhas grub rje excelled in his study of Buddhist logic and philosophy and his collected works contain numerous influential treatises on PRAMĀnA, MADHYAMAKA, and TANTRA (especially the KĀLACAKRA); among his most famous works is the Stong thun skal bzang mig 'byed. At the age of forty-seven, he ascended the golden throne of DGA' LDAN monastery as the institution's abbot, replacing Tsong kha pa's other illustrious student RGYAL TSHAB DAR MA RIN CHEN (see DGA' LDAN KHRI PA). Mkhas grub rje was recognized posthumously as being first in the line of PAn CHEN LAMA incarnations. Mkhas grub rje is commonly depicted in paintings and statues called rje yab sras gsum, "the triumvirate of the foremost father and his [two] sons," showing Tsong kha pa flanked by Rgyal tshab and Mkhas grub. Here Mkhas grub can often be distinguished from Rgyal tshab by his younger visage and darker hair, and by his wild eyes, said to have been a result of his tantric practice.

MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ (no. 1564)

Mulamadhyamakakārikā. (T. Dbu ma rtsa ba'i tshig le'u byas pa; C. Zhong lun; J. Churon; K. Chung non 中論). In Sanskrit, "Root Verses on the Middle Way"; the magnum opus of the second-century Indian master NĀGĀRJUNA; also known as the PrajNānāmamulamadhyamakakārikā and the Madhyamakasāstra. (The Chinese analogue of this text is the Zhong lun, which renders the title as MADHYAMAKAsĀSTRA. This Chinese version was edited and translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA. Kumārajīva's edition, however, includes not only Nāgārjuna's verses but also Pingala's commentary to the verses.) The most widely cited and commented upon of Nāgārjuna's works in India, the Mulamadhyamakakārikā, was the subject of detailed commentaries by such figures as BUDDHAPĀLITA, BHĀVAVIVEKA, and CANDRAKĪRTI (with Candrakīrti's critique of Bhāvaviveka's criticism of a passage in Buddhapālita's commentary providing the locus classicus for the later Tibetan division of MADHYAMAKA into *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA). In East Asia, it was one of the three basic texts of the "Three Treatises" school (C. SAN LUN ZONG), and was central to TIANTAI philosophy. Although lost in the original Sanskrit as an independent work, the entire work is preserved within the Sanskrit text of Candrakīrti's commentary, the PRASANNAPADĀ (serving as one reason for the influence of Candrakīrti's commentary in the European reception of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā). The work is composed of 448 verses in twenty-seven chapters. The topics of the chapters (as provided by Candrakīrti) are the analysis of: (1) conditions (PRATYAYA), (2) motion, (3) the eye and the other sense faculties (INDRIYA), (4) aggregates (SKANDHA), (5) elements (DHĀTU), (6) passion and the passionate, (7) the conditioned (in the sense of production, abiding, disintegration), (8) action and agent, (9) prior existence, (10) fire and fuel, (11) the past and future limits of SAMSĀRA, (12) suffering, (13) the conditioned (SAMSKĀRA), (14) contact (saMsarga), (15) intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA), (16) bondage and liberation, (17) action and effect, (18) self, (19) time, (20) assemblage (sāmagrī), (21) arising and dissolving, (22) the TATHĀGATA, (23) error, (24) the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, (25) NIRVĀnA, (26), the twelve links of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and (27) views. The tone of the work is set in its famous homage to the Buddha, which opens the work, "I bow down to the perfect Buddha, the best of teachers, who taught that what is dependently arisen is without cessation, without production, without annihilation, without permanence, without coming, without going, without difference, without sameness, pacified of elaboration, at peace." The Mulamadhyamakakārikā offers a relentless examination of many of the most important categories of Buddhist thought, subjecting them to an analysis that reveals the absurd consequences that follow from imagining any of them to be real in the sense of possessing an independent and intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). Nāgārjuna demonstrates repeatedly that these various categories only exist relationally and only function heuristically in a worldly and transactional sense; they do not exist ultimately. Thus, in the first chapter, Nāgārjuna examines production via causes and conditions, one of the hallmarks of Buddhist thought, and declares that a thing is not produced from itself, from something other than itself, from something that is both itself and other, or from something that is neither itself nor the other. He examines the four kinds of conditions, declaring each to lack an intrinsic nature, such that they do not exist because they do not produce anything. In the second chapter, Nāgārjuna examines motion, seeking to determine precisely where motion occurs: on the path already traversed, the path being traversed, or on the path not yet traversed. He concludes that motion is not to be found on any of these three. In the twenty-fifth chapter, he subjects nirvāna to a similar analysis, finding it to be neither existent, nonexistent, both existent and nonexistent, nor neither existent nor nonexistent. (These are the famous CATUsKOtI, the "four alternatives," or tetralemma.) Therefore, nirvāna, like saMsāra and all worldly phenomena, is empty of intrinsic nature, leading Nāgārjuna to declare (at XXV.19), in one of his most famous and widely misinterpreted statements, that there is not the slightest difference between saMsāra and nirvāna. The thoroughgoing negative critique or apophasis in which Nāgārjuna engages leads to charges of nihilism, charges that he faces directly in the text, especially in the twenty-fourth chapter on the four noble truths where he introduces the topic of the two truths (SATYADVAYA)-ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA)-declaring the importance of both in understanding correctly the doctrine of the Buddha. Also in this chapter, he discusses the danger of misunderstanding emptiness (suNYATĀ), and the relation between emptiness and dependent origination ("That which is dependent origination we explain as emptiness. This is a dependent designation; just this is the middle path"). To those who would object that emptiness renders causation and change impossible, he counters that if things existed independently and intrinsically, there could be no transformation; "for whom emptiness is possible, everything is possible." There has been considerable scholarly discussion of Nāgārjuna's target audience for this work, with the consensus being that it is intended for Buddhist monks well versed in ABHIDHARMA literature, especially that associated with the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school; many of the categories to which Nāgārjuna subjects his critique are derived from this school. In the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma, these categories and factors (DHARMA) are posited to be endowed with a certain reality, a reality that Nāgārjuna sees as implying permanence, independence, and autonomy. He seeks to reveal the absurd consequences and hence the impossibility of the substantial existence of these categories and factors. Through his critique, he seeks a new understanding of these fundamental tenets of Buddhist philosophy in light of the doctrine of emptiness as set forth in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs. He does not cite these sutras directly, however, nor does he mention the MAHĀYĀNA, which he extols regularly in other of his works. Instead, he seeks to demonstrate how the central Buddhist doctrine of causation, expressed as dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), necessarily entails emptiness (sunyatā). The understanding of emptiness is essential in order to abandon false views (MITHYĀDṚstI). Nāgārjuna therefore sees his purpose not to reject the standard categories of Buddhist thought but to reinterpret them in such a way that they become conduits for, rather than impediments to, liberation from suffering, in keeping with the Buddha's intent.

Mulapariyāyasutta. (C. Xiang jing; J. Sokyo; K. Sang kyong 想經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Root Instruction" or the "Roots of Phenomena"; the first sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (an untitled recension of uncertain affiliation appears in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARĀGAMA; there is also a related SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension that appears as the 102nd SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA). Preached to a gathering of monks in Ukkatthā, the Buddha explains the basis of all phenomena under twenty-four categories (e.g., the four material elements, the heavens, sensory cognition, etc.), noting that the nature of these phenomena is truly knowable only by a TATHĀGATA. The Buddha describes the different cognitive capacities of four types of persons: ordinary worldlings (PṚTHAGJANA), disciples engaged in higher training, worthy ones (ARHAT), and perfect buddhas (SAMYAKSAMBUDDHA).

Nāgārjuna. (T. Klu sgrub; C. Longshu; J. Ryuju; K. Yongsu 龍樹). Indian Buddhist philosopher traditionally regarded as the founder of the MADHYAMAKA [alt. Mādhyamika] school of MAHĀYĀNA Buddhist philosophy. Very little can be said concerning his life; scholars generally place him in South India during the second century CE. Traditional accounts state that he lived four hundred years after the Buddha's PARINIRVĀnA. Some traditional biographies also state that he lived for six hundred years, apparently attempting to identify him with a later Nāgārjuna known for his tantric writings. Two of the works attributed to Nāgārjuna, the RATNĀVALĪ and the SUHṚLLEKHA, are verses of advice to a king, suggesting that he may have achieved some fame during his lifetime. His birth is "prophesied" in a number of works, including the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA. Other sources indicate that he also served as abbot of a monastery. He appears to have been the teacher of ĀRYADEVA, and his works served as the subject of numerous commentaries in India, East Asia, and Tibet. Although Nāgārjuna is best known in the West for his writings on emptiness (suNYATĀ), especially as set forth in his most famous work, the "Verses on the Middle Way" (MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, also known as the MADHYAMAKAsĀSTRA), Nāgārjuna was the author of a number of works (even when questions of attribution are taken into account) on a range of topics, and it is through a broad assessment of these works that an understanding of his thought is best gained. He wrote as a Buddhist monk and as a proponent of the Mahāyāna; in several of his works he defends the Mahāyāna sutras as being BUDDHAVACANA. He compiled an anthology of passages from sixty-eight sutras entitled the "Compendium of Sutras" (SuTRASAMUCCAYA), the majority of which are Mahāyāna sutras; this work provides a useful index for scholars in determining which sutras were extant during his lifetime. Among the Mahāyāna sutras, Nāgārjuna is particularly associated with the "perfection of wisdom" (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) corpus. According to legend, Nāgārjuna retrieved from the Dragon King's palace at the bottom of the sea the "Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines" (sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA), which the Buddha had entrusted to the undersea king of the NĀGAs for safekeeping. He also composed hymns of praise to the Buddha, such as the CATUḤSTAVA, and expositions of Buddhist ethical practice, such as the Ratnāvalī. (Later exegetes classify his works into a YUKTIKĀYA, or "logical corpus," and a STAVAKĀYA, or "devotional corpus.") Nāgārjuna's works are addressed to a variety of audiences. His philosophical texts are sometimes directed against logicians of non-Buddhist schools, but most often offer a critique of the doctrines and assumptions of Buddhist ABHIDHARMA schools, especially the SARVĀSTIVĀDA. Other works are more general expositions of Buddhist practice, directed sometimes to monastic audiences, sometimes to lay audiences. An overriding theme in his works is the bodhisattva's path to buddhahood, and the merit (PUnYA) and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) that the bodhisattva must accumulate over the course of that path in order to achieve enlightenment. By wisdom here, he means the perfection of wisdom (prajNāpāramitā), declared in the sutras to be the knowledge of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Nāgārjuna is credited with rendering the poetic and sometimes paradoxical declarations concerning emptiness that appear in these and other Mahāyāna sutras into a coherent philosophical system. In his first sermon, the DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA, the Buddha had prescribed a "middle way" between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Nāgārjuna, citing an early sutra, spoke of a middle way between the extremes of existence and nonexistence, sometimes also referred to as the middle way between the extremes of permanence (sĀsVATĀNTA) and annihilation (UCCHEDĀNTA). For Nāgārjuna, the ignorance (AVIDYĀ) that is the source of all suffering is the belief in SVABHĀVA, a term that literally means "own being" and has been variously rendered as "intrinsic existence" and "self-nature." This belief is the mistaken view that things exist autonomously, independently, and permanently; to hold this belief is to fall into the extreme of permanence. It is equally mistaken, however, to hold that nothing exists; this is the extreme of annihilation. Emptiness, which for Nāgārjuna is the true nature of reality, is not the absence of existence, but the absence of self-existence, viz., the absence of svabhāva. Nāgārjuna devotes his Mulamadhyamakakārikā to a thoroughgoing analysis of a wide range of topics (in twenty-seven chapters and 448 verses), including the Buddha, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, and NIRVĀnA, to demonstrate that each lacks the autonomy and independence that are mistakenly ascribed to it. His approach generally is to consider the various ways in which a given entity could exist, and then demonstrate that none of these is tenable because of the absurdities that would be entailed thereby, a form of reasoning often described in Western writings as reductio ad absurdum. In the case of something that is regarded to be the effect of a cause, he shows that the effect cannot be produced from itself (because an effect is the product of a cause), from something other than itself (because there must be a link between cause and effect), from something that is both the same as and different from itself (because the former two options are not possible), or from something that is neither the same as nor different from itself (because no such thing exists). This, in his view, is what is meant in the perfection of wisdom sutras when they state that all phenomena are "unproduced" (ANUTPĀDA). The purpose of such an analysis is to destroy misconceptions (VIKALPA) and encourage the abandonment of all views (DṚstI). Nāgārjuna defined emptiness in terms of the doctrine of PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA, or "dependent origination," understood in its more generic sense as the fact that things are not self-arisen, but are produced in dependence on causes and conditions. This definition allows Nāgārjuna to avoid the claim of nihilism, which he addresses directly in his writings and which his followers would confront over the centuries. Nāgārjuna employs the doctrine of the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA), explaining that everything that exists is ultimately empty of any intrinsic nature but does exist conventionally. The conventional is the necessary means for understanding the ultimate, and the ultimate makes the conventional possible. As Nāgārjuna wrote, "For whom emptiness is possible, everything is possible."

nairātmya. (T. bdag med; C. wuwo; J. muga; K. mua 無我). In Sanskrit, "selflessness," referring to the absence of a perduring self. It is a later scholastic term synonymous with the canonical term ANĀTMAN, lit., "nonself"; here, the same notion is turned into an abstract noun, nairātmya, hence "selflessness." This translation should not be understood in its common English meaning as a personality trait that is the opposite of selfishness. Nairātmya instead is used philosophically to refer to the quality of an absence of self. The major Buddhist philosophical schools of India differ on the precise meaning of this selflessness, based on how they define "self" (ĀTMAN). They would all agree, however, that an understanding of nairātmya is the central insight of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA) leading to liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Two types of nairātmya are distinguished, based on what it is that lacks self. The first is called the selflessness of persons (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA), which refers to the absence of a permanent and autonomous entity among the aggregates of mind and body (NĀMARuPA) that transmigrates from lifetime to lifetime. The second type of nairātmya is called the selflessness of phenomena (i.e., phenomena other than persons), or DHARMANAIRĀTMYA, which refers to the absence of any kind of enduring element in the factors that make up the universe. Nairātmya is used in both HĪNAYĀNA and MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools but receives particular emphasis in the Mahāyāna. In the MADHYAMAKA school, e.g., the selflessness of phenomena is defined as the absence of intrinsic nature, or SVABHĀVA; see NIḤSVABHĀVA. ¶ Nairātmyā (T. Bdag med ma; C. Wuwomu), or "Selfless," is also the name of the consort of HEVAJRA. In the HEVAJRATANTRA, she represents the overcoming of wrath.

naivasaMjNānāsaMjNāyatana. (P. nevasaNNānāsaNNāyatana; T. 'du shes med 'du shes med min skye mched; C. feixiang feifeixiang chu; J. hisohihisojo; K. pisang pibisang ch'o 非想非非想處). In Sanskrit, "sphere of neither perception nor nonperception," the fourth and highest of the four levels of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) and the fourth of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). It surpasses the first three levels of the immaterial realm, viz., infinite space (AKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), infinite consciousness (VIJNĀNĀNANTYĀYATANA), and nothingness (ĀKINCANYĀYATANA), respectively. It is a realm of rebirth and a meditative state that is entirely immaterial (viz., there is no physical or material [RuPA] component to existence) in which perception of all mundane things vanishes entirely, but perception itself does not. Beings reborn in this realm are thought to live as long as eighty thousand eons (KALPA). However, as a state of being that is still subject to rebirth, even the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception remains part of SAMSĀRA. Like the other levels of both the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm, one is reborn in this state by achieving the specific level of meditative absorption associated with that state in the previous lifetime. One of the most famous and influential expositions on the subject of these immaterial states comes from the VISUDDHIMAGGA of BUDDHAGHOSA, written in the fifth century. Although there are numerous accounts of Buddhist meditators achieving immaterial states of SAMĀDHI, they are also used polemically in Buddhist literature to describe the attainments of non-Buddhist YOGINs, who mistakenly identify these exalted, but still impermanent, states of existence as the permanent liberation from rebirth. See also DHYĀNASAMĀPATTI; DHYĀNOPAPATTI.

Nālandā. (T. Na len dra; C. Nalantuosi; J. Narandaji; K. Narandasa 那爛陀寺). A great monastic university, located a few miles north of RĀJAGṚHA, in what is today the Indian state of Bihar. It was the most famous of the Buddhist monastic universities of India. During the Buddha's time, Nālandā was a flourishing town that he often visited on his peregrinations. It was also frequented by MAHĀVĪRA, the leader of the JAINA mendicants. According to XUANZANG (whose account is confirmed by a seal discovered at the site), the monastery at Nālandā was founded by King sakrāditya of MAGADHA, who is sometimes identified as the fifth-century ruler Kumāragupta I (r. 415-455). It flourished between the sixth and twelfth centuries CE under Gupta and Pāla patronage. According to Tibetan histories, many of the greatest MAHĀYĀNA scholars, including ASAnGA, VASUBANDHU, DHARMAKĪRTI, DHARMAPĀLA, sĪLABHADRA, and sĀNTIDEVA, lived and taught at Nālandā. Several MADHYAMAKA scholars, including CANDRAKĪRTI, are also said to have taught there. At its height, Nālandā was a large and impressive complex of monasteries that had as many as ten thousand students and fifteen hundred teachers in residence. During the reign of Harsa, it was supported by a hundred neighboring villages, each with two hundred households providing rice, butter, and milk to sustain the community of monastic scholars and students. The library, which included a nine-story structure, is said to have contained hundreds of thousands of manuscripts. The university had an extensive curriculum, with instruction offered in the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, SAUTRĀNTIKA, YOGĀCARA, and MADHYAMAKA, the Vedas and Hindu philosophical schools, as well as mathematics, grammar, logic, and medicine. Nālandā attracted students from across Asia, including the Chinese pilgrims YIJING and Xuanzang, who provided detailed reports of their visits. Both monks were impressed by the strict monastic discipline that was observed at Nālandā, with Xuanzang reporting that no monk had been expelled for a violation of the VINAYA in seven hundred years. In the eleventh century, NĀROPA held a senior teaching position at Nālandā, until he left in search of his teacher TILOPA. In 1192, Nālandā was sacked by Turkic troops under the command of Bakhtiyar Khilji, who may have mistaken it for a fortress; the library was burned, with the thousands of manuscripts smoldering for months. The monastery had been largely abandoned by the time of a Tibetan pilgrim's visit in 1235 CE, although it seems to have survived in some form until around 1400. Archaeological excavations began at Nālandā in the early twentieth century and have continued since, unearthing monasteries and monastic cells, as well as significant works of art in stone, bronze, and stucco.

Nānaponika Mahāthera. (1901-1994). A distinguished German THERAVĀDA monk and scholar. Born Siegmund Feniger to a Jewish family in Hanau am Main, Germany, he first developed an interest in Buddhism through readings in his youth. His family moved to Berlin in 1922, where he met like-minded students of Buddhism and later formed a Buddhist study circle in the city of Konigsberg. He traveled to Sri Lanka in 1936 for further study and to escape Nazi persecution. That same year, he received lower ordination (P. pabbajjā; cf. S. PRAVRAJITA) as a novice (P. sāmanera; S. sRĀMAnERA) under the German scholar-monk NĀnATILOKA at his Island Hermitage in Dodunduwa. He took higher ordination (UPASAMPADĀ) as a monk (P. bhikkhu; S. BHIKsU) in 1937. During World War II, he was interned by the British at Dehra Dun along with with other German nationals, including Heinrich Harrer (who would escape to spend seven years in Tibet) and LAMA ANAGARIKA GOVINDA. After the war, he traveled to Burma with Nānatiloka to participate in the sixth Buddhist council (see COUNCIL, SIXTH) that was held in Rangoon (Yangon). Nānaponika was a delegate to several WORLD FELLOWSHIP OF BUDDHISTS conferences convened at Rangoon, Bangkok, and Phnom Penh, and served as vice-president of the organization in 1952. He resided at the Forest Hermitage in Kandy from 1958 to 1984. Nānaponika was the founding editor of the Buddhist Publication Society and served as its president till 1988. An energetic teacher and prolific writer, his books include the influential The Heart of Buddhist Meditation and Abhidhamma Studies. For his many contributions and accomplishments, Nānaponika was honored as one of four "Great Mentors, Ornaments of the Teaching" (mahāmahopadhyāyasāsanasobhana) in the AMARAPURA NIKĀYA, the monastic fraternity to which he belonged. He was for several decades the most senior Western Theravāda monk in the world, having completed his fifty-seventh rains retreat as a monk by the time of his death in 1994.

Nanquan Puyuan. (J. Nansen Fugan; K. Namch'on Powon 南泉普願) (748-834). Chinese CHAN master in the HONGZHOU ZONG; a native of Xinzheng in present-day Henan province. In 777, Nanquan received the full monastic precepts from a certain VINAYA master Hao (d.u.) at the nearby monastery of Huishansi in Songyue. Along with studying such important MAHĀYĀNA scriptures as the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and AVATAMSAKASuTRA, Nanquan also explored the major texts of the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA school of Buddhist philosophy. He later became the disciple of the eminent Chan master MAZU DAOYI (709-788) and eventually one of his dharma successors. In 795, he began his long-time residence on Mt. Nanquan in Chiyang (present-day Anhui province), whence he acquired his toponym. He remained on the mountain for thirty years, where he devoted himself to teaching his students. Among his immediate disciples, ZHAOZHOU CONGSHEN (778-897) is most famous. Nanquan is renowned for his enigmatic sayings and antinomian behavior. Many of his noteworthy conversations with other masters are quoted in public case collections, such as the BIYAN LU and CONGRONG LU. Nanquan's teaching style is perhaps best captured in the (in)famous public case (GONG'AN) "Nanquan cuts the cat in two" (case no. 63 of the Biyan lu, case no. 14 in the WUMENGUAN). Monks from the eastern and western wings of the monastery were arguing over possession of a cat. Nanquan grabbed the cat and told the monks, "If anyone can say something to the point, you will save this cat's life; if not, I will kill it." No one replied, so Nanquan cut the cat in two. In the following gong'an in the Biyan lu (case no. 64), his disciple Zhaozhou Congshen returned to the monastery and heard the story. He immediately took off his straw sandals, placed them on his head, and walked away. Nanquan remarked, "If you had been here a moment ago, you could have saved that cat's life."

Nara Buddhism, Six Schools of. A traditional grouping of six major scholastic schools of Japanese Buddhism active during the Nara period (710-794 CE): (1) Sanronshu (see SAN LUN ZONG), an East Asian counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA school; (2) Kegonshu (see HUAYAN ZONG), an East Asian exegetical tradition focused on the AVATAMSAKASuTRA; (3) RISSHu, or VINAYA exegesis; (4) Jojitsushu (see CHENGSHI LUN) the TATTVASIDDHI exegetical tradition; (5) Hossoshu (see FAXIANG ZONG), an East Asian strand of YOGĀCĀRA; and (6) Kushashu, focused on ABHIDHARMA exegesis using the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA. These six schools are presumed to have been founded during the initial phase of Buddhism's introduction into Japan, between c. 552 and the end of the Nara period in 794. These learned schools were eventually supplanted by the practice and meditative schools of TENDAISHu and SHINGONSHu, which were introduced during the succeeding Heian period (794-1185), and the later schools of the ZENSHu, the pure land schools of JoDOSHu and JoDO SHINSHu, and NICHIRENSHu of the Kamakura period (1185-1333).

Niepan zong. (J. Nehanshu; K. Yolban chong 涅槃宗). In Chinese, "Nirvāna tradition," an eclectic Chinese lineage of scholiasts who dedicated themselves to exegesis and dissemination of the MAHĀYĀNA recension of the MAHĀPARNIRVĀnASuTRA ("Nirvāna Sutra"). The Niepan zong did not exist in any formal sense; the term is instead used to designate a group of exegetes with analogous intellectual interests. Foremost among these exegetes is DAOSHENG (355-434), a member of KUMĀRAJĪVA's (343-413) translation team in Chang'an, whose views are emblematic of teachers in this lineage. Daosheng was strongly critical of statements appearing in the first Chinese translation of the Mahāparnirvānasutra, made in 418 by FAXIAN and BUDDHABHADRA, which asserted that all sentient beings except the incorrigibles (ICCHANTIKA) are endowed with the buddha-nature (FOXING). Daosheng opposed this view, which at the time had the authority of received scripture; instead, he made the radical claim that even icchantikas must also retain the capacity eventually to attain enlightenment, thus calling into question the accuracy of these two eminent monks' scriptural edition. DHARMAKsEMA's new translation of the text four years later did not include the controversial statement and thus vindicated Daosheng's position. Daosheng also explored the soteriological implications of the buddha-nature doctrine in the Mahāparnirvānasutra. If the buddha-nature were inherent in all sentient beings, as the scripture claimed, then enlightenment was not something that would unfold through the mastery of a gradual series of steps, but would instead be experienced in a sudden moment of insight-a "re-cognition" of the enlightenment that has always been present. Hence, Daosheng claimed, buddhahood is in fact attained instantaneously (see DUNWU), not progessively. This position initiated an extended examination within East Asian Buddhism of sudden versus gradual theories of enlightenment that played out in many of the mature traditions, including the TIANTAI ZONG, HUAYAN ZONG, and CHAN ZONG. The teachings of the Niepan zong were also influential in promoting Chinese Buddhism's turn away from "apophatic" forms of discourse emblematic of MADHYAMAKA styles of argumentation, to the more "kataphatic" or positive forms of discourse that are typical of the later indigenous schools, including Tiantai, Huayan, and Chan. Following Daosheng, his disciple Daolang (d.u.) in his Niepan jing yishu ("Commentary to the 'Nirvāna Sutra'") postulated congruencies between the buddha-nature and emptiness (suNYATĀ), which suggested how the seemingly "apophatic" notion of emptiness found in Indian materials could actually serve as a dynamic force revealing the truth that underlies all conventional existence in the world. Still other Niepan zong exegetes devoted themselves to the text of the Mahāparnirvānasutra itself, producing a new edition of the scripture known as the Southern Edition (Nanben), which collated the two earlier renderings and restructured the chapter headings. By the beginning of the Tang dynasty, the tradition of Mahāparnirvānasutra exegesis had become moribund, and its intellectual concerns were subsumed into the Tiantai zong, which derived much of its teachings from the "Nirvāna Sutra" and the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra").

niḥsvabhāva. (T. rang bzhin med pa; C. wuzixing/wuxing; J. mujisho/musho; K. mujasong/musong 無自性/無性). In Sanskrit, lit., "lack of self-nature," "absence of intrinsic existence." According to the MADHYAMAKA school, the fundamental ignorance that is the root of all suffering is the misconception that persons and phenomena possess an independent, autonomous, and intrinsic identity, called SVABHĀVA, lit., "self-nature" or "own-nature." Wisdom is the insight that not only persons, but in fact all phenomena, lack such a nature. This absence of self-nature, or niḥsvabhāva, is the ultimate nature of reality and of all persons and phenomena in the universe. It is a synonym for emptiness (suNYATĀ). The Madhyamaka school is sometimes referred to as the niḥsvabhāvavāda, "proponents of the lack of intrinsic existence." The term also figures prominently in the YOGĀCĀRA school and its doctrine of the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA) as set forth in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, where each of the three natures is described as having a different type of absence of self-nature (triniḥsvabhāva). Thus, the imaginary (PARIKALPITA) is said to lack intrinsic nature, because it lacks defining characteristics (laksananiḥsvabhāvatā). The dependent (PARATANTRA) is said to lack production (utpattiniḥsvabhāvatā), because it is not independently produced. The consummate (PARINIsPANNA) is said to be the ultimate lack of nature (paramārthaniḥsvabhāvatā) in the sense that it is the absence of all differences between subject and object. See also NAIRĀTMYA; ANĀTMAN.

nirodhasamāpatti. (T. 'gog pa'i snyoms 'jug; C. miejin ding; J. metsujinjo; K. myolchin chong 滅盡定). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "equipoise of cessation," also known as "the cessation of perception and sensation" (SAMJNĀVEDAYITANIRODHA). Nirodhasamāpatti constitutes the ninth and highest level of meditative attainment in the mainstream Buddhist schools, achieved after the fourth meditative absorption of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) and thus transcending the four subtle-materiality absorptions (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and four immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). Nirodhasamāpatti engenders a state of suspended animation: the meditator remains alive, but all physical and mental activities cease for a fixed, but temporary, period of time. There is a great deal of discussion of this state in the ABHIDHARMA literatures, especially concerning the process by which the meditator returns to consciousness at the conclusion of the equipoise of cessation. Many stories are also told in the literature of monks in the state of nirodhasamāpatti who remain impervious to the dangers of raging conflagrations or passing tigers. Because even mentality (CITTA) is temporarily absent in this state, nirodhasamāpatti is classified as a "conditioned force dissociated from thought" (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA) in both the VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, and in the hundred-dharmas (BAIFA) classification of the YOGĀCĀRA school. In Yogācāra schools that accept the storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA), all consciousness, including the KLIstAMANAS, stops in nirodhasamāpatti; it is only the presence of the ālayavijNāna that keeps the meditator alive.

nirvāna. (P. nibbāna; T. mya ngan las 'das pa; C. niepan; J. nehan; K. yolban 涅槃). In Sanskrit, "extinction"; the earliest and most common term describing the soteriological goal of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA). Its etymology and meaning have been widely discussed by both traditional exegetes and modern scholars. Nirvāna is commonly interpreted as meaning "blowing out" (from the Sanskrit root √vā, "to blow," plus the prefix nir-, "out"), as "when a flame is blown out by the wind," to use the famous metaphor from the AttHAKAVAGGA, and is thus sometimes glossed as the extinction of the flame of desire (RĀGA) or, more broadly, to the extinction of the "three poisons" (TRIVIsA) or primary afflictions (KLEsA) of greed/sensuality (RĀGA or LOBHA), hatred/aversion (DVEsA), and delusion/ignorance (MOHA). In a more technical sense, nirvāna is interpreted as the cessation of the afflictions (klesa), of the actions (KARMAN) produced by these afflictions, and eventually of the mind and body (NĀMARuPA; SKANDHA) produced by karman, such that rebirth (SAMSĀRA) ceases for the person who has completed the path. In the first sermon after his enlightenment, "Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma" (P. DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA; S. DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA), the Buddha outlines the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni), the third of which was the "truth of cessation" (NIRODHASATYA). This state of the cessation of suffering (DUḤKHA) and its causes (SAMUDAYA) is glossed as nirvāna. In one famous description of nirvāna, the Buddha explained, "There is that plane (ĀYATANA) where there is neither earth, water, fire, nor air [viz., the four MAHĀBHuTA], neither the sphere of infinite space [ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA] ... nor the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception [NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA], neither this world nor another nor both together, neither the sun nor the moon. Here, O monks, I say that there is no coming or going, no staying, no passing away or arising. It is not something fixed, it moves not on, it is not based on anything. This is indeed the end of suffering." Even though this is a thoroughly negative description of nirvāna, it is important to note that the passage opens with the certitude that "there is that plane...." Whether this state of cessation represents a form of "annihilation" is a question that preoccupied early scholarship on Buddhism. The Buddha described human existence as qualified by various forms of suffering, sought a state that would transcend such suffering, and determined that, in order to put an end to suffering, one must destroy its causes: unwholesome (AKUsALA) actions (karman) and the negative afflictions (klesa) that motivate them. If these causes could be destroyed, they would no longer have any effect, resulting in the cessation of suffering and thus nirvāna. Nirvāna, therefore, was not regarded as a place or state of existence, since by definition that would mean it was part of saMsāra and thus subject to impermanence and suffering. Nirvāna is instead an absence, and it is often described in rigidly apophatic terms, as in the passage above, as if by describing what nirvāna was not, at least some sense of what it is could be conveyed. When the tradition attempts more positive descriptions, nirvāna is sometimes described as deathless (AMṚTA), imperishable (acyuta), uncreated (abhuta), peace (upasama), bliss (SUKHA), etc. The concept of nirvāna may be somewhat more accessible if it is approached soteriologically, as the culmination of the Buddhist path of practice (mārga). At the upper reaches of the path, the adept must pass through three "gates to liberation" (VIMOKsAMUKHA), which mark the transition from the compounded (SAMSKṚTA) realm of saMsāra to the uncompounded (ASAMSKṚTA) realm of nirvāna. In approaching nirvāna, the adept first passes through the gate of emptiness (suNYATĀ), which reveals that nirvāna is empty of anything associated with a sense of self. Next comes the gate of signlessness (ĀNIMITTA), which reveals that nirvāna has nothing by which it may be perceived. Finally comes the gate of wishlessness (APRAnIHITA), meaning that nirvāna can be achieved only when one no longer has any desire for, or attachment to, nirvāna. Exactly what persisted in the state of nirvāna was the subject of considerable discussion over the history of the tradition. The Buddha is said to have realized nirvāna when he achieved enlightenment at the age of thirty-five, thus eradicating the causes of future rebirth. After this experience, however, he continued to live for another forty-five years, and, upon his death, he entered nirvāna, never to be reborn again. Because of this gap between his initial experience of nirvāna and his final PARINIRVĀnA, the scholastic tradition therefore distinguished between two types of nirvāna. The first type is the "nirvāna with remainder" (SOPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), sometimes interpreted as the "nirvāna associated with the klesas." This is the state of nirvāna achieved prior to death, where the "remainder" refers to the mind and body of this final existence. This is the nirvāna achieved by the Buddha under the BODHI TREE. However, the inertia of the karman that had led to this present life was still operating and would continue to do so until his death. Thus, his mind and body during the remainder of his final lifetime were what was left over after he realized nirvāna. The second type is referred to as the "nirvāna without remainder" (ANUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA or NIRUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), sometimes interpreted as the "nirvāna of the skandhas." This is the nirvāna achieved at death, in which the causes of all future existence have been extinguished, bringing the chain of causation of both the physical form and consciousness to an end and leaving nothing remaining to be reborn. This is also called "final nirvāna" (parinirvāna), and it is what the Buddha achieved at the time of his demise at KUsINAGARĪ. These states were accessible to all adepts who followed the Buddhist path to its conclusion. In the case of the Buddha, some traditions also refer to the third type of nirvāna, the "final nirvāna of the relics" (sarīraparinirvāna), viz., the dissolution of the relics (sARĪRA) of the Buddha at a point in the distant future. According to Buddhist eschatology, there will come a time in the far distant future when the teachings of sĀKYAMUNI Buddha will disappear from the world, and his relics will no longer be honored. At that point, the relics that have been enshrined in reliquaries (STuPA) around the world will be released from their shrines and be magically transported to BODHGAYĀ, where they will reassemble into the resplendent body of the Buddha, who will be seated in the lotus posture under the Bodhi tree, emitting rays of light that illuminate ten thousand world systems. The relics will be worshipped by the divinities (DEVA) one last time and then will burst into flames and disappear into the sky. Until that time, the relics of the Buddha are to be regarded as his living presence, infused with all of his marvelous qualities. With the rise of MAHĀYĀNA, the "nirvāna without remainder" came to be disparaged in some texts as excessively quietistic, and the Buddha's passage into parinirvāna was described as simply a display; the Buddha is instead said to be eternal, inhabiting a place that is neither in saMsāra nor nirvāna and that is referred to as the "unlocated nirvāna" (APRATIstHITANIRVĀnA). The MADHYAMAKA philosopher NĀGĀRJUNA declared that there was not the slightest difference between saMsāra and nirvāna, a statement taken to mean that both are equally empty of any intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA). Madhyamaka texts also refer to a nirvāna that is "intrinsically extinguished" (PRAKṚTIPARINIRVṚTA); this quiescence that is inherent in all phenomena is a synonym of emptiness (suNYATĀ).

nirvikalpajNāna. (T. rnam par mi rtog pa'i ye shes; C. wu fenbie zhi; J. mufunbetsuchi; K. mu punbyol chi 無分別智). In Sanskrit, "nondiscriminative wisdom," "nonconceptual awareness"; the insight that is marked by freedom from the misconception that there is an inherent bifurcation between a perceiving subject (grāhaka) and its perceived objects (grāhya). In the YOGĀCĀRA school, this misconception is called the discrimination of object and subject (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). Overcoming this bifurcation leads to the nondiscriminative wisdom (nirvikalpajNāna), which, in the five-stage path (PANCAMĀRGA) system of the Yogācāra school, marks the inception of the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA), where the adept sees reality directly, without the intercession of concepts, and realizes the inherent unity of objects and cognition (jNeya-jNāna). The MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA explains that nirvikalpajNāna has as its nature the following five types of absences: (1) the absence of inattention (amanasikāra), such as occurs during sleep, (2) the absence of discursive thought (VITARKA) and sustained consideration (VICĀRA), (3) the quiescence of the cessation of perception and feeling (SAMJNĀVEDAYITANIRODHA), (4) the absence of materiality (RuPA), and (5) the absence of analytical investigation regarding truthfulness. These attributes mean that nirvikalpajNāna (1) is not merely a lack of attention; (2) it is not just the second stage of DHYĀNA or higher, where discursive thought (vitarka) and investigation (vicāra) no longer pertain; (3) it is not the "equipoise of cessation" (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI), which no longer includes mind (CITTA) and mental concomitants (CAITTA), because wisdom (JNĀNA) is not possible without mind and its concomitants; (4) it is free from any kind of discrimination; and (5) it cannot be an object of analytical investigation, since it transcends the relationship between the objects in any discursive analysis. This type of wisdom is therefore associated with knowledge (jNāna) that is supramundane (LOKOTTARA) and uncontaminated (ANĀSRAVA). The term nirvikalpajNāna also appears in MADHYAMAKA descriptions of the path (MĀRGA), despite the fact that Madhyamaka does not reject the conventional existence of external objects. Here, the term refers to the nonconceptual realization of emptiness (suNYATĀ) that occurs on the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and above, where reality is directly perceived in an experience in which emptiness and the consciousness that realizes emptiness are said to be like "pure water poured into pure water." See also VIKALPA; TRIVIKALPA.

nisprapaNca. [alt. niḥprapaNca] (P. nippapaNca; T. spros pa dang bral ba; C. buxilun; J. fukeron; K. purhŭiron 不戲論). In Sanskrit, "conceptual nonproliferation" or "absence of superimposition," the transcendent (LOKOTTARA) state of mind that is characteristic of the enlightened noble person (ĀRYA). NisprapaNca refers to the absence of that which is fanciful, imagined, or superfluous, especially in the sense of the absence of a quality that is mistakenly projected onto an object. This false quality is called PRAPANCA, which has the sense of "diffusion" or "expansion," viz., "conceptual proliferation." Such "proliferation" typically takes the form of a chaotic onslaught of thoughts and associations at the conclusion of the apprehension of an object by one of the five sensory consciousnesses. Those thoughts and associations are then objectified, projecting a false reality onto the sense object. Such projections are thus described as operations of ignorance. Reality is free from such elaborations, and wisdom is the state of mind that perceives this reality. The goal of meditation practice is therefore sometimes described as the achievement of a state free from such conceptual proliferation, i.e., nisprapaNca. By systematic attention (YONIsOMANASKĀRA) to the impersonal, conditioned character of sensory experience and through sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA), the tendency to project the notion of a perduring self (ĀTMAN) into the perceptual process is brought to an end. This state of "nonproliferation" frees perception from its subjugation to conceptualization, allowing it to see the things of this world as impersonal causal products that are inevitably impermanent (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANĀTMAN), freeing the mind in turn from the attachment to SAMSĀRA. The precise nature of conceptual nonproliferation is defined differently in the various Indian schools. In the Pāli MILINDAPANHA, NĀGASENA explains to the king that the four fruits of stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA), once-returner (SAKṚDĀGĀMIN), nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN), and ARHAT are in fact nippapaNca. In the YOGĀCĀRA school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, nisprapaNca refers to the absence of the misapprehension of sensory objects as separate from the perceiving consciousness, and in the MADHYAMAKA school it refers to the absence of perceiving objects as endowed with SVABHĀVA.

Niutou Farong. (J. Gozu Hoyu; K. Udu Pobyung 牛頭法融) (594-657). In Chinese, "Oxhead, Dharma Interfusion"; proper name of the founder of an early CHAN school often known in English as the "Oxhead school" (NIUTOU ZONG), after his toponym Niutou (Oxhead). Farong was a native of Yanling in present-day Jiangsu province. Little is known of his early years. He is said to have studied the teachings of MADHYAMAKA and to have spent twenty years in the mountains after his ordination by a certain dharma master Ling (d.u.). In 643, Farong entered the monastery of Youqisi on Mt. Niutou (in present-day Jiangsu province), whence he acquired his toponym. In 647, he gave a public lecture on the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and six years later he lectured on the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA at the monastery of Jianchusi (see BAO'ENSI). The influential treatise JUEGUAN LUN ("Extinguishing Cognition Treatise") is attributed by tradition to BODHIDHARMA, the legendary founder of the Chan school, but it is now generally believed to have been composed by Farong or one of his students. Although Farong's official biography in the XU GAOSENG ZHUAN does not mention this event, later stele inscriptions and Chan genealogical histories (see CHUANDENG LU) report that DAOXIN, the putative fourth patriarch of the Chan school, instructed Farong in the sudden teaching (DUNJIAO); Farong's connections with Daoxin are, however, historically dubious. Some of the more unusual positions Farong took include the notion that even inanimate objects, such as rocks, rivers, and flowers, possess the buddha-nature (FOXING). Farong was also one of the earliest teachers in the Chan school to advocate the nonreliance on conceptual descriptions of Buddhism (see BULI WENZI).

Niutou zong. (J. Gozushu; K. Udu chong 牛頭宗). In Chinese, "Oxhead School"; a lineage of early Chan that traces itself to the Chan master NIUTOU FARONG (594-657), a reputed disciple of the fourth patriarch DAOXIN (580-651), although the connections between the two monks are tenuous. The monk Zhiwei (646-722) is often credited with the actual formation of the Niutou zong as a lineage that could claim independence from both the Northern school (BEI ZONG) and Southern school (NAN ZONG) of Chan. The school was active in the seventh through eighth centuries, but reached its zenith in the third quarter of the eighth century. The school's name is derived from Mt. Niutou (in present-day Jiangsu province), where Farong and his students are said to have taught a form of Chan distinct from that of the other lineages then current in China. The Chan historian GUIFENG ZONGMI characterizes the Niutou school as the "tradition (that believes) all things are to be cut off without support" (minjue wuji zong). The teachings of the Niutou tradition show a strong predilection toward the notion of emptiness (suNYATĀ) and PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, as exemplified in its influential treatise JUEGUAN LUN ("Extinguishing Cognition Treatise"), which uses a series of negative argumentations, derived from MADHYAMAKA antecedents, to open students to an experience of the pure wisdom that transcends all dualities. Oxhead writings also frequently employ a threefold rhetorical structure of an initial question by the teacher, followed by the student's hesitation in how to respond, culminating in understanding; this structure seems to have its antecedents in TIANTAI ZHIYI's teachings of the "three truths" (SANDI) of absolute, conventional, and mean. One of the enduring influences of the Niutou school is on the 780 CE composition of the LIUZU TAN JING ("Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch"), which deploys a similar threefold rheotic in developing its understanding of Chan.

Nivāpasutta. (C. Lieshi jing; J. Ryoshikyo; K. Yopsa kyong 獵師經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Snare," the twenty-fifth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 178th SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to an assembly of monks at the JETAVANA grove in the town of sRĀVASTĪ (P. Sāvatthi). The Buddha speaks of the obstacles that can hinder monks along the path to liberation using a simile of a hunter, his entourage, a green pasture, and four herds of deer being hunted as prey. The hunter represents MĀRA, the personification of evil and death, who seeks to entrap beings in the cycle of rebirth (SAMSĀRA). The hunter's entourage is Māra's hordes. The pastures are the bait of sensual pleasures that Māra uses to ensnare beings, and the four herds of deer are four types of brāhmanas and recluses whom Māra tempts. Progressively deeper levels of soteriological attainment, from the meditative absorptions (P. JHĀNA; S. DHYĀNA) to the extinction of the contaminants (P. ĀSAVAKHAYA; S. ĀSRAVAKsAYA), render one free from Māra's grasp.

nīvarana. [alt. nivarana] (T. sgrib pa; C. gai; J. gai; K. kae 蓋). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "hindrance" or "obstruction," referring specifically to five hindrances to the attainment of the first meditative absorption of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA). Each of these five hindrances specifically obstructs one of the five constituents of absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA) and must therefore be at least temporarily allayed in order for absorption (DHYĀNA) to occur. The five are: (1) "sensual desire" (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders one-pointedness of mind (EKĀGRATĀ); (2) "malice" or "ill will" (VYĀPĀDA), hindering physical rapture (PRĪTI); (3) "sloth and torpor" (STYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering the initial application of thought (VITARKA); (4) "restlessness and worry" (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering mental ease (SUKHA); and (5) "skeptical doubt" (VICIKITSĀ), hindering sustained consideration (VICĀRA). Buddhist sutras and meditation manuals, such as the VISUDDHIMAGGA, provide extensive discussion of various antidotes or counteragents (PRATIPAKsA, see also KAMMAttHĀNA) to these hindrances, such as the contemplation on the decomposition of a corpse (AsUBHABHĀVANĀ) to counter sensual desire; the meditation on loving-kindness (MAITRĪ) to counter malice; the recollection of death to counter sloth and torpor; quietude of mind to counter restlessness and worry; and studying the scriptures to counter skeptical doubt. In addition, the five faculties or dominants (INDRIYA) are also specifically designed to allay the five hindrances: faith (sRADDHĀ) counters malice; effort (VĪRYA) counters sloth and torpor; mindfulness (SMṚTI) counters sensual desire; concentration (SAMĀDHI) counters restlessness and worry; and wisdom (PRAJNĀ) counters skeptical doubt. A similar correlation is made between the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA) and the hindrances. These five hindrances are permanently eliminated at various stages of the noble path (ĀRYAMĀRGA): worry (kaukṛtya) and skeptical doubt are permanently overcome at the point of becoming a stream-enterer (SROTAĀPANNA); sensual desire and malice on becoming a nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN); and sloth and torpor and restlessness (auddhatya) on becoming a worthy one (ARHAT).

Oldenburg, Sergey. (1863-1934). Russian scholar of Buddhism, known especially as the founder of the Bibliotheca Buddhica, based in St. Petersburg. The series, published in thirty volumes between 1897 and 1936, was composed primarily of critical editions (and in some cases translations) by the leading European and Japanese scholars of some of the most important texts of Sanskrit Buddhism, including the sIKsĀSAMUCCAYA, MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, AVADĀNAsATAKA, and ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA. The series also included indexes as well as independent works, such as FYODOR IPPOLITOVICH STCHERBATSKY's Buddhist Logic. In the 1890s, Oldenburg published Sanskrit fragments discovered in Kashgar, and he led Russian expeditions to Central Asia in 1909-1910 and 1914-1915 in search of Buddhist manuscripts and artifacts. His research interests were wide-ranging; he published articles on Buddhist art, on JĀTAKA literature, and on the Mahābhārata in Buddhist literature.

paNcakrama. (T. rim lnga; C. wucidi; J. goshidai; K. och'aje 五次第). In Sanskrit, "five stages," the five stages of the completion stage (NIsPANNAKRAMA) of the ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA path according to the GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA. The five stages are (1) vajra repetition (vajrājāpa), (2) purification of consciousness (cittavisuddhi), (3) self-empowerment (svādhisthāna), (4) enlightenment (abhisaMbodhi), and (5) union (yuganaddha). ¶ PaNcakrama is also the title of a text attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA on the five stages according to the Guhyasamājatantra. Scholars attribute this to the "tantric Nāgārjuna," and not to the MADHYAMAKA master, although, according to the Tibetan tradition, Nāgārjuna lived for six hundred years and thus composed works on tantra. Together with ĀRYADEVA's commentary, the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa, the paNcakrama provides one of the most influential interpretive systems for an anuttarayogatantra cycle.

PaNcaskandhaprakarana. (T. Phung po lnga'i rab tu byed pa; C. Dasheng wuyun lun; J. Daijo gounron; K. Taesŭng oon non 大乘五蘊論). In Sanskrit, "Explanation of the Five Aggregates," the title of two different works. The earliest PaNcaskandhaprakarana is a short work, now lost in the original Sanskrit, by the fourth or fifth century CE Indian master VASUBANDHU. According to tradition, Vasubandhu had both a "HĪNAYĀNA" and a MAHĀYĀNA period, beginning as an adherent of the SAUTRĀNTIKA school of the mainstream Buddhist tradition, before being converted to the Mahāyāna by his half brother ASAnGA. Although his presentation of the five aggregates bears many similarities to that in his ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA (the chief work of his so-called hīnayāna period), this work derives from his Mahāyāna period; it begins with a homage to the bodhisattva MANJUsRĪ and mentions the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. In this work, Vasubandhu seems to be reworking the presentation of the five aggregates found in Asanga's ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA; he also sets forth and criticizes the positions of the MAHĪsĀSAKA, the school in which Asanga was originally trained. ¶ There is also a PaNcaskandhaprakarana by the seventh-century Indian MADHYAMAKA master CANDRAKĪRTI, discussing the factors (DHARMA) categorized under the headings of the five SKANDHA, the twelve ĀYATANA, and the eighteen DHĀTU.

paNcavidyā. (T. rig gnas che ba lnga; C. wuming; J. gomyo; K. omyong 五明). In Sanskrit, the "five sciences"; the five traditional sciences of ancient India, which a bodhisattva is said to have mastery of; also known as the paNcavidyāsthāna. These are sabda, which includes grammar and composition; hetu or logic; cikitsā or medicine; silpakarma, which includes the manual arts; and adhyātmavidyā, the "inner knowledge," which in the case of Buddhism was said to be knowledge of the TRIPItAKA and the twelve categories (AnGA) of the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA).

Panini (Sanskrit) Pāṇini The most eminent of all Sanskrit grammarians of whatever age, the author of the Ashtadhyayi, Paniniya, and several other works. Panini was considered a rishi who received his inspiration from the god Siva. Orientalists are not certain in what epoch he lived, some guessing 600 BC, others about 300 AD; he is said to have been born in Salatura in Gandhara, an Indian district west of the Indus. His grammar is composed in the form of 3,996 slokas or sutras arranged in eight chapters, the aphorisms extremely brief, and long study is often required in order to ascertain Panini’s meanings. Grammar with him was a science studied for its own sake, and investigated with the most minute criticism.

Panthaka. [alt. Mahāpanthaka] (P. Mahāpanthaka; T. Lam chen bstan; C. Bantuojia; J. Hantaka; K. Pant'akka 半託迦). An ARHAT known for his mastery of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYADHYĀNA); according to Pāli sources, the Buddha declared him foremost in the ability to manipulate perception (saNNāvivattakusalānaM). Panthaka was the elder of two brothers born to a merchant's daughter from RĀJAGṚHA who had eloped with a slave. After she became pregnant, she decided to return home to give birth, but the infant was born along the way. This happened again when she gave birth to her second child. Because both he and his younger brother, CudAPANTHAKA, were born along the side of a road, they were given the names, "Greater" and "Lesser" Roadside. The boys were eventually taken to Rājagṛha and raised by their grandparents, who were devoted to the Buddha. Panthaka often accompanied his grandfather to listen to the Buddha's sermons and was inspired to ordain. He proved to be an able monk, skilled in doctrine, and eventually attained arhatship. He later ordained his younger brother Cudapanthaka but was gravely disappointed in his brother's inability to memorize even a single verse of the dharma. He treated Cudapanthaka with such contempt that the Buddha intervened on his behalf, giving the younger brother a simple technique by which he too attained arhatship. ¶ Panthaka is also traditionally listed as tenth of the sixteen ARHAT elders (sOdAsASTHAVIRA), who were charged by the Buddha with protecting his dispensation until the advent of the next buddha, MAITREYA; his younger brother Cudapanthaka is the sixteenth on that list. Panthaka resides in the TRĀYASTRIMsA heaven (the heaven of the thirty-three devas) with 1,300 disciples. Panthaka was good at arithmetic and an expert in chanting and music. When sitting in meditation, Panthaka often sat in half-lotus posture; and after his finished his sitting, he would raise both his hands and take a deep breath. For this reason, he was given the nickname "the Arhat who Reaches Out His Hands" (Tanshou Luohan). In CHANYUE GUANXIU's standard Chinese depiction, Panthaka has placed his sitting-cloth on a rock, where he sits in meditation, with a sash across his shoulders. Holding a scroll in both hands, he appears to be reading a SuTRA.

Parallel with these developments was the growth of Buddhism in China, a story too long to relate here. Many Buddhist doctrines, latent in India, were developed in China. The nihilism of Madhyamika (Sun-lan, c. 450-c. 1000) to the effect that reality is Void in the sense of being "devoid" of any specific character, was brought to fullness, while the idealism of Vijnaptimatravada (Yogacara, Fahsiang, 563-c. 1000), which claimed that reality in its imaginary, dependent and absolute aspects is "representation-only," was pushed to the extreme. But these philosophies failed because their extreme positions were not consonant with the Chinese Ideal of the golden mean. In the meantime, China developed her own Buddhist philosophy consistent with her general philosophical outlook. We need only mention the Hua-yen school (Avatamisaka, 508) which offered a totalistic philosophy of "all in one" and "one in all," the T'ien-t'ai school (c. 550) which believes in the identity of the Void, Transitoriness, and the Mean, and in the "immanence of 3,000 worlds in one moment of thought," and the Chin-t'u school (Pure Land, c. 500) which bases its doctrine of salvation by faith and salvation for all on the philosophy of the universality of Buddha-nature. These schools have persisted because they accepted both noumenon and phenomenon, both ens and non-ens, and this "both-and" spirit is predominantly characteristic of Chinese philosophy.

paramānu. (T. rdul phra rab; C. jiwei; J. gokumi; K. kŭngmi 極微). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "particle" or "atom"; the smallest unit of matter. Buddhist schools take a variety of positions on the ontological status of such atoms, especially as to whether or not they were divisible or indivisible. Both the SAUTRĀNTIKA and the SARVĀSTIVĀDA schools of mainstream Buddhism, for example, held that each paramānu was an indivisible unit of matter, but differed on the exact nature of the objects formed through the coalescence of these particles. By contrast, the MADHYAMAKA school of MAHĀYĀNA philosophy rejected any such notion of particles, since it did not accept that there was anything in the universe that possessed independent existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA), and thus the notion of such atoms was simply a convenient fiction. Numerous Mahāyāna SuTRAs, notably the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, extol the ability of a buddha to place entire world systems within a single particle without changing either's size. These Buddhist debates have parallels within both the JAINA and Hindu traditions. Modern Buddhists have also sought to suggest that apparent parallels between the notion of paramānu and modern atomic theory are evidence that Buddhism is consistent with science.

paramārthabodhicitta. (T. don dam byang chub kyi sems). In Sanskrit, the "ultimate aspiration to enlightenment." In Indian MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature, this term is contrasted with the "conventional aspiration to enlightenment" (SAMVṚTIBODHICITTA). This latter term is used to refer to bodhicitta in its more common usage, as the aspiration to achieve buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. It is the creation of this aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) that marks the beginning of the bodhisattva path and the Mahāyāna path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA). The ultimate aspiration or mind of enlightenment refers to the bodhisattva's direct realization of the ultimate truth. In the case of MADHYAMAKA, this would be the direct realization of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Such realization, and hence the ultimate aspiration to enlightenment, occurs beginning on the Mahayāna path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and is repeated on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA).

Paramārtha. (C. Zhendi; J. Shindai; K. Chinje 眞諦) (499-569). Indian Buddhist monk, translator, and exegete. Paramārtha is said to have been a native of Ujjayinī in western India. Little is known of his early career, but he became renowned in China after arriving at the capital of Jiangang (near present-day Nanjing) and the court of the Liang-dynasty Emperor Wu (r. 502-549) in 546 CE. Under the patronage of Emperor Wu, Paramārtha began translating the many scriptures that he is said to have brought with him from India. After a rebellion took the life of the emperor, Paramārtha headed south, where he continued his translation activities with the support of local rulers. His translations include the SUVARnAPRABHĀSOTTAMASuTRA (552), Suixiang lun zhong shiliu di shu (555-556), Anuttarāsrayasutra (557), MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA (558?), and VIMsATIKĀ (563), among others; the apocryphal DASHENG QIXIN LUN is also said by tradition to have been translated (in 553) by Paramārtha. Another influential anthology attributed to Paramārtha is the Wuxiang lun (consisting of the treatises Zhuanshi lun, San wuxing lun, and Xianshi lun), which posits the existence of an immaculate ninth consciousness known as the AMALAVIJNĀNA and contends that the eighth consciousness, or ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA, is impure. These claims were further developed by his followers in the SHE LUN ZONG exegetical tradition, who based their claims on Paramārtha's influential translation of the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. Paramārtha died in 569 while translating the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA. Among his disciples, Huikai (518-568) and Fatai (d. 601) are most famous.

paramārthasatya. (P. paramatthasacca T. don dam bden pa; C. zhendi/diyiyi di; J. shintai/daiichigitai; K. chinje/cheirŭi che 眞諦/第一義諦). In Sanskrit, "ultimate truth," "absolute truth"; one of the two truths (SATYADVAYA), along with "conventional truth" (SAMVṚTISATYA). A number of etymologies of the term are provided in the commentarial literature, based on the literal meaning of paramārthasatya as "highest-object truth." Thus, an ultimate truth is the highest-object truth because it is the object of wisdom (PRAJNĀ), the highest form of consciousness. It is also the highest-object truth because it is the supreme of all factors (dharma). The term paramārtha is variously defined in the Buddhist philosophical schools but refers in general to phenomena that do not appear falsely when directly perceived and that are the objects of wisdom, that is, those dharmas the understanding of which leads to liberation. Thus, Buddhist philosophical schools do not speak simply of a single "ultimate truth" but of ultimate truths. For example, according to VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, an ultimate truth is anything that cannot be broken into parts, such as particles or atoms (PARAMĀnU), and persists only for the shortest unit of time, an instant (KsAnA). The term paramārtha is especially associated with the MADHYAMAKA school, where the ultimate truth is emptiness (suNYATĀ); the object qualified by emptiness is a conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA).

pāramitā. (P. pāramī; T. pha rol tu phyin pa; C. boluomi; J. haramitsu; K. paramil 波羅蜜). In Sanskrit, "perfection," a virtue or quality developed and practiced by a BODHISATTVA on the path to becoming a buddha. The term is paranomastically glossed by some traditional commentators as "gone beyond" or "gone to the other side" (see PARA), although it seems in fact to derive from Skt. parama, meaning "highest" or "supreme." The best-known enumeration of the perfections is a group of six: giving (DĀNA), morality (sĪLA), patience or forbearance (KsĀNTI), effort (VĪRYA), concentration (DHYĀNA), and wisdom (PRAJNĀ). There are also lists of ten perfections. In the MAHĀYĀNA (specifically in the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA), the list of ten includes the preceding six, to which are added method (UPĀYA), vow (PRAnIDHĀNA), power (BALA), and knowledge (JNĀNA), with the explanation that the bodhisattva practices the perfections in this order on each of the ten bodhisattva stages or grounds (BHuMI). Thus, giving is perfected on the first bhumi, morality on the second, and so on. In Pāli sources, where the perfections are called pāramī, the ten perfections are giving (dāna), morality (sīla), renunciation (nekkhamma; S. NAIsKRAMYA), wisdom (paNNā), effort (viriya), patience (khanti), truthfulness (sacca; S. SATYA), determination (adhitthāna; S. ADHIstHĀNA), loving-kindness (mettā; S. MAITRĪ), and equanimity (upekkhā; S. UPEKsĀ). The practice of these perfections over the course of the many lifetimes of the bodhisattva's path eventually fructifies in the achievement of buddhahood. The precise meaning of the perfections is discussed at length, as is the question of how the six (or ten) are to be divided between the categories of merit (PUnYA) and wisdom (JNĀNA). For example, according to one interpretation of the six perfections, giving, morality, and patience contribute to the collection of merit (PUnYASAMBHĀRA); concentration and wisdom contribute to the collection of wisdom (JNĀNASAMBHĀRA), and effort contributes to both. Commentators also consider what distinguishes the practice of these six from other instances of the practice of giving, etc. Some MADHYAMAKA exegetes, for example, argue that these virtues only become perfections when the bodhisattva engages in them with an understanding of emptiness (suNYATĀ); for example, giving a gift without clinging to any conception of giver, gift, or recipient.

paraprasiddhānumāna. (T. gzhan la grags pa'i rjes dpag). In Sanskrit, lit. "inference familiar to another," a term in Buddhist logic, important especially in the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy. Similar to the case of PARĀRTHĀNUMĀNA ("inference for others"), paraprasiddhānumāna refers not to the mental conclusion or an inference drawn from evidence but rather to a logical argument made to an opponent. In this case, "inference familiar to another" refers to an argument consisting of elements that (1) the person stating the argument does not accept and (2) that the opponent accepts (or does not reject). The argument is stated with the intention of causing the opponent to draw the correct conclusion, that is, a conclusion contrary to his own tenets. It is generally the case in Indian logic that all elements of the syllogism must be accepted by both parties in a debate; such a syllogism is referred to as an "autonomous syllogism" (SVATANTRĀNUMĀNA; SVATANTRAPRAYOGA). This is not the case with the inference familiar to another, in which the elements of the syllogism are accepted only by the opponent. In the Madhyamaka school, there was a controversy over whether such syllogisms were acceptable when a Madhyamaka adherent debated with a proponent of another school. The locus classicus of the controversy is the debate between BHĀVAVIVEKA and CANDRAKĪRTI concerning BUDDHAPĀLITA's commentary on the first chapter of NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. It was Candrakīrti's position that the Madhyamaka should use only consequences (PRASAnGA) or an inference familiar to others; to use an autonomous syllogism implied acceptance of intrinsically established relations among the elements of the syllogism. Bhāvaviveka had argued that it was necessary for the Madhyamaka to state an autonomous syllogism at the conclusion of a debate. Based on this controversy, the terms *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA were coined retrospectively in Tibet to describe later developments within the Indian Madhyamaka school.

Para (Sanskrit) Parā Supreme, the ultimate bound or limit, applied to Vach (mystic speech). Vach is of four kinds: para, pasyanti, madhyama, and vaikhari. Para-vach is the heart and origin of every vaikhari or uttered speech. Para-vach corresponds to Brahman in the cosmos, for the cosmological and cosmogonical significance of Vach very closely approximates the Greek cosmic Logos (cosmic Word).

parikalpita. (T. kun btags; C. bianji suozhi xing; J. henge shoshusho; K. pyon'gye sojip song 遍計所執性). In Sanskrit, "imputed," "imaginary," or "artificial," the first of the three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), a central tenet of the YOGĀCĀRA school, in which all phenomena are classified as having three natures: an imaginary (parikalpita), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIsPANNA) nature. The Yogācāra "mind only" (CITTAMĀTRA) system expounded in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, and the commentaries of ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU asserts that external objects do not exist as materially different entities, separate from the consciousness that perceives them; all ordinary appearances are distorted by subject-object bifurcation (see GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). Forms, sounds, and so on are only seen by ordinary persons in their imaginary (parikalpita) nature. In this system, which denies the existence of external objects, the imaginary refers to the falsely perceived nature of objects as entities that exist separate from the consciousness that perceives them. Karmic seeds (BĪJA), classified as dependent (paratantra), fructify to produce both the perceiving consciousness and the perceived object. However, due to ignorance (AVIDYĀ), subject and object are imagined to be distant from each other, with objects constituting an external world independent of the consciousness that perceives it. The constituents of such an external world are deemed imaginary (parikalpita). The term parikalpita is also used by DHARMAKĪRTI and his Yogācāra followers, who assert that the grāhyagrāhakavikalpa distortion makes objects appear to be naturally the bases of the terms used to designate them although they in fact do not. The SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA describes the parikalpita as lacking the nature of characteristics (laksananiḥsvabhāvatā).

paryudāsapratisedha. (T. ma yin dgag). In Sanskrit, "affirming negative," or "implied negation," a term used in Buddhist logic (HETUVIDYĀ) to refer to a negative declaration or designation (PRATIsEDHA) that is expressed in such a way that it implies something positive. For example, the term "non-cat" implies the existence of something other than a cat. The standard example provided in works on Buddhist logic is: "The corpulent Devadatta does not eat during the day," where the absence of his eating during the day implies that he eats at night. In MADHYAMAKA philosophy, emptiness (suNYATĀ), the nature of reality, is not a paryudāsapratisedha, that is, it does not imply something positive in place of the absence of intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA). See also PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA.

Pasyanti (Sanskrit) Paśyantī One of the four kinds of mystic speech or vach, the other three called para, madhyama, and vaikhari. The pasyanti-form is cosmologically the cosmic Logos first made manifest.

Phywa pa [alt. Cha pa] Chos kyi Seng ge. (Chapa Chokyi Senge) (1109-1169). The sixth abbot of GSANG PHU NE'U THOG, a BKA' GDAMS monastery founded in 1073 by RNGOG LEGS PA'I SHES RAB. Among his students are included the first KARMA PA, DUS GSUM MKHYEN PA and the SA SKYA hierarch BSOD NAMS RTSE MO. His collected works include explanations of MADHYAMAKA and PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ. With his influential Tshad ma'i bsdus pa yid kyi mun sel rtsa 'grel he continued the line of PRAMĀnA scholarship started by RNGOG BLO LDAN SHES RAB, one that would later be challenged by SA SKYA PAndITA. He is credited with originating the distinctively Tibetan BSDUS GRWA genre of textbook (used widely in DGE LUGS monasteries) that introduces beginners to the main topics in abhidharma in a peculiar dialectical form that strings together a chain of consequences linked by a chain of reasons. He also played an important role in the formation of the BSTAN RIM genre of Tibetan Buddhist literature, the forerunner of the more famous LAM RIM.

Pitāputrasamāgamasutra. (T. Yab dang sras mjal ba'i mdo; C. Pusa jianshi jing/Fuzi heji jing; J. Bosatsu kenjitsukyo/Fushi gojukyo; K. Posal kyonsil kyong/Puja hapchip kyong 菩薩見實經/父子合集經). In Sanskrit, "Sutra on the Meeting of Father and Son," a MAHĀYĀNA scripture found in the RATNAKutASuTRA, often cited in MADHYAMAKA texts, especially for its expositions of emptiness (suNYATĀ) and the two truths (SATYADVAYA). It is quoted in such famous works as NĀGĀRJUNA's SuTRASAMUCCAYA and sĀNTIDEVA's sIKsĀSAMUCCAYA. The Pitāputrasamāgamasutra was translated into Chinese by Rajendrayasas in 568 as the Pusa jianshi jing and was included in the massive Dabaoji jing (Ratnakutasutra) compilation. It was subsequently retranslated in the eleventh century by Richeng and others as the Fuzi heji jing.

Potaliyasutta. (C. Buliduo jing; J. Horitakyo; K. P'orida kyong 晡利多經). The "Discourse to Potaliya," the fifty-fourth sutta of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 203rd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to the mendicant (P. paribbājaka, S. PARIVRĀJAKA) Potaliya at a grove in the town of Āpana in the country of the Anguttarāpas. Potaliya had recently left the householder's life to cut off his involvement with the affairs of the world and had taken up the life of itinerant mendicancy. When the Buddha encounters him, Potaliya had not abandoned his ordinary layman's attire, so the Buddha addresses him as "householder," to which the new mendicant takes great offense. The Buddha responds by telling Potaliya that the noble discipline rests on the support of eight abandonments: the abandonment of killing, stealing, lying, maligning others, avarice, spite, anger, and arrogance. The Buddha then enumerates the dangers of sensual pleasure and the benefits of abandoning it. Having thus prepared the ground, the Buddha explains that the noble disciple then attains the three knowledges (P. tevijja, S. TRIVIDYĀ), comprised of (1) recollection of one's own previous existences (P. pubbenivāsānussati, S. PuRVANIVĀSĀNUSMṚTI); (2) the divine eye (P. dibbacakkhu, S. DIVYACAKsUS), the ability to see the demise and rebirth of beings according to their good and evil deeds; and (3) knowledge of the extinction of the contaminants (P. āsavakkhaya, S. ĀSRAVAKsAYA). This, the Buddha explains, is true cutting off of the affairs of the world. Delighted and inspired by the discourse, Potaliya takes refuge in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) and dedicates himself as a lay disciple of the Buddha.

Potthapādasutta. (C. Buzhapolou jing; J. Futabarokyo; K. P'ot'abaru kyong 布婆樓經). In Pāli, "Discourse to Potthapāda," the ninth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a separate DHARMAGUPTAKA recension appears as the twenty-eighth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to the mendicant (P. paribbājaka, S. PARIVRĀJAKA) Potthapāda in a hall erected in Mallika's park in Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha is invited to the hall by Potthapāda to express his opinion on the attainment of the cessation of thought (abhisaNNānirodha). Various theories advocated by other teachers are put to the Buddha, all of which he rejects as unfounded. The Buddha then explains the means by which this attainment can be achieved, beginning with taking refuge in the Buddha, the DHARMA, and the SAMGHA, observing the precepts, renouncing the world to become a Buddhist monk, controlling the senses with mindfulness (P. sati, S. SMṚTI), cultivating the four meditative absorptions (P. JHĀNA, S. DHYĀNA), developing the four formless meditations (P. arupāvacarajhāna, S. ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA), and finally attaining the cessation of thought. Potthapāda then asks about the existence of the soul (ĀTMAN), and whether or not the universe is eternal. The Buddha responds that he holds no opinions on these questions as they neither relate to the holy life (P. brahmacariya; S. BRAHMACARYA) nor lead to NIRVĀnA. Rather, he teaches only the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS of suffering (P. dukkha; S. DUḤKHA), its cause (SAMUDAYA), its cessation (NIRODHA), and the path leading thereto (P. magga, S. MĀRGA). Some days later, Potthapāda approaches the Buddha with his friend CITTA, the elephant trainer's son, and inquires again about the soul. Pleased with the Buddha's response, he becomes a lay disciple. Citta enters the Buddhist order and in due time becomes an arahant (S. ARHAT).

PrajNāpāramitāpindārtha. (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa don bsdus pa). In Sanskrit, "Summary of the Perfection of Wisdom," a commentary on the AstASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ attributed to DIGNĀGA; also known as the PrajNāpāramitāpindārthasaMgraha and the PrajNāpāramitāsaMgrahakārikā. It is a short work in fifty-eight lines, which summarize the perfection of wisdom under thirty-two headings, including the ten misconceptions (VIKALPA) and their antidotes, as well as the sixteen types of emptiness (suNYATĀ). The opening stanza of the text is widely quoted: "The perfection of wisdom is nondual wisdom; it is the TATHĀGATA. That term [is used] for texts and paths because they have that goal." The work provides a YOGĀCĀRA perspective on the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, presenting a more systematic outline of doctrines than is typically found in the diffuse prajNāpāramitā literature. Doctrinally, the work is closely related to the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA. It appears to have been widely known; HARIBHADRA quotes from it five times in his ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRĀLOKĀ. The text was translated into Chinese in 980 and into Tibetan in the eleventh century. There is a commentary on the text, entitled PrajNāpāramitāpindārthasaMgrahavivarana, by Triratnadāsa, a student of VASUBANDHU.

PrajNāpradīpa. (T. Shes rab sgron me; C. Boredeng lun shi; J. Hannyatoron shaku; K. Panyadŭng non sok 般若燈論釋). In Sanskrit, "Lamp of Wisdom," the commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ by the sixth-century master BHĀVAVIVEKA. The "Wisdom" in the title is a reference to Nāgārjuna's text, the full title of which is PrajNānāmamulamadhyamakakārikā. In his commentary on the first chapter of Nāgārjuna's text, Bhāvaviveka criticized the earlier commentary by BUDDHAPĀLITA, saying that it is insufficient simply to employ consequences (PRASAnGA) and that one must also use autonomous syllogisms (SVATANTRĀNUMĀNA). CANDRAKĪRTI, in his own commentary, the PRASANNAPADĀ, came to Buddhapālita's defense and attacked Bhāvaviveka. It is largely based on this exchange that later Tibetan scholars came to categorize Bhāvaviveka as a *SVĀTANTRIKA and Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti as *PRĀSAnGIKA. In addition to its intrinsic interest as a major work of an important Mahāyāna philosopher, Bhāvaviveka's commentary is of historical interest because it makes specific reference to other commentators on Nāgārjuna, as well as the doctrines of various rival schools, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist. The text is lost in Sanskrit but is preserved in Chinese and Tibetan translations and has a lengthy commentary by AVALOKITAVRATA preserved in Tibetan translation.

prajNaptisat. (T. btags yod; C. jiaming you; J. kemyoyu; K. kamyongyu 假名有). In Sanskrit, "imputed existence," a term used by the Buddhist philosophical schools to describe the ontological status of those phenomena that exist as designations, imputations, or conventions. The term is often contrasted with DRAVYASAT, or "substantial existence," a quality of those phenomena that possess a more objective nature. The various school of Buddhist philosophy differ on the meaning and extension of the category of prajNaptisat. The VAIBHĀsIKA school of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA held that the world is composed of indivisible particles of matter and indivisible moment of time, which are dravyasat, and that everything composed of an aggregation of those particles or moments is prajNaptisat. In MADHYAMAKA, all dharmas are prajNaptisat and no dharmas are dravyasat. See PRAJNAPTI; DRAVYASAT.

prajNapti. (T. gdags pa/btags pa; C. jiaming; J. kemyo; K. kamyong 假名). In Sanskrit, "designation," "imputation," or "convention," a term used to describe those things that are not intrinsic, ultimate, or primary, with phenomena whose reality is merely imputed (prajNapti), often contrasted with substantial phenomena (see DRAVYASAT). The various philosophical schools differ in the definition, extent, and deployment of the category, with the MADHYAMAKA arguing that all factors (DHARMA) are merely designations that exist only through imputation (PRAJNAPTISAT), and nothing in the universe, including the Buddha or emptiness (suNYATĀ) exists substantially (dravyasat). However, the fact that conditioned dharmas are mere imputations does not imply that they lack functionality as conventional truths (SAMVṚTISATYA). According to a YOGĀCĀRA explanation in the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), all dharmas are said to have only imputed existence because (1) "dharmas are insubstantial and are contingent on fallacious imagining" (wuti suiqing jia); and (2) "dharmas have real substance but are real only in a provisional sense" (youti shishe jia). The first reason is based on the Yogācāra argument that the diversity, duality, and reality of things are merely mental projections (see PARIKALPITA), and are therefore artificial and imagined, existing only as fallacious conceptions. The second reason is based on the Yogācāra tenet of PARATANTRA, the "dependent nature of things." Accordingly, although things are "real" or "substantial" in that they have viable efficacy and functions, they are ultimately transformations of "activated" karmic "seeds" (BĪJA) stored within the eighth storehouse consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA). They are therefore said to be "dependent" on the consciousness and thus have only a "conditional" nature.

Prakaranapāda[sāstra]. (T. Rab tu byed pa'i rkang pa; C. Pinlei zu lun; J. Honruisokuron; K. P'umnyu chok non 品類足論). In Sanskrit, "Exposition"; a book from the later stratum of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, which is traditionally listed as the first of the six ancillary texts, or "feet" (pāda), of the JNĀNAPRASTHĀNA, the central treatise, or body (sarīra), of the Sarvāstivāda ABHIDHARMAPItAKA. The Prakaranapāda is attributed by tradition to Vasumitra and dates from c. 160 to 320 CE, probably following the compilation of the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ. The treatise is extant only in a complete Chinese translation made by GUnABHADRA and Bodhiyasas between 435 and 443. The Prakaranapāda establishes the definitive Sarvāstivāda categorization of dharmas into a fivefold grouping: materiality (RuPA), mentality (CITTA), mental concomitants (CAITTA or CAITASIKA), conditioned factors dissociated from thought (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA), and uncompounded elements (ASAMSKṚTADHARMA). This fivefold grouping is first employed in the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ, whence it enters the mainstream of the Sarvāstivāda-VAIBHĀsIKA analysis of dharmas and is subsequently adopted by several other Buddhist schools, including the SAUTRĀNTIKA, MADHYAMAKA, and YOGĀCĀRA (see BAIFA). The Prakaranapāda also adds a new listing of KUsALAMAHĀBHuMIKA, or factors always associated with wholesome states of mind. The Prakaranapāda was the first of the pādasāstras to represent the mature synthesis of Sarvāstivāda doctrine, which was followed in later abhidharma manuals and primers. The text therefore represents a transitional point in Sarvāstivāda abhidharma writing between the pādasāstras of the middle period and the commentarial writings of the later tradition.

prakṛtiparinirvṛta. (T. rang bzhin gyis yongs su mya ngan las 'das pa; C. zixing niepan; J. jisho nehan; K. chasong yolban自性涅槃). In Sanskrit, "intrinsically extinguished"; a term used in a phrase common to the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature, in which all phenomena in the universe are described as being "unproduced (anutpanna, see ANUTPĀDA), unceasing (aniruddha), primordially at peace (ādisānta), and intrinsically fully extinguished (prakṛtiparinirvṛta)." It refers to the state of quiescence in which all phenomena in the universe naturally abide. In the MADHYAMAKA school, the term is sometimes used as a synonym for emptiness (suNYATĀ). See also NIRVĀnA.

pramānavāda. (T. tshad ma smra ba). In Sanskrit, "proponent of valid knowledge," a term used to describe the tradition of Buddhist logic deriving especially from the work of DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI. This tradition did not represent a self-conscious school of Buddhist philosophy, but rather an approach to issues in logic and epistemology that were central to SAUTRĀNTIKA, YOGĀCĀRA, and MADHYAMAKA. See PRAMĀnA.

Pranava (Sanskrit) Praṇava [from pra-ṇu to utter a droning or humming sound, as during the proper pronunciation of the word Om or Aum] The mystical, sacred syllable Om or Aum, pronounced by Brahmins, Yogis, and others during meditation. In Vedanta philosophy and the Upanishads, used in another sense: “In one sense Pranava represents the macrocosm and in another sense the microcosm. . . . The reason why this Pranava is called Vach is this, that these four principles of the great cosmos correspond to these four forms of Vach” (N on G 25, 26) — vaikhari, madhyama, pasyanti, para. These are called the four matras of pranava.

prapaNca. (P. papaNca; T. spros pa; C. xilun; J. keron; K. hŭiron 戲論). In Sanskrit, lit. "diffusion," "expansion"; viz. "conceptualization" or "conceptual proliferation"; the tendency of the process of cognition to proliferate the perspective of the self (ĀTMAN) throughout all of one's sensory experience via the medium of concepts. The locus classicus for describing how sensory perception culminates in conceptual proliferation appears in the Pāli MADHUPIndIKASUTTA. As that scripture explains, any living being will be subject to an impersonal causal process of perception in which consciousness (P. viNNāna; S. VIJNĀNA) occurs conditioned by an internal sense base (INDRIYA) and an external sense object (ĀYATANA); the contact among these three brings about sensory impingement or contact (P. phassa; S. SPARsA), which in turn leads to the sensation (VEDANĀ) of that contact as pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. At that point, however, the sense of ego intrudes and this process then becomes an intentional one, whereby what one feels, one perceives (P. saNNā; S. SAMJNĀ); what one perceives, one thinks about (P. vitakka; S. VITARKA); and what one thinks about, one conceptualizes (P. papaNca; S. prapaNca). By allowing oneself to experience sensory objects not as things-in-themselves but as concepts invariably tied to one's own perspective, the perceiving subject then becomes the hapless object of an inexorable process of conceptual subjugation: viz., what one conceptualizes becomes proliferated conceptually (P. papaNcasaNNāsankhā; a term apparently unattested in Sanskrit) throughout all of one's sensory experience. Everything that can be experienced in this world in the past, present, and future is now bound together into a labyrinthine network of concepts, all tied to oneself and projected into the external world as craving (TṚsnĀ), conceit (MĀNA), and wrong views (DṚstI), thus creating bondage to SAMSĀRA. By systematic attention (YONIsOMANASKĀRA) to the impersonal character of sensory experience and through sensory restraint (INDRIYASAMVARA), this tendency to project ego throughout the entirety of the perceptual process is brought to an end. In this state of "conceptual nonproliferation" (P. nippapaNca; S. NIḤPRAPANCA), perception is freed from concepts tinged by this proliferating tendency, allowing one to see the things of this world as impersonal causal products that are inevitably impermanent (ANITYA), suffering (DUḤKHA), and nonself (ANĀTMAN). ¶ The preceding interpretation reflects the specific denotation of the term as explicated in Pāli scriptural materials. In a Mahāyāna context, prapaNca may also connote "elaboration" or "superimposition," especially in the sense of a fanciful, imagined, or superfluous quality that is mistakenly projected on to an object, resulting in its being misperceived. Such projections are described as manifestations of ignorance (AVIDYĀ); reality and the mind that perceives reality are described as being free from prapaNca (NIsPRAPANCA), and the purpose of Buddhist practice in one sense can be described as the recognition and elimination of prapaNca in order to see reality clearly and directly. In the MADHYAMAKA school, the most dangerous type of prapaNca is the presumption of intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA). In YOGĀCĀRA, prapaNca is synonymous with the "seeds" (BĪJA) that provide the basis for perception and the potentiality for future action. In this school, prapaNca is closely associated with false discrimination (VIKALPA), specifically the bifurcation of perceiving subject and perceived object (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). The goal of practice is said to be a state of mind that is beyond all thought constructions and verbal elaboration. ¶ The precise denotation of prapaNca has been the subject of much perplexity and debate within the Buddhist tradition, which is reflected in the varying translations for the term in Buddhist canonical languages. The standard Chinese rendering xilun means "frivolous debate," which reflects the tendency of prapaNca to complicate meaningful discussion about the true character of sensory cognition. The Tibetan spros ba means something like "extension, elaboration" and reflects the tendency of prapaNca to proliferate a fanciful conception of reality onto the objects of perception.

Prasanga-madhyamika (Sanskrit) Prasaṅga-mādhyamika “A Buddhist school of philosophy in Tibet. It follows, like the Yogacharya system, the Mahayana or ‘Great Vehicle’ of precepts; but, having been founded far later than the Yogacharya, it is not half so rigid and severe. It is a semi-exoteric and very popular system among the literati and laymen” (TG 260).

prasanga. (T. thal 'gyur). In Sanskrit, "consequence"; in Buddhist logic, a statement made to an opponent that uses the opponent's assertions to demonstrate contradictions in the opponent's position. It is not necessary that the person who states the consequence accept the subject, predicate, and reason of the consequence. There is a difference of opinion as to whether the statement of the consequence is sufficient to bring about correct understanding in the opponent or whether an autonomous syllogism (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA) stating the correct position (that is, the position of the person who states the consequence) is also required. This was one of the points of disagreement that led to the designation of the *PRĀSAnGIKA and *SVĀTANTRIKA branches of the MADHYAMAKA school.

*Prāsangika. (T. Thal 'gyur ba). In Sanskrit, "Consequentialist," one of the two main branches of the MADHYAMAKA school, so called because of its use of consequences (PRASAnGA) rather than autonomous syllogisms (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA) in debates about the nature of reality. Its leading proponents include BUDDHAPĀLITA and CANDRAKĪRTI. The other branch of Madhyamaka is *SVĀTANTRIKA, represented by such figures as BHĀVAVIVEKA, JNĀNAGARBHA, sĀNTARAKsITA, and KAMALAsĪLA. The designation "Prāsangika" as a subschool of Madhyamaka does not occur in Indian literature; it was coined retrospectively in Tibet to describe the later developments of the Indian Madhyamaka school. In the doxographical literature of the DGE LUGS sect in Tibet, where *Prāsangika is ranked as the preeminent school of Indian Buddhist philosophy, Prāsangika differs from Svātantrika primarily on questions of the nature of emptiness (suNYATĀ) and the correct role of reasoning in understanding it, although other points of difference are also enumerated, including the question of whether the arhat must understand the selflessness of phenomena (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA) in order to achieve liberation.

Prasannapadā. (T. Tshig gsal). In Sanskrit, "Clear Words," the commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ by the seventh-century Indian master CANDRAKĪRTI; its full title is Mulamadhyamakavṛtti-Prasannapadā. Among Candrakīrti's major works, it is regarded as second in importance only to his independent treatise, the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA, which was composed earlier. Apart from its importance as a commentary on Nāgārjuna's text, Candrakīrti's work is also important as the locus classicus for the division of Madhyamaka into the *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA. Candrakīrti's was the third in an influential series of commentaries. The first was that of BUDDHAPĀLITA. The second was the PRAJNĀPRADĪPA of BHĀVAVIVEKA, who criticized Buddhapālita's commentary on the first chapter of Nāgārjuna's text, specifically the section in which Buddhapālita refutes the SāMkhya position that an effect is produced from a cause that is the same nature as itself. In the Prasannapadā, Candrakīrti defended Buddhapālita and attacked Bhāvaviveka. It is based largely on these exchanges that later Tibetan scholars came to designate Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti as *Prāsangikas and Bhāvaviveka as a *Svātantrika. Candrakīrti's commentary is also valued by scholars for its many citations from Mahāyāna sutras. The Prasannapadā has attracted the attention of modern scholars, in part because, unlike the commentaries of Buddhapālita and Bhāvaviveka, for example, it has been preserved in Sanskrit.

pratijNā. (T. dam bca'; C. lizong; J. risshu; K. ipchong 立宗). In Sanskrit, lit., "promise," but used in Buddhist logic (HETUVIDYĀ) to mean "thesis" or "proposition," that is, the position that one is seeking to prove to an opponent. In this sense, it used synonymously with PAKsA and SĀDHYA ("what is to be established"). A thesis is composed of a subject and a predicate; for example, "the mountain is on fire," or "sound is impermanent," with mountain and sound being the subject. There is considerable discussion in Buddhist logic on what constitutes a valid thesis. According to DIGNĀGA, a thesis is a proposition intended by its proponent as something to be stated alone (i.e., without reasons or examples) and whose subject is not contradicted by direct perception (PRATYAKsA), inference (ANUMĀNA), valid authorities (PRAMĀnA), or what is commonly accepted as true. In the works of Dignāga and DHARMAKĪRTI (and their commentators), there is also considerable discussion of whether, in debating with an opponent, one's own thesis needs to be explicitly stated, or whether it can be implied. The term pratijNā is also important in the MADHYAMAKA school, deriving from NĀGĀRJUNA's famous declaration in his VIGRAHAVYĀVARTANĪ that he has no thesis, which became in Tibet one of the most commented upon statements in Madhyamaka literature.

pratipatti. (P. patipatti; T. sgrub pa; C. xiuxing; J. shugyo; K. suhaeng 修行). In Sanskrit, "practice," "progress"; one of four aspects of the truth of the path (MĀRGASATYA), the fourth of the so-called FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni). The other aspects are mārga (path), nyāya (correct method), and nairyānika (providing a definite escape). As a word descriptive of the path, pratipatti is a word for all the practices, from the beginning practices of neophytes up to the final practices of noble beings (ĀRYA). In all cases the practice avoids the extremes (see MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the extreme views of eternalism (sĀsVATADṚstI) and annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI). See also PAtIPATTI.

Pratītyasamutpādahṛdayakārikā. (T. Rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa; C. Shi'er yinyuan lun; J. Juniinnenron; K. Sibi inyon non 十二因論). In Sanskrit, "Verses on the Essence of Dependent Origination," a work attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA by BHĀVAVIVEKA. The work seeks to reconcile the two major meanings of PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA: that of a twelvefold sequence of cause and effect and a more general sense of phenomena arising in dependence on causes, which he sets forth in his MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. Nāgārjuna qualifies the twelve links in the chain of causation under three headings, with ignorance (AVIDYĀ), attachment (TṚsnĀ), and grasping (UPĀDĀNA) classified as afflictions (KLEsA); predispositions (SAMSKĀRA) and existence (BHAVA) as action (KARMAN); and the remaining seven as forms of suffering (DUḤKHA). Those five that are classified as klesa and karman are also causes; the remaining seven are effects. The "essence" of pratītyasamutpāda in the title is the lack of self in both the person (PUDGALA) and the aggregates (SKANDHA).

pratītyasamutpāda. (P. paticcasamuppāda; T. rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba; C. yuanqi; J. engi; K. yon'gi 起). In Sanskrit, "dependent origination," "conditioned origination," lit., "origination by dependence" (of one thing on another); one of the core teachings in the Buddhist doctrinal system, having both ontological, epistemological, and soteriological implications. The notion of the conditionality of all existence is foundational in Buddhism. According to some accounts of the Buddha's life, it constituted the fundamental insight on the night of his enlightenment. In other accounts, in the first seven days and nights following his enlightenment, he sat contemplating the significance of his experience; finally on the seventh night he is said to have contemplated the fully realized chain of dependent origination in both forward and reverse order. In one of the earliest summaries of the Buddha's teachings (which is said to have been enough to bring sĀRIPUTRA to enlightenment), the Buddha is said to have taught: "When this is present, that comes to be. / From the arising of this, that arises. / When this is absent, that does not come to be. / From the cessation of this, that ceases." (P. imasmiM sati idaM hoti/imasuppādā idaM uppajjati/imasmiM asati idaM na hoti/imassa nirodhā idaM nirujjhati). This notion of causality (idaMpratyayatā) is normatively described in a sequence of causation involving twelve interconnected links (NIDĀNA), which are often called the "twelvefold chain" in English sources: (1) ignorance (AVIDYĀ, P. avijjā), (2) predispositions, or volitional actions (S. SAMSKĀRA, P. sankhāra), (3) consciousness (S. VIJNĀNA, P. viNNāna), (4) name and form, or mentality and materiality (NĀMARuPA), (5) the six internal sense-bases (ĀYATANA), (6) sensory contact (S. SPARsA, P. phassa), (7) sensation, or feeling (VEDANĀ), (8) thirst, or attachment (S. TṚsnĀ, P. tanhā), (9) grasping, or clinging (UPĀDĀNA), (10) existence or a process of becoming (BHAVA), (11) birth or rebirth (JĀTI), and (12) old age and death (JARĀMARAnA), this last link accompanied in its full recital by sorrow (soka), lamentation (parideva), pain (DUḤKHA) grief (daurmanasya), and despair (upāyāsa). Some formulations of the chain, as in the MAHĀPADĀNASUTTANTA, include only ten links (skipping the first two), suggesting that the standard list of twelve links developed over time. (The commentary to the Mahāpadānasuttanta explains away this inconsistency by noting that the ten-linked chain does not take past lives into account but applies only to the current life.) Each link in this chain of causality is said to be the condition for the following link, thus: "dependent on ignorance, predispositions (S. avidyāpratyayāḥ saMskārāḥ; P. avijjāpaccayā sankhārā), ... dependent on birth, old age and death (S. jātipratyayāM jarāmaranaM; P. jātipaccayā jarāmaranaM)." This chain of dependent origination stands as the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between the two "extreme views" (ANTAGRĀHADṚstI) of eternalism (sĀsVATADṚstI)-viz., the view that there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next-and annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI)-the view that the person ceases to exist at death and is not reborn-because it validates the imputed continuity (SAMTĀNA) of the personality, without injecting any sense of a permanent substratum of existence into the process. Thus, when the Buddha is asked, "Who is it who senses?," he rejects the question as wrongly framed and rephrases it as, "With what as condition does sensation (vedanā) occur? By contact (sparsa)." Or when asked, "Who is it who is reborn?," he would rephrase the question as "With what as condition does birth (jāti) occur? By becoming (bhava)." Accurate understanding of dependent origination thus serves as an antidote (PRATIPAKsA) to the affliction of delusion (MOHA) and contemplating the links in this chain helps to overcome ignorance (AVIDYĀ). ¶ The twelvefold chain of dependent origination is generally conceived to unfold in what are referred to as the "forward" and "reverse" orders, although in fact both versions proceed through the chain in the same sequence. First, as a progressive process of ontological becoming (bhavānulomaparīksā), the forward version of the chain describes the process by which ignorance ultimately leads to birth and death and thus the full panoply of existence in the turning wheel of SAMSĀRA; in forward order, the chain is therefore an elaboration of the second noble truth, the truth of the origin of suffering (SAMUDAYASATYA). Second, the reverse order of the chain describes a negative process of soteriological eradication (ksayavyayānulomaparīksā), where the cessation of ignorance serves as the condition for the cessation of predispositions, and so on through the entire chain until even old age and death are eradicated and the adept is released from continued rebirth in saMsāra; in reverse order, the chain is therefore an elaboration of the third noble truth, the truth of the cessation of suffering (NIRODHASATYA). As a chain of ontological becoming, some traditional commentators organize the twelve links as occurring during the course of a single lifetime. Other commentators instead divide the twelve links over three lifetimes to illustrate explicitly the process of rebirth: ignorance and predispositions are assigned to a previous lifetime; consciousness, name and form, sense-fields, contact, sensation, thirst, grasping, and becoming are assigned to the current lifetime; and this leads to future birth, and eventual old age and death, in the immediately following lifetime. According to this interpretation, ignorance does not refer to a primordial ignorance, but rather to a specific moment of unsystematic reflection on things (AYONIsOMANASKĀRA) that prompts a volitional action (saMskāra). The predispositions created by that action imprint themselves on consciousness, which refers here to the "linking consciousness" (pratisaMdhivijNāna) that links the past and present lives, a consciousness that is reborn, developing into a body with internal sense organs and a mind with sensory consciousnesses, which come into contact with external sensory objects, giving rise to sensations that are pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. Sensations of pleasure, for example, can give rise to attachment to those sensations and then clinging, an intensification of that attachment. Such clinging at the end of life sustains the process of becoming, which leads to rebirth in the next existence, where one once again undergoes aging and death. This sequence of dependent conditions has repeated itself since time immemorial and will continue on indefinitely until liberation from rebirth is achieved. To illustrate the role of pratītyasamutpāda in the cycle of rebirth, its twelve links are sometimes depicted around the perimeter of the "wheel of life" (BHAVACAKRA). ¶ In the Upanisāsutta of the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA, the standard twelvefold chain of dependent origination is connected to an alternate chain that is designated the "supramundane dependent origination" (P. lokuttara-paticcasamuppāda; S. lokottara-pratītyasamutpāda), which explicitly outlines the process leading to liberation. Here, the last factor in the standard chain, that of old age and death (jarāmarana), is substituted with suffering, which in turn becomes the first factor in this alternate series. According to the Nettipakarana, a Pāli exegetical treatise, this chain of supramundane dependent origination consists of (1) suffering (P. dukkha; S. duḥkha), (2) faith (P. saddhā; S. sRADDHĀ), (3) delight or satisfaction (P. pāmojja; S. prāmodya), (4) rapture or joy (P. pīti; S. PRĪTI), (5) tranquillity or repose (P. passaddhi; S. PRAsRABDHI), (6) mental ease or bliss (SUKHA), (7) concentration (SAMĀDHI), (8) knowledge and vision that accords with reality (P. yathābhutaNānadassana; S. YATHĀBHuTAJNĀNADARsANA), (9) disillusionment (P. nibbidā; S. NIRVEDA), (10) dispassion (P. virāga; S. VAIRĀGYA), (11) liberation (P. vimutti; S. VIMUKTI), and (12) knowledge of the destruction of the contaminants (P. āsavakkhayaNāna; S. āsravaksayajNāna; see ĀSRAVAKsAYA). The Kimatthiyasutta of the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA gives a slightly different version of the first links, replacing suffering and faith with (1) observance of precepts (P. kusalasīla; S. kusalasīla) and (2) freedom from remorse (P. avippatisāra; S. avipratisāra). ¶ Another denotation of pratītyasamutpāda is a more general one, the notion that everything comes into existence in dependence on something else, with such dependence including the dependence of an effect upon its cause, the dependence of a whole upon its parts, and the dependence of an object on the consciousness that designates it. This second meaning is especially associated with the MADHYAMAKA school of NĀGĀRJUNA, which sees a necessary relation between dependent origination and emptiness (suNYATĀ), arguing that because everything is dependently arisen, everything is empty of independence and intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA). Dependent origination is thus central to Nāgārjuna's conception of the middle way: because everything is dependent, nothing is independent, thus avoiding the extreme of existence, but because everything is originated, nothing is utterly nonexistent, thus avoiding the extreme of nonexistence. In East Asia, and specifically the HUAYAN ZONG, this second interpretation of dependent origination is also recast as the unimpeded (wu'ai) "dependent origination of the DHARMADHĀTU" (FAJIE YUANQI), in which all things throughout the entire universe are conceived as being enmeshed in a multivalent web of interconnection and interdependency.

prīti. (P. pīti; T. dga' ba; C. xi; J. ki; K. hŭi 喜). In Sanskrit, "rapture," "joy," "zest"; the third of the five factors of meditative absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA) and the fourth of the seven factors of enlightenment (BODHYAnGA); rapture helps to control the mental hindrances (NĪVARAnA) of both malice (VYĀPĀDA) and sloth and torpor (STYĀNA-MIDDHA). A sustained sense of prīti is obstructed by malice (vyāpāda), the second of the five hindrances to DHYĀNA. Prīti refreshes both body and mind and manifests itself as physical and mental tranquillity (PRAsRABDHI). The most elemental types of prīti involve such physical reactions as horripilation (viz., hair standing on end). As the experience becomes ever more intense, it becomes "transporting rapture," which is so uplifting that it makes the body seem so light as almost to levitate. Ultimately, rapture becomes "all-pervading happiness" that suffuses the body and mind, cleansing it of ill will and tiredness. As both a physical and mental experience, prīti is present during both the first and second of the meditative absorptions associated with the subtle-materiality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA), but fades into equanimity (UPEKsĀ). In the even subtler third dhyāna, only mental ease (SUKHA) and one-pointedness (EKĀGRATĀ) remain. Divinities in the sUDDHĀVĀSA realm (viz., the five "pure abodes," the upper five of the eight heavens associated with the fourth dhyāna) and the ĀBHĀSVARĀLOKA (heaven of universal radiance) divinities are said literally to "feed on joy" (S. prītibhaksa; P. pītibhakkha), i.e., to survive solely on the sustenance of physical and mental rapture.

pudgalātmagraha. (T. gang zag gi bdag 'dzin; C. renwozhi; J. ningashu; K. inajip 人我執). In Sanskrit, lit.,"conception of a self of a person" or the "grasping at the personal self," a term that is used in combination with DHARMĀTMAGRAHA, the "conception of the self of phenomena." In the MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools, the notion of self (ĀTMAN) is expanded beyond that of a permanent soul in each person, to a broader sense of independent existence or intrinsic existence (SVABHĀVA) that is falsely imagined to exist in all objects of experience. Sentient beings are thus said to falsely imagine the presence of such a self in two broad categories: persons (PUDGALA) and all other phenomena (DHARMA). Wisdom (PRAJNĀ) entails understanding the lack of self in these two categories, referred to as the selflessness of persons (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA) and the selflessness of phenomena (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA). Among the path theories of YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA, there are differences of opinion as to whether the conception of the self of persons is more easily uprooted than the conception of the self of phenomena. In addition, although all agree that both forms of the conception of self must be eradicated by the BODHISATTVA in order to become a buddha, there are differences of opinion as to whether both must be eradicated by the sRĀVAKA and PRATYEKABUDDHA in order to become an ARHAT.

Rang 'byung rdo rje. (Rangjung Dorje) (1284-1339). A Tibetan Buddhist master recognized as the third KARMA PA, renowned for his erudition and his knowledge of practice traditions based on both new translation (GSAR MA) and old translation (RNYING MA) tantras. He was born either in the Skyid rong Valley or in the western Tibetan region of Ding ri and, according to traditional sources, as a child, was known for his exceptional perspicacity. The DEB THER SNGON PO ("Blue Annals") records that as a five-year-old boy, he met O RGYAN PA RIN CHEN DPAL, his principal guru, who recognized the young boy as the reincarnation of his teacher KARMA PAKSHI when the child climbed up on a high seat that had been prepared for O rgyan pa Rin chen dpal and declared himself to have been Karma Pakshi in his previous life (this was before the institution of incarnate lamas was established in Tibet). Rang 'byung rdo rje trained first at MTSHUR PHU monastery. He also studied with teachers from GSANG PHU and JO NANG. His collected works include explanations of the major YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA treatises and commentaries and rituals based on the CAKRASAMVARA, HEVAJRA, GUHYASAMĀJA, and KĀLACAKRA tantras. According to his traditional biographies, while in retreat, he had a vision of VIMALAMITRA and PADMASAMBHAVA in which he received the complete transmission of the Rnying ma tantras. He received instructions on the RDZOGS CHEN doctrine from Rig 'dzin Gzhon nu rgyal po, and wrote short works on rdzogs chen. He also discovered a treasure text (GTER MA), known as the Karma snying thig. He was a renowned poet and wrote important works on GCOD practice. The third Karma pa was also a skilled physician and astrologer. He developed a new system of astrology known as Mtshur rtsi, or "Mtshur phu astrology," on the basis of which a new Tibetan calendar was formulated and promulgated at Mtshur phu monastery. In 1331, he was summoned to the court of the Yuan emperor Tugh Temür, but stopped enroute when he correctly interpreted portents that the emperor had died. He later traveled to the Mongol capital of Daidu (modern Beijing) during the reign of Togon Temür, for whom he procured an elixir of long life. After returning to Tibet, he was summoned once again to the Mongol capital, where he passed away while meditating in a three-dimensional CakrasaMvara MAndALA. Rang 'byung rdo rje's writings include the influential tantric work Zab mo nang don ("Profound Inner Meaning"). It is said that his image appeared in the full moon on the evening of his death, and illustrations of the third Karma pa often portray him seated amid a lunar disk.

rang rgyud shar gsum. (rang gyu shar sum). In Tibetan, "the three [texts] of the eastern Svātantrikas," a term used to refer to three important works of the SVĀTANTRIKA MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhism (although the appellation "*Svātantrika" was not used in India and was applied retrospectively by Tibetan doxographers) composed by authors from eastern India. The three works are the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA by sĀNTARAKsITA, the MADHYAMAKĀLOKA by KAMALAsĪLA, and the SATYADVAYAVIBHAnGA by JNĀNAGARBHA.

rang stong gzhan stong. (rang dong shen dong). In Tibetan, lit. "self-emptiness, other-emptiness," an important and persistent philosophical debate in Tibetan Buddhism, dating to the fifteenth century. The opposing factions are the DGE LUGS sect on one side and the JO NANG sect on the other, with support from certain BKA' BRGYUD and RNYING MA authors. The debate concerns issues fundamental to their understanding of what constituted enlightenment and the path to its achievement. For the Dge lugs, the most profound of all Buddhist doctrines is that all phenomena in the universe are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA), that the constituents of experience are not naturally endowed with a defining characteristic. Emptiness (suNYATĀ) for the Dge lugs is the fact that phenomena do not exist in and of themselves; emptiness is instead the lack of intrinsic existence. The Dge lugs then, are proponents of "self-emptiness," and argue that the hypostatized factor that an object in reality lacks (i.e., is empty of) is wrongly believed by the unenlightened to be intrinsic to the object itself. Everything, from physical forms to the omniscient mind of the Buddha, is thus equally empty. This emptiness is described by the Dge lugs as a non-affirming or simple negation (PRASAJYAPRATIsEDHA), an absence with nothing else implied in its place. From this perspective, the Dge lugs judge the sutras of the second of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma as described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, "the dharma wheel of signlessness" (ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA), to contain the definitive expression of the Buddha's most profound intention. By contrast, the Jo nang look for inspiration to the third turning of the wheel, "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate" (PARAMĀRTHAVINIsCAYADHARMACAKRA; see also *SUVIBHAKTADHARMACAKRA), especially to those statements that describe the nonduality of subject and object to be the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) and the understanding of that nonduality to be the highest wisdom. They describe this wisdom in substantialist terms, calling it eternal, self-arisen, and truly established. This wisdom consciousness exists autonomously and is thus not empty in the way that emptiness is understood by the Dge lugs. Instead, this wisdom consciousness is empty in the sense that it is devoid of all afflictions and conventional factors, which are extraneous to its true nature. Hence, the Jo nang speak of the "emptiness of the other," the absence of extrinsic and extraneous qualities. The Dge lugs cannot deny the presence of statements in the MAHĀYĀNA canon that speak of the TATHĀGATAGARBHA as permanent, pure, blissful, and endowed with self. But they argue that such statements are provisional, another example of the Buddha's expedient means of attracting to the faith those who find such a description appealing. The true tathāgatagarbha, they claim, is the emptiness of the mind; it is this factor, present in all sentient beings, that offers the possibility of transformation into an enlightened buddha. This is the view of CANDRAKĪRTI, they say, whom they regard as the supreme interpreter of the doctrine of emptiness. The Jo nang do not deny that this is Candrakīrti's view, but they deny Candrakīrti the rank of premier expositor of NĀGĀRJUNA's thought. For them, Candrakīrti teaches an emptiness which is a mere negation of true existence, which they equate with nihilism, or else a preliminary stage of negation that precedes an understanding of the highest wisdom. Nor do they deny that such an exposition is also to be found in Nāgārjuna's philosophical corpus (YUKTIKĀYA). But those texts, they claim, do not represent Nāgārjuna's final view, which is expressed instead in his devotional corpus (STAVAKĀYA), notably the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA ("Praise of the Sphere of Reality"), with its more positive exposition of the nature of reality. Those who would deny its ultimate existence, such as Candrakīrti, they classify as "one-sided Madhyamakas" (phyogs gcig pa'i dbu ma pa) as opposed to the "great Madhyamakas" (DBU MA PA CHEN PO), among whom they would include the Nāgārjuna of the four hymns and ĀRYADEVA, as well as thinkers whom the Dge lugs classify as YOGĀCĀRA or SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA: e.g., ASAnGA, VASUBANDHU, MAITREYANĀTHA, and sĀNTARAKsITA. The Dge lugs attempt to demonstrate that the nature of reality praised by Nāgārjuna in his hymns is the same emptiness that he describes in his philosophical writings.

Rathavinītasutta. (C. Qiche jing; J. Shichishakyo; K. Ch'ilch'a kyong 七車經). In Pāli, the "Discourse on the Relay Chariots," the twenty-fourth scripture of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA version appears as the ninth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, as well as a recension of uncertain affilation in the EKOTTARĀGAMA). This discourse recounts a dialogue between Sāriputta (S. sĀRIPUTRA) and Punna Mantāniputta (see PuRnA) concerning the seven stages of purification (see VISUDDHI) that must be traversed in order to attain final liberation in nibbāna (NIRVĀnA), viz., the purification of (1) morality (SĪLAVISUDDHI); (2) mind (CITTAVISUDDHI); (3) views (DIttHIVISUDDHI); (4) overcoming doubt (KAnKHĀVITARAnAVISUDDHI); (5) the purity of knowledge and vision of what is and is not the path (MAGGĀMAGGANĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI); (6) knowledge and vision of progress along the path (PAtIPADĀNĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI); (7) knowledge and vision itself (NĀnADASSANAVISUDDHI). The seventh purification leads directly to final nibbāna. The seven stages are compared to a relay of seven chariots needed to transport the king of Kosala (KOsALA) from his palace in Sāvatthi (sRĀVASTĪ) to his palace in Sāketa.

Ratnākarasānti. (T. Shān ti pa/Rin chen 'byung gnas zhi ba) (c. late-tenth to early-eleventh century). Sanskrit proper name of an Indian scholar philosophically affiliated with the YOGĀCĀRA school, who resided and later taught at the monastic university of VIKRAMAsĪLA in the northern region of ancient MAGADHA (modern Bengal). At Vikramasīla, he studied under RATNAKĪRTI and JITĀRI and eventually become a prolific scholar of enormous breadth, who wrote significant works on logic, MADHYAMAKA and PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, Yogācāra, and TANTRA. Ratnākarasānti composed at least thirteen works in Sanskrit. His writings on tantra are particularly noteworthy for their attempt to present a systematic view of tantric philosophy and practice from the perspective of Buddhist scholasticism. His works on logic include the Antarvyāptisamarthana, on "pervasion" or "concomitance" (VYĀPTI). He wrote commentaries on the eight-thousand- and twenty-five-thousand-line PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs (entitled Sārottamā and suddhamati, respectively). His tantric works included commentaries on both the HEVAJRATANTRA and GUHYASAMĀJATANTRA, as well as a work on the three vehicles, the Triyānavyavasthāna. During his tenure as a teacher at Vikramasīla, he held the position of eastern gatekeeper. He was a teacher of ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA, and he offered instruction to Tibetan students, including the translator 'BROG MI SHĀKYA YE SHES, who transmitted the LAM 'BRAS (path and result) teachings to the 'Khon family, who founded the SA SKYA sect. Ratnākarasānti's fame was so widespread that he was even invited by the Sinhalese king to travel to Sri Lanka and preach. In Tibetan sources, a Shānti pa (a common Tibetan abbreviation of the name Ratnākarasānti) is reported to have been a student of the renowned tantric adept and scholar NĀROPA (1016-1100), and is listed as one of the eighty-four masters (SIDDHAs) in the CATURAsĪTISIDDHAPRAVṚTTI ("History of the Eighty-Four Siddhas").

Ratnakutasutra. (T. Dkon mchog brtsegs pa'i mdo; C. Dabaoji jing; J. Daihoshakukyo; K. Taebojok kyong 大寶積經). In Sanskrit, "The Jewel-Heap Sutra"; often known also as the Mahāratnakutasutra, or "The Great Jewel-Heap Sutra." Despite its title, this is actually not one SuTRA but rather an early collection of forty-nine independent MAHĀYĀNA sutras. The texts contained in this collection cover a broad range of important MAHĀYĀNA topics, including detailed discussions of emptiness (suNYATĀ), PURE LAND practices, skillful means (UPĀYA), the importance of cultivating both compassion (KARUnĀ) and wisdom (PRAJÑĀ), and other significant subjects. Many of the texts embedded in the collection are seminal to the Mahāyāna tradition. In this collection, we find treated such influential figures as the buddhas AMITĀBHA and AKsOBHYA, the BODHISATTVA MAÑJUsRĪ, and the ARHAT MAHĀKĀsYAPA. Its KĀsYAPAPARIVARTA chapter was widely cited in MADHYAMAKA treatises. The collections also contain pure land texts, including the longer SUKHĀVATĪVYuHASuTRA as well as the AKsOBHYATATHĀGATASYAVYuHA on the pure land of Aksobhya. The TrisaMvaranirdesaparivarta explains the bodhisattva VINAYA and how it differs from the vinaya of the sRĀVAKAs. Excerpts from the Ratnakutasutra were translated into Chinese as early as the second century CE. While the entire collection is available in Chinese and Tibetan, only portions of it survive in Sanskrit. The Ratnakutasutra occupies six volumes of the Tibetan canon (BKA' 'GYUR) (with fifty-two separate works in the SDE DGE edition, some with the same title but different content). In Chinese, the best-known recension of the Ratnakutasutra is a massive 120-roll translation made by BODHIRUCI between 703 and 716 during the Tang dynasty; it incorporates in the collection some earlier translations of individual texts by DHARMARAKsA, KUMĀRAJĪVA, sIKsĀNANDA, etc. There are also two shorter renderings of portions of the text, one attributed to AN SHIGAO in the latter half of the second century CE, the second to JNānagupta (523-600) in 595 CE, both in only one roll.

Ratnāvalī. (T. Rin chen phreng ba; C. Baoxingwang zheng lun; J. Hogyo o shoron; K. Pohaengwang chong non 寶行王正). In Sanskrit, "Garland of Jewels," a Sanskrit work by the MADHYAMAKA philosopher NĀGĀRJUNA. The work consists of five hundred verses arranged in five chapters. While the Ratnāvalī contains many of Nāgārjuna's fundamental philosophical ideas, grounded primarily in the notion of emptiness (suNYATĀ), the work is more focused on issues of ethics. The Ratnāvalī is addressed to King Gautamīputra of ĀNDHRA, a friend and patron of Nāgārjuna, and much of the text discusses the proper conduct of the laity, particularly those in administrative positions such as ministers and kings. In particular, the fourth chapter is devoted to an exploration of kingship and the proper management of a kingdom. The work also contains a defense of the Mahāyāna as the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA), an exposition of the collection of merit (PUnYASAMBHĀRA) and the collection of wisdom (JNĀNASAMBHĀRA), a description of the ten bodhisattva stages (BHuMI) based on the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, and a correlation of the practice of specific virtues with the achievement of the thirty-two marks of a superman (MAHĀPURUsALAKsAnA). There are complete versions of the work extant in Tibetan and Chinese translations, but only parts survive in the original Sanskrit.

rupadhātu. (T. gzugs khams; C. sejie; J. shikikai; K. saekkye 色界). In Sanskrit and Pāli, the "realm of subtle materiality" or "form realm," which together with the sensuous, or desire, realm (KĀMADHĀTU) and the immaterial, or formless, realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) constitute the three realms (TRAIDHĀTUKA) of SAMSĀRA; the term is synonymous with rupāvacara. The subtle-materiality realm is located above the heavens of the sensuous realm, which are situated on and above Mount SUMERU. This realm is divided into four meditative heavens associated with the four meditative concentrations of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA). These meditative heavens are places of rebirth in saMsāra and are accessible only through mastery of a specific rupāvacaradhyāna; the beings reborn there are classified as BRAHMĀ gods. Rebirth in these meditative heavens is the result of a specific kind of virtuous action, called an "immovable action" (S. ANINJYAKARMAN), in which the action has the definite and specific effect of bringing about rebirth in either the subtle-materiality or immaterial heavens. The immovable action that would result in rebirth in, for example, the second concentration of the subtle-materiality realm, is the achievement of that specific state of dhyāna as a human in the immediately preceding lifetime. This realm is called the "subtle-materiality realm" because the beings there are free of the desires of the sensuous realm yet retain at least some semblance of physicality, albeit extremely subtle, and have a vestigial attachment to form (RuPA). Only three of the five sensory objects remain in the subtle-materiality realm: visual objects, auditory objects, and objects of touch; hence, the deities there have only three physical sense organs, of sight, hearing, and touch. Each of the four concentrations of the subtle-materiality realm has its own sublevels, with three levels in the the first heaven, three in the second, three in the third, and eight in the fourth, totaling seventeen. In each ascending level, the heaven is situated farther above Mount Sumeru, the height of its beings grows taller, and their life spans increase. Although the characteristics of the various heavens within the subtle-materiality realm are described in some detail, the greater emphasis in Buddhist literature is on the states of meditative absorption that characterize each, how they are achieved, and how they differ from each other, with particular attention paid to the highest of the four, the fourth dhyāna of the subtle-materiality realm. The first three absorptions are characterized by a feeling of physical rapture (PRĪTI) and mental ease or bliss (SUKHA), whereas the fourth and subtlest of these dhyānas is characterized by one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ) and equanimity (UPEKsĀ). It is therefore considered an ideal state from which to achieve NIRVĀnA: for example, when the Buddha entered PARINIRVĀnA, his mind passed through each of the four subtle-materiality and immaterial absorptions before passing into nirvāna directly from the fourth absorption. The fourth absorption also received particular attention as a place of rebirth. While the first three concentrations each have only three divisions, the fourth concentration has eight, with the additional five reserved for those beings who become ĀRYA, or noble beings, through direct insight into the nature of reality. In the fourfold division of noble persons (ĀRYAPUDGALA; viz., stream-enterer, once-returner, nonreturner, and ARHAT), the nonreturner (ANĀGĀMIN) is defined as that noble person who is never again reborn in the sensuous realm. Such a person may be reborn in the subtle-materiality realm, however, and the upper five heavens of the fourth absorption are a special place of rebirth called the pure abodes (sUDDHĀVĀSA) that are reserved just for such beings. See also DEVA.

ruparāga. (T. gzugs la chags ba; C. se tan; J. shikiton; K. saek t'am 色貪). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "craving for existence in the subtle-materiality realm," the sixth of ten "fetters" (SAMYOJANA) that keep beings bound to SAMSĀRA. Ruparāga is the desire to be reborn as a divinity (DEVA) in the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU) where beings are possessed of refined material bodies, are free from physical passions, and have minds that are perpetually absorbed in the rapture, ease, and equanimity of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA). According to this interpretation, craving for subtle-material existence is permanently eliminated upon attaining the stage of an ARHAT, the fourth and highest degree of Buddhist sanctity (ĀRYAPUDGALA). Other schools of ABHIDHARMA use the name "free from attachment to form" (rupavītarāga) to refer to a subset of nonreturners (ANĀGĀMIN) who eliminate all attachment to the subtle-materiality absorptions (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) while in a sensuous-realm body, take rebirth in an immaterial state (ĀRuPYADHĀTU), and go on to the BHAVĀGRA where they finally reach NIRVĀnA.

rupāvacaradhyāna. (P. rupāvacarajhāna; T. gzugs na spyod pa'i bsam gtan; C. sejie ding; J. shikikaijo; K. saekkye chong 色界定). In Sanskrit, "meditative absorption associated with the subtle-materiality realm"; in some Buddhist schools, one of the two main classifications of meditative absorption (DHYĀNA), along with ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA, meditative absorption associated with the immaterial realm. In both cases, dhyāna refers to the attainment of single-pointed concentration of the mind on an object of meditation. The four absorptions of the subtle-materiality realm are characterized by an increasing attentuation of consciousness as one progresses from one stage to the next. By entering into any one of the dhyānas, the meditator temporarily allays the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) through the force of concentration, which puts in place the five constituents of absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA). The five hindrances are (1) sensuous desire (KĀMACCHANDA), which hinders the constituent of one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ); (2) malice (VYĀPĀDA), hindering physical rapture (PRĪTI); (3) sloth and torpor (STYĀNA-MIDDHA), hindering applied thought (VITARKA); (4) restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), hindering mental ease and bliss (SUKHA); and (5) skeptical doubt (VICIKITSĀ), which hinders sustained thought (VICĀRA). These hindrances thus specifically obstruct one of the factors of absorption (dhyānānga), and once they are allayed the first subtle-materiality dhyāna will be achieved. In the first subtle-materiality dhyāna, all five constituents of dhyāna are present; as concentration deepens, these gradually fall away, so that in the second dhyāna, both types of thought vanish and only prīti, sukha, and ekāgratā remain; in the third dhyāna, only sukha and ekāgratā remain; and in the fourth dhyāna, concentration is now so rarified that only ekāgratā is left. Mastery of the fourth rupāvacaradhyāna is required for the cultivation of the supranormal powers (ABHIJNĀ) and also provides the foundation for the cultivation of the four dhyānas of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). Mastery of any of the subtle-materiality absorptions can result in rebirth as a BRAHMĀ god within the corresponding plane of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU).

Sabbāsavasutta. (C. Loujin jing; J. Rojingyo; K. Nujin kyong 漏盡經). In Pāli, "Discourse on All the Contaminants," the second sutta in the Pāli MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the tenth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA; there is also a recension of unidentified affiliation in the EKOTTARĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha describes the contaminants or outflows (ĀSRAVA) that afflict the minds of ordinary worldlings and keep them bound to the cycle of birth and death. He then prescribes seven methods for controlling and eradicating the contaminants: by correct vision (of the nature of the self), restraint (of the senses), usage (i.e, correct usage of the monastic requisites), endurance (e.g., bearing hunger, climate, physical pain), avoidance (e.g., bad friends, unsuitable residences), removal (e.g., of sensuality and ill will), and development (of the seven limbs of awakening).

sadhyadeva ::: a term for the eighth of the ten types of consciousness (dasa-gavas) in the evolutionary scale, also called siddhadeva: mind raised to the plane of ananda.

sadhya ::: same as sadhyadeva.

Sadhya (Sanskrit) Sādhya [from the verbal root sādh to finish, complete, subdue, master] To be fulfilled, completed, attained; to be mastered, won, subdued. As a plural noun, a class of the gana-devatas (divine beings), specifically the jnana-devas (gods of wisdom). In the Satapatha-Brahmana of the Rig-Veda their world is said to be above the sphere of the gods, while Yaska (Nirukta 12:41) gives their locality as in Bhuvarloka. In The Laws of Manu (3:195), the sadhyas are represented as the offspring of the pitris called soma-sads who are offspring of Viraj; hence they are children of the lunar ancestors (pitris), evolved after the gods and possessing natures more fully unfolded; while in the Puranas they are the sons of Sadhya (a daughter of Daksha) and Dharma — hence called sadhyas — given variously as 12 or 17 in number. These various manners of describing the ancestry of the sadhyas originated in different ways of envisioning their origin. In later mythology they are superseded by the siddhas, the difference between sadhyas and siddhas being in many respects slight. Their mythological names are given as Manas, Mantri, Prana, Nara, Pana, Vinirbhaya, Naya, Dansa, Narayana, Vrisha, and Trabhu. Two of the names are two of the theosophic seven human principles — manas and prana; while Nara and Narayan, are other aspects of man, human or cosmic. Blavatsky terms the sadhyas divine sacrificers, “the most occult of all” the classes of the dhyanis (SD 2:605) — the reference being to the manasaputras, those intellectual beings who sacrificed themselves in order to quicken the fires of human intelligence during the third root-race. “The names of the deities of a certain mystic class change with every Manvantara” (SD 2:90); thus they are called ajitas, tushitas, satyas, haris, vaikuntas, adityas, and rudras. The key to the various names given to these higher beings lies in the composite nature of each one of them. In every manvantara and in each minor cycle of a manvantara, every being unfolds another aspect of itself, just as mankind unfolds new but latent powers and senses in each age. Special names were often given to each of the sevenfold, tenfold, or twelvefold aspects of these high beings.

sadhyas. ::: deities who guard rites and prayers to the more important Gods

SahāMpati. (P. Sahampati; T. Mi mjed kyi bdag po; C. Suopo shijie zhu; J. Shabasekaishu; K. Saba segye chu 娑婆世界主). In Sanskrit, "Lord of the Sahā World," the epithet of a BRAHMĀ deity. The first concentration (DHYĀNA) of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU; see RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) has three levels, called BRAHMAKĀYIKA, BRAHMAPUROHITA, and MAHĀBRAHMĀ. The most senior of the deities of this third and highest level within the first concentration is called Brahmā SahāMpati. He plays a crucial role in the inception of the Buddhist teaching (sĀSANA). After his enlightenment, the newly enlightened Buddha is said to have wondered whether there was anyone in this world who would be able to understand his teaching. Brahmā SahāMpati then appeared to him and implored him to teach, convincing him that there were persons "with little dust in their eyes" who would be able to understand his teachings. According to BUDDHAGHOSA, the Buddha had every intention to teach but feigned reluctance in order that Brahmā SahāMpati would make the request, knowing that if the most powerful divinity in the SAHĀLOKA implored the Buddha to teach, those who honored Brahmā would heed the Buddha's teachings. Brahmā SahāMpati also assured the Buddha that in their last lifetimes, none of the buddhas of the past had had a teacher other than the DHARMA they discovered themselves. According to some accounts, he is divinity not of the mahābrahmā realm but rather of the sUDDHĀVĀSA.

sākāra. (T. rnam bcas; C. youxiang; J. uso; K. yusang 有相). In Sanskrit, lit. "having aspects," a term used in Buddhist epistemological accounts of perception, which asserts that what is perceived in sensory perception is not the object itself, but the "aspect" (ĀKĀRA) of the object. Buddhist philosophical schools differ as to whether or not such an "aspect" is required in order for sense perception to occur. VAIBHĀsIKAs are "non-aspectarians" (NIRĀKĀRAVĀDA), who hold that mind knows objects directly; SAUTRĀNTIKAs are "aspectarians" (SĀKĀRAVĀDA), who say mind knows its object through an image of the object that is taken into the mind. YOGĀCĀRA also holds that the mind knows its object through an image. However, there is an internal debate within the school as to whether the appearance is a true aspect (satyākāra) or a false aspect (alīkākāra). In the late eighth century in north India, in the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA of sĀNTARAKsITA, and the commentaries on his work by his students KAMALAsĪLA and HARIBHADRA, this terminology was central in a discussion of how the TATHĀGATA can be all-knowing (literally, "knowing all aspects," SARVĀKĀRAJNATĀ) while possessing ADVAYAJNĀNA (nondual knowledge). See ĀKĀRA.

SakkapaNhasutta. (C. Di-Shi suowen jing; J. Taishaku shomongyo; K. Che-Sok somun kyong 帝釋所問經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Sakka's Question"; the twenty-first sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (there are three separate recensions in Chinese: an independent sutra translated by FAXIAN; a SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension that appears as the fourteenth sutra in the Chinese translation of the DĪRGHĀGAMA; and a SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension that appears as the 134th sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA). The sutra is preached to sAKRA (P. Sakka), king of the gods, by the Buddha while he dwelt in the Indrasāla [alt. Indrasaila] (P. Indasāla) cave near RĀJAGṚHA. sakra inquired as to why there was so much hostility between beings. The Buddha explained that hostility is caused by selfishness; that selfishness is caused by likes and dislikes, and that likes and dislikes, in turn, are caused by desire. Desire is produced by mental preoccupations (S. VITARKA, P. vitakka) born from the proliferation of concepts (S. PRAPANCA, P. papaNca) that gives rise to SAMSĀRA. The Buddha then delineates a practice to be pursued and a practice to be abandoned for subduing this conceptual proliferation.

sākyasrībhadra. (T. Shākya shrī) (1127-1225). Also known as sākyasrī, a monk and scholar from KASHMIR who played an important role in the later dissemination (PHYI DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet, especially for the SA SKYA sect of Tibetan Buddhism. He served as abbot at both NĀLANDĀ and VIKRAMAsĪLA monasteries. As the last abbot of Vikramasīla monastery, he witnessed its destruction by Muslim troops. Declaring that Buddhism had been destroyed in India, he traveled to Tibet in 1204 (at the age of seventy-seven, if his birth year of 1127 is accurate) at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Khro phu lo tsā ba, in the company of nine Indian and Nepalese panditas. There, he gave teachings on PRAMĀnA, ABHIDHARMA, VINAYA, the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, MADHYAMAKA, TANTRA, and Sanskrit grammar and poetics. His most famous Tibetan disciple was SA SKYA PAndITA KUN DGA' RGYAL MTSHAN, whom he ordained as a BHIKsU in 1208. It is said that sākyasrībhadra gave him the name Sa skya Pandita ("Scholar from Sa skya") because of his ability to spontaneously translate Tibetan into Sanskrit. The two worked together on a new translation of DHARMAKĪRTI's PRAMĀnAVĀRTTIKA, marking the beginning of Sa skya Pandita's influence in the field of pramāna. sākyasrībhadra's ordination lineage, known as the Kha che lugs, or "Kashmiri system," would be adopted by the GSAR MA sects. sākyasrībhadra gave teachings at many monasteries in central and western Tibet, ordained many monks, translated Sanskrit texts, and established several monasteries. While at BSAM YAS, he discovered a manuscript of the GUHYAGARBHATANTRA and vouched for its authenticity. He is also credited with providing the Tibetans with a more accurate chronology of the life of the Buddha. In 1212, he consecrated a great statue of MAITREYA at Khro pu. After ten years in Tibet, he returned to his native Kashmir where he spent the last decade of his life. He is often referred to in Tibetan simply as Kha che pan chen, the "great pandita from Kashmir."

sālistambasutra. (T. Sā lu ljang pa'i mdo; C. Daogan jing; J. Tokangyo; K. Togan kyong 稻稈經). In Sanskrit, the "Rice Seedling Sutra," a MAHĀYĀNA SuTRA noted for its detailed presentation of the doctrine of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). The sutra begins with the Buddha gazing at a rice seedling and then declaring, "Monks, he who sees dependent origination sees the dharma. He who sees the dharma sees the Buddha." sĀRIPUTRA asks MAITREYA what this statement means, and the majority of the sutra is devoted to his answer. This sutra provides one of the most detailed treatments of the doctrine of dependent origination found anywhere in the scriptural literature. The doctrine had been set forth in various ways in previous sutras, and the sālistambasutra appears to be something of a digest of these various presentations. The sutra is widely quoted by Indian commentators in their own expositions of dependent origination, including MADHYAMAKA authors, although the sutra does not connect dependent origination with emptiness (suNYATĀ). Indeed, the text is so widely quoted that, although the sutra is lost in the original Sanskrit, approximately ninety percent of the Sanskrit text can be recovered from citations of it in various Indian treatises.

Sallekhasutta. (C. Zhouna wenjian jing; J. Shuna monkengyo; K. Chuna mun'gyon kyong 周那問見經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Effacement," the eighth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the ninety-first sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, as well as a recension of unidentified affiliation in the EKOTTARĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to Mahācunda, a master of meditative absorption (P. JHĀNA, S. DHYĀNA) in the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha explains that pride and speculative views regarding self and the nature of the world cannot be overcome by mere meditative absorption, but only through insight into the Buddhist truths (insight that implicitly will lead to stream-entry). Furthermore, true austerity is nothing other than refraining from forty-four types of unwholesome qualities; one mired in sensuality cannot help bring another to purity.

samānapratibhāsadharmin. (T. chos can mthun snang). In Sanskrit, lit. "subject that appears the same" or "commonly appearing subject," a term in Buddhist logic, particularly important in Tibetan Buddhism. This term refers to the common basis (T. gzhi mthun) that must be present in order for a reasonable and constructive debate to occur. In other words, if adherents of two different doctrinal systems try to debate, but employ only terms and ideas that are unique to their own systems, then no position can be effectively proven or refuted. Furthermore, the participants in a debate must have a common understanding of the subject that is being debated and a shared understanding of what constitutes a logical example. This term is also understood to mean that the participants in a debate must understand the scripture on which the debate is based. Some Buddhist philosophers, such as Jayānanda, refuted the notion that debate or inference (ANUMĀNA) was in any way constructive on the following general grounds: to the enlightened mind, all phenomena are devoid of substance or definition and therefore no phenomenon can serve as a samānapratibhāsadharmin. This is a central issue in MADHYAMAKA, where the proponent of emptiness (suNYATĀ) rejects the notion of anything that possesses its own nature (SVABHĀVA). This raises the question of whether there is a commonly appearing subject in a debate between a Madhyamaka and non-Madhyamaka; if there is, to what degree is the appearance "common"; and how does the Madhyamaka present his position under such circumstances.

samāpatti. (T. snyom 'jug; C. dengzhi/zhengshou; J. toji/shoju; K. tŭngji/chongsu 等至/正受). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "attainment" or "trance," a state of deep concentration produced through the practice of meditation; the term literally means "correct entrance." Specifically, samāpatti refers to eight levels of attainment, which correlate with the eight meditative absorptions (DHYĀNA), the four absorptions of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) and the four of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). However, unlike the dhyāna model, samāpatti may also add a ninth attainment, called either the attainment of the cessation of perception and sensation (SAMJNĀVEDAYITANIRODHA) or the trance of cessation (NIRODHASAMĀPATTI). The four attainments of the realm of subtle materiality are named for the order in which they occur. Thus, in ascending order, they are the first concentration (prathamadhyāna, P. pathamajjhāna), the second concentration (dvitīyadhyāna, P. dutiyajjhāna), the third concentration (tṛtīyadhyāna, P. tatiyajjhāna), and the fourth concentration (caturthadhyāna, P. catutthajjhāna). The four levels of the immaterial realm are the attainment of the sphere of boundless space (ākāsānantyāyatanasamāpatti, P. ākāsānanNcāyatanasamāpatti), attainment of the sphere of boundless consciousness (vijNānānantyāyatanasamāpatti, P. vinNnNānānNcāyatanasamāpatti), attainment of the sphere of nothingness (ākinNcanyāyatanasamāpatti, P. ākiNcaNNāyatanasamāpatti), and attainment of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (naivasaMjNānāsaMjNāyatanasamāpatti, P. nevasanNNānāsaNNāyatanasamāpatti). As indicated earlier, a ninth stage, the attainment of the cessation of perception and sensation (saMjNāvedayitanirodha) or the attainment of cessation (nirodhasamāpatti), is often added to these latter four. These eight or nine states are also known as the "successive dwellings" (anupurvavihāra). By achieving one of these states of absorption through the practice of meditation while still a human being, one will be reborn in the respective level of these realms of existence in the next lifetime. Similar samāpatti schemes, which present stratified levels of meditative attainment, also appear in non-Buddhist yogic systems. See also ASAMJNĀSAMĀPATTI.

samāropa. (T. sgro 'dogs; C. zengyi; J. zoyaku; K. chŭngik 增益). In Sanskrit, "superimposition," "reification," or "erroneous affirmation"; the mistaken attribution to an object of a quality that the object does not in fact possess. The term samāropa is sometimes paired with APAVĀDA ("denigration" or "denial"), where samāropa would refer to the claim or belief that something that in fact does not exist, does exist, while apavāda would refer to the claim or belief that something that in fact does exist, does not exist (such as the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS). In Buddhist philosophy, the most important of such erroneous superimpositions is the attribution of a perduring self (ĀTMAN) to the impermanent aggregates (SKANDHA). In MADHYAMAKA, samāropa refers to the false ascription of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA) to phenomena (DHARMA). The purpose of the Madhyamaka critique is to refute these false qualities that have been superimposed by ignorance onto the objects of experience; the conventionally existent objects that serve as the object of these false projections are not refuted. In YOGĀCĀRA, samāropa is often used to refer to the superimposition of objective existence to phenomena that are in fact of the nature of consciousness.

samatha. (P. samatha; T. zhi gnas; C. zhi; J. shi; K. chi 止). In Sanskrit, variously translated as "calmness," "serenity," "quiescence," or "tranquillity" (and sometimes as "stopping," following the Chinese rendering of the term); one of the two major branches of Buddhist meditative cultivation (BHĀVANĀ), along with insight (VIPAsYANĀ). Calmness is the mental peace and stability that is generated through the cultivation of concentration (SAMĀDHI). samatha is defined technically as the specific degree of concentration necessary to generate insight (VIPAsYANĀ) into reality and thus lead to the destruction of the afflictions (KLEsA). samatha is a more advanced degree of concentration than what is ordinarily associated with the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) but not fully that of the first meditative absorption (DHYĀNA), viz., the first absorption associated with the subtle-materiality realm (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA). According to the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI and the ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA, samatha is the fundamental state (maula) of each of the four concentrations (dhyāna) and attainments (SAMĀPATTI), in distinction to a neighboring part that is preparatory to that fundamental state (see SĀMANTAKA), which is vipasyanā. The process of meditative cultivation that culminates in calmness is described in one account as having nine stages. In the account found in the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, for example, there are eight forces that operate during these stages to eliminate five hindrances: viz., laziness, forgetting the object of concentration, restlessness and worry, insufficient application of antidotes (anabhisaMskāra), and over-application of the antidotes (abhisaMskāra). During the initial stage, when first placing the mind on its object, the first hindrance, laziness, is counteracted by a complex of four motivational mental factors: CHANDA (desire-to-do), vyāyāma (resolve), sRADDHĀ (faith), and PRAsRABDHI (pliancy or readiness for the task). When the cultivation of calmness has reached a slightly more advanced stage, mindfulness (SMṚTI) counteracts the forgetfulness that occurs when concentration wanders away from the meditation object. When a stream of concentration is first achieved, a meta-awareness called introspection or clear comprehension (SAMPRAJANYA) operates to counteract dullness and restlessness. Finally, in the last stages of the process, there is an application (abhisaMskāra) in order to heighten the intensity of the concentration to the requisite level, and to avoid the subtle overexcitement that comes with feelings of great ease; and just prior to the attainment of samatha, there is the setting aside of any application of conscious effort. At that point, calmness continues on its own as a natural stream of tranquillity, bringing great physical rapture (PRĪTI) and mental ease (SUKHA) that settles into the advanced state of serenity called samatha. ¶ In the context of monastic discipline, samatha, in its denotation as calming, is also used technically to refer to the formal settlement of monastic disputes. See ADHIKARAnAsAMATHA; SAPTĀDHIKARAnAsAMATHA.

saMjNāvedayitanirodha. (P. saNNāvedayitanirodha; T. 'du shes dang tshor ba 'gog pa; C. xiangshou mie; J. sojumetsu; K. sangsu myol 想受滅). In Sanskrit, lit. "the suppression (NIRODHA) of perception (SAMJNĀ) and sensation (vedayita)"; an experience specific to states of deep meditative attainment (e.g., SAMĀPATTI). The term refers to the last in a series of nine stratified meditative attainments (samāpatti), which involve the progressive suppression (S. anupurvanirodha, P. anupubbanirodha) of subtle elements that constitute conscious experience. The series begins with the first DHYĀNA, in which the awareness of all sense objects is temporarily allayed, and culminates in a state "beyond" the last of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA), where there is the cessation of all sensations and perceptions. SaMjNāvedayitanirodha is understood to be an experience of consciousness in its purest form, without any attributes or objects to distort it. Despite being free of content and/or objects, however, consciousness is still said to persist in some form. In VASUBANDHU's Mahāyānasatadharmavidyādvārasāstra ("Mahāyāna Treatise on Entry into Knowledge of the Hundred Dharmas"), Vasubandhu lists saMjNāvedayitanirodha as one of six unconditioned factors (ASAMSKṚTADHARMA). See also NIRODHASAMĀPATTI.

Sammāditthisutta. In Pāli, "Discourse on Right View," the ninth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a somewhat similar SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the twenty-ninth sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, although with a different title and interlocutor; there is also an untitled Sarvāstivāda recension in the Chinese translation of the SAMYUKTĀGAMA); preached by sĀRIPUTRA (P. Sāriputta) to a group of monks in the JETAVANA grove in the town of sRĀVASTĪ (P. Sāvatthi). sāriputra explains that when actions of body, speech, and mind are motivated by greed, hatred, and delusion they are deemed unwholesome (P. akusala; S. AKUsALA). When they are motivated by nongreed, nonhatred and nondelusion they are deemed wholesome (P. kusala; S. KUsALA). He further explains the significance of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, the twelve links of dependent origination (P. paticcasamuppāda, S. PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA), and the afflictions.

saMvṛtibodhicitta. (T. kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems). In Sanskrit, "conventional (or relative) aspiration to enlightenment." In Indian MAHĀYĀNA scholastic literature, this term is contrasted with the "ultimate aspiration to enlightenment" (PARAMĀRTHABODHICITTA). The term saMvṛtibodhicitta is used to refer to BODHICITTA in its more common usage, as the aspiration to achieve buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. It is the generation of this aspiration for enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) that marks the beginning of the bodhisattva path and the Mahāyāna path of accumulation (SAMBHĀRAMĀRGA). The ultimate aspiration or mind of enlightenment refers to the bodhisattva's direct realization of the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). In the case of the MADHYAMAKA school's interpretation, this would be the direct realization of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Such realization, and hence the ultimate aspiration to enlightenment, occurs beginning on the Mahāyāna path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and is further developed on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). These two types of bodhicitta explain how bodhicitta is present both during periods of concentration or equipoise (see SAMĀPATTI, SAMĀHITA) on the ultimate truth and during all the other stages of the path, called subsequent attainment (pṛsthalabdha; cf. PṚstHALABDHAJNĀNA). These two terms inform the presentation of bodhicitta in the BODHICITTAVIVARAnA, attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA, and are widely employed in Tibetan BLO SBYONG literature.

samyagdṛsti. (P. sammāditthi; T. yang dag pa'i lta ba; C. zhengjian; J. shoken; K. chonggyon 正見). Often translated as "right view" or "correct view," the first constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA). It is described as the correct understanding of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni); namely, the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path leading to the end of suffering. The last truth is itself the same as the eightfold path. Right view is also identified as the correct understanding of nonself (ANĀTMAN). In the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, right view refers to the understanding of the vision of truth that has just been witnessed, the unique formulation of the inexpressible in the mind of the awakened one who has just emerged from equipoise (SAMĀHITA).

samyagvyāyāma. (P. sammāvāyāma; T. yang dag pa'i rtsol ba; C. zhengjingjin; J. shoshojin; K. chongjongjin 正精進). In Sanskrit, "right effort" or "correct effort"; the sixth constituent of the noble eightfold path (ĀRYĀstĀnGAMĀRGA), which is divided into four progressive endeavors: (1) preventing the arising of unwholesome (AKUsALA) mental states that have not yet arisen, (2) continuing to abandon unwholesome mental states that have already arisen, (3) generating wholesome (KUsALA) mental states that have not yet arisen, and (4) continuing to cultivate wholesome mental states that have already arisen. These wholesome mental states are characterized by mindfulness (SMṚTI), energy (VĪRYA), rapture (PRĪTI), concentration (SAMĀDHI), and equanimity (UPEKsĀ), with the emphasis on energy or vigor (vīrya), here called effort (vyāyāma). In a more technical sense, as the sixth constituent of the eightfold noble path as set forth in the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, and parts of the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, samyagvyāyāma is the right effort required to eliminate the specific sets of afflictions (KLEsA) that are to be abandoned on the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA). The same force, required right from the start of the development of the path to enlightenment, is systematized as the four pradhāna (effort) or PRAHĀnA (abandonments). Like smṛti and samādhi (see ṚDDHIPĀDA), effort is singled out for special treatment because of its importance at all stages of the path. The word SAMYAKPRADHĀNA (correct effort) is synonymous with samyakvyāyāma when it describes pradhāna that is fully developed. See also SAMYAKPRADHĀNA.

SāNcī. A famous STuPA or CAITYA about six miles southwest of Vidisā in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; often seen transcribed as Sanchi. The SāNcī stupa and its surrounding compound is one of the best-preserved Buddhist archeological sites in the world and is well known for its many monasteries, reliquaries, pillars, and stone relief carvings. SāNcī was an active site of worship and pilgrimage in India between the third century BCE and the twelfth century CE. However, unlike other pilgrimage sites such as SĀRNĀTH and BODHGAYĀ, SāNcī is not known to be a place that was associated with the historical Buddha and there are no records or stories of the Buddha himself ever visiting the site. The emperor AsOKA is credited with laying the foundation of the compound by erecting a stupa and a pillar on the site. Other stories mention a Vidisā woman whom Asoka married, called Vidisā Devī, who was a devout Buddhist; according to tradition, she was the one who initiated construction of a Buddhist monastery at the site. When Asoka ascended the throne at PĀtALIPUTRA, she did not accompany him to the capital, but remained behind in her hometown and later became a nun. SāNcī and the nearby city of Vidisā were located near the junction of two important trading routes, and the city's wealthy merchants munificently supported its monasteries and religious sites. Structures erected during the rule of the sungas and the sātavāhanas still stand today, and the area flourished after 400 CE during the reign of the Guptas. SāNcī subsequently fell into a lengthy decline and seems to have been completely deserted at least by the end of the thirteenth century. The site was rediscovered in 1818 by a certain British General Taylor, who excavated the western section of the stupa; his archeological work was continued by F. C. Maisay and Alexander Cunningham, who discovered relics (sARĪRA) believed to be those of the Buddha's two major disciples sĀRIPUTRA and MAHĀMAUDGALYĀYANA in the center of the dome of the main stupa. There was ongoing controversy within different divisions of the British colonial government over whether or not SāNcī artifacts should be shipped to British museums; finally, in 1861, the Archeological Survey of India was established and the area was preserved and protected. See also NĀSIK.

sandi. (J. santai; K. samje 三諦). In Chinese, "three truths," "threefold truth," or "three judgments"; a tripartite exegetical description of reality as being empty, provisional, and their mean, used in both the SAN LUN ZONG and TIANTAI ZONG of Chinese Buddhist philosophy. The three truths are said to have been first taught by SŬNGNANG (c. 450-c. 520), whom tradition considers an important vaunt courier in the development of the Chinese San lun school, the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA branch of Indian philosophical exegesis, and then developed by later thinkers in both the San lun and Tiantai traditions. This Chinese notion of three truths is said to derive from a verse appearing in the Chinese translation of NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ (C. Zhong lun): "All phenomena that are produced from causes and conditions,/These in fact are empty. /They are also provisional names. /This as well is the meaning of the middle way." This account is then systematized by Chinese exegetes into: (1) the authentic truth of emptiness (kongdi), viz., all things are devoid of inherent existence and are empty in their essential nature: (2) the conventional truth of being provisionally real (jiadi), viz., all things are products of a causal process that gives them a derived reality; and (3) the ultimate truth of the mean (zhongdi), viz., all things, in their absolute reality, are neither real nor unreal, but simply thus. This three-truth schema may have been influenced by indigenous Chinese scriptures (see APOCRYPHA) such as the RENWANG JING and the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING. The Renwang jing, for example, discusses a three-truth SAMĀDHI (sandi sanmei), in which these three types of concentrations are named worldly truth (shidi), authentic truth (zhendi), and supreme-meaning truth (diyiyidi). In this treatment, worldly truth is the affirmation of the dualistic phenomena of ordinary existence, while authentic truth is presumed to be the denial of the reality of those phenomena; both are therefore aspects of what is typically called conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA) in the two-truth schema (see SATYADVAYA). The supreme-meaning truth transcends all dichotomies, including affirmation and negation, to provide an all-embracing perspective and corresponds to ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). This schema is peculiar, and betrays its Chinese origins, because "authentic truth" and "supreme-meaning truth" are actually just different Chinese renderings of the same Sanskrit term, paramāthasatya. Zhiyi also interprets the statement "neither the same nor different" in the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra") as referring implicitly to the three-truth schema: "different" is the conventional truth of provisional reality, "same" is the authentic truth of emptiness, and the whole phrase is the ultimate truth of the mean. These presentations demonstrate that the Chinese were grappling with what they considered to be an unresolved internal tension in Indian presentations of conventional and ultimate truth and were exploring a three-truth schema as one means of resolving that tension.

sanimitta. (T. mtshan bcas). In Sanskrit, literally "with marks" or "with signs," a term that has at least two principal denotations. In the context of MADHYAMAKA, sanimitta is a pejorative term, implying that one perceives the world via the chimeric signs or marks of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). Because all phenomena are ultimately "signless" (ĀNIMITTA), to perceive them as having signs is a benighted form of ignorance. In the context of tantric meditation, however, the term has a more salutary meaning. Tantric texts and especially YOGATANTRAs, mention two forms of meditation, one called "yoga with signs" (SANIMITTAYOGA), the other "yoga without signs" (ANIMITTAYOGA). Yoga with signs refers to meditation in which one visualizes oneself as a deity, one's environment as a MAndALA, etc. Yoga without signs refers to meditation in which one meditates on emptiness (suNYATĀ). In certain tantric SĀDHANAs, both forms of meditation are performed.

San lun xuanyi. (J. Sanron gengi; K. Sam non hyonŭi 三論玄義). In Chinese, "Profound Meaning of the Three Treatises," composed by the monk JIZANG sometime around 597. Although the title mentions the so-called "three treatises" (see SAN LUN ZONG), the San lun xuanyi is actually a commentary on four influential texts, namely the Zhong lun (cf. S. MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ), BAI LUN (S. *sATAsĀSTRA), SHI'ERMEN LUN (S. *Dvādasamukhasāstra), and DAZHIDU LUN (*MahāprajNāpāramitāsastra). The San lun xuanyi systematically presents the teachings of NĀGĀRJUNA and provides a succinct explanation of the notion of emptiness (suNYATĀ). Jizang's treatise consists of two main sections, which he terms the destruction of heresies and the elucidation of truth. His first section discusses the non-Buddhist teachings of India and the traditions of Zhuangzi, Laozi, and the Zhouyi in China. He also condemns ABHIDHARMA as HĪNAYĀNA teachings, the *TATTVASIDDHI as provisional MAHĀYĀNA, and the teachings of the five periods (see WUSHI BAJIAO) as a misleading attachment to MAHĀYĀNA. In the second section, Jizang explains the appearance of Nāgārjuna and the teachings of the Zhong lun, Bai lun, Shi'ermen lun, and Dazhidu lun. Jizang's explanations rely heavily upon the notion of the two truths (SATYADVAYA).

San lun zong. (J. Sanronshu; K. Sam non chong 三論宗). In Chinese, the "Three Treatises school," a Chinese analogue of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhism philosophy; a largely exegetical tradition that focused on three important texts translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA, namely the Zhong lun ("Middle Treatise"), BAI LUN ("Hundred [Verse] Treatise"), and SHI'ERMEN LUN ("Twelve [Chapter] Treatise"). The Zhong lun is ostensibly a translation of NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. Kumārajīva's translation (dated 409), however, also contains his own notes as well as a commentary on Nāgārjuna's text by Pingala (fl. c. 4 CE). The Bai lun (*sATAsĀSTRA) is attributed to ĀRYADEVA and was translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva in 404. In this text, the author employs the apophatic language of the Madhyamaka school and refutes the arguments of rival traditions. The Shi'ermen lun (*Dvādasamukhasāstra) is also attributed to Nāgārjuna and is purportedly an introductory manual to the Zhong lun. In this text, the author provides an interpretation of emptiness (suNYATĀ) in twelve chapters. No Sanskrit or Tibetan recensions of the Bai lun or Shi'ermen lun are extant. The "three treatises," however, exerted much influence in East Asia, where they functioned as the central texts for students of emptiness and Madhyamaka doctrine. JIZANG (549-623) wrote influential commentaries on the three treatises and came to be regarded as the systematizer of the San lun school. He retrospectively traces the school to two important vaunt couriers: SENGZHAO (374-414), an influential early Chinese exegete and cotranslator of the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) literature, whose writings helped to popularize the works of the Madhyamaka school in China; and SŬNGNANG (c. 450-c. 520), who is claimed to have taught the notion of "three truths" or "three judgments" (SANDI)-the truths of emptiness, provisional reality, and their mean-an exegetical schema that was influential in the subsequent development of both the San lun and TIANTAI schools. The writings of San lun exegetes were also influential in Korea during the Three Kingdoms period (where the tradition was known as Sam non) and during the Nara and Heian periods in Japan (where it was called Sanron).

sāntaraksita. (T. Zhi ba 'tsho) (725-788). Eighth-century Indian Mahāyāna master who played an important role in the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. According to traditional accounts, he was born into a royal family in Zahor in Bengal and was ordained at NĀLANDĀ monastery, where he became a renowned scholar. He is best known for two works. The first is the TATTVASAMGRAHA, or "Compendium of Principles," a critical survey and analysis of the various non-Buddhist and Buddhist schools of Indian philosophy, set forth in 3,646 verses in twenty-six chapters. This work, which is preserved in Sanskrit, along with its commentary by his disciple KAMALAsĪLA, remains an important source on the philosophical systems of India during this period. His other famous work is the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA, or "Ornament of the Middle Way," which sets forth his own philosophical position, identified by later Tibetan doxographers as YOGĀCĀRA-*SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA, so called because it asserts, as in YOGĀCĀRA, that external objects do not exist, i.e., that sense objects are of the nature of consciousness; however, it also asserts, unlike Yogācāra and like MADHYAMAKA, that consciousness lacks ultimate existence. It further asserts that conventional truths (SAMVṚTISATYA) possess their own character (SVALAKsAnA) and in this regard differs from the other branch of Madhyamaka, the *PRĀSAnGIKA. The Yogacāra-Madhyamaka synthesis, of which sāntaraksita is the major proponent, was the most important philosophical development of late Indian Buddhism, and the MadhyamakālaMkāra is its locus classicus. This work, together with the MADHYAMAKĀLOKA of sāntaraksita's disciple Kamalasīla and the SATYADVAYAVIBHAnGA of JNĀNAGARBHA, are known in Tibet as the "three works of the eastern *Svātantrikas" (rang rgyud shar gsum) because the three authors were from Bengal. sāntaraksita's renown as a scholar was such that he was invited to Tibet by King KHRI SRONG LDE BTSAN. When a series of natural disasters indicated that the local deities were not positively disposed to the introduction of Buddhism, he left Tibet for Nepal and advised the king to invite the Indian tantric master PADMASAMBHAVA, who subdued the local deities. With this accomplished, sāntaraksita returned, the first Buddhist monastery of BSAM YAS was founded, and sāntaraksita invited twelve MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA monks to Tibet to ordain the first seven Tibetan monks. sāntaraksita lived and taught at Bsam yas from its founding (c. 775) until his death (c. 788) in an equestrian accident. Tibetans refer to him as the "bodhisattva abbot." The founding of Bsam yas and the ordination of the first monks were pivotal moments in Tibetan Buddhist history, and the relationship of sāntaraksita, Padmasambhava, and Khri srong lde btsan figures in many Tibetan legends, most famously as brothers in a previous life. Prior to his death, sāntaraksita predicted that a doctrinal dispute would arise in Tibet, in which case his disciple Kamalasīla should be invited from India. Such a conflict arose between the Indian and Chinese factions, and Kamalasīla came to Tibet to debate with the Chan monk Moheyan in what is referred to as the BSAM YAS DEBATE, or the "Council of Lhasa."

sāntideva. (T. Zhi ba lha). Eighth-century Indian monk of NĀLANDĀ monastery, renowned as the author of two influential MAHĀYĀNA texts: the BODHICARYĀVATĀRA (a long poem on the practice of the bodhisattva path) and the sIKsĀSAMUCCAYA (a compendium of passages from Mahāyāna sutras corroborating the explanations given in the Bodhicaryāvatāra). Nothing is known of his life apart from legends. According to these tales, he was of royal birth but renounced the world before his investiture as king. At Nālandā monastery, he was known as an indolent monk. In order to humiliate him, his fellow monks challenged him to recite sutras before the assembly. He asked whether they wished to hear something old or something new. When they requested something new, he recited the Bodhicaryāvatāra. When he reached the ninth chapter, on wisdom (PRAJNĀ), he began to rise into the air and disappeared, never to return. For this reason, there is some controversy as to how the ninth chapter ends, and indeed, there are different recensions of the text, one longer and one shorter. Based on the contents of the Bodhicaryāvatāra's ninth chapter, Tibetan doxographers count sāntideva as a proponent of the *PRĀSAnGIKA-MADHYAMAKA. The Bodhicaryāvatāra was very influential in Tibet; particularly noteworthy is the BKA' GDAMS tradition of dge bshes Po to ba, who lists it and the siksāsamuccaya, along with the BODHISATTVABHuMI, MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, Āryasura's JĀTAKAMĀLĀ, and the UDĀNAVARGA, as the six fundamental treatises of the Bka' gdams tradition.

Sarvāstivāda. (T. Thams cad yod par smra ba; C. Shuo yiqieyou bu/Sapoduo bu; J. Setsuissaiubu/Satsubatabu; K. Sorilch'eyu pu/Salbada pu 一切有部/薩婆多部). In Sanskrit, "Teaching that All Exists," one of the most influential of all the mainstream (that is, non-Mahāyāna) schools of Indian Buddhism, named after its doctrine that all conditioned factors (DHARMA) continue to exist (sarvam asti) throughout all three time periods (TRIKĀLA) of past, present, and future. The Sarvāstivāda had one of the most elaborate ABHIDHARMA canons (ABHIDHARMAPItAKA) in all of Buddhism and the school was especially known for its distinctive and influential dharma theory. The Sarvāstivāda identified seventy-five dharmas that the school held were substantially existent (dravyasat) and endowed with intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA): viz., the five sense organs (INDRIYA), the five sense objects, nonmanifest materiality (AVIJNAPTIRuPA), mind (CITTA), forty-six mental concomitants (CAITTA), fourteen conditioned forces dissociated from thought (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA), and three unconditioned (ASAMSKṚTA) factors. Although the conditioned dharmas always existed, they still were impermanent and thus still moved between temporal periods because of specific "forces dissociated from thought" (CITTAVIPRAYUKTASAMSKĀRA): the "compounded characteristics" (SAMSKṚTALAKsAnA, CATURLAKsAnA) of origination (JĀTI), continuance (STHITI), "senescence" or decay (JARĀ), and "desinence," viz., extinction (ANITYATĀ). In the Sarvāstivāda treatment of causality, these four characteristics were forces that exerted real power over compounded objects, escorting those objects along the causal path until the force "desinence" finally extinguished them; this rather tortured explanation was necessary in order to explain how factors that the Sarvāstivāda school posited continued to exist in all three time periods yet still appeared to undergo change. Even after enlightenment, those dharmas still continued to exist, although they were then effectively "canceled out" through the force of the "nonanalytical suppressions" (APRATISAMKHYĀNIRODHA), which kept in check the production of all types of dharmas, ensuring that they remained positioned in future mode forever and were never again able to arise in the present. This distinctive dharma theory of the Sarvāstivāda was probably what the MADHYAMAKA philosopher NĀGĀRJUNA was reacting against in his clarion call that all dharmas were devoid of intrinsic existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA) and thus characterized by emptiness (suNYATĀ). The Sarvāstivāda school's elaborate abhidharma was also the inspiration for the still more intricate "Mahāyāna abhidharma" of the YOGĀCĀRA school (see BAIFA), which drew much of its classification scheme and many of its specific dharmas directly from the Sarvāstivāda. In describing the path of the ARHAT, the Sarvāstivāda set forth a five-stage path system (PANCAMĀRGA, of accumulation/equipment, preparation, vision, cultivation, and no further learning) for the ARHAT and asserted that the BODHISATTVA practices six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ) in the course of his training. This five-stage path was also adopted by the Yogācāra in its own theory of the bodhisattva MĀRGA. The Sarvāstivāda developed an elaborate view of the Buddha and the events of his life, as represented in the famous LALITAVISTARA. In its view of death and rebirth, Sarvāstivāda accepted the reality of the "intermediate state" (ANTARĀBHAVA) between rebirths, which in the Sarvāstivāda analysis could range from instantaneous rebirth, to rebirth after a week, indeterminate duration, and as many as forty-nine days; the latter figure seems to have become dominant in later traditions, including Mahāyāna, after it was adopted by the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA and the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI. The Sarvāstivāda was one of the main subgroups of the STHAVIRANIKĀYA (School of the Elders), which split with the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA in the first centuries following the Buddha's death. The Sarvāstivāda evolved as one of the three major subdivisions of the Sthaviranikāya, perhaps as early as a century or two following the first schism, but certainly no later than the first century CE. Sarvāstivāda was one of the most enduring and widespread of the mainstream Buddhist schools. It was especially important in northern India in such influential Buddhist regions as KASHMIR and GANDHĀRA and eventually along the SILK ROAD in some of the Indo-European petty kingdoms of the Tarim River basin, such as KUCHA. Its geographical location along the major overland trade routes also led to it becoming the major mainstream school known to East Asian Buddhism. The Sarvāstivāda school includes an important subgroup, the VAIBHĀsIKA ("Followers of the Vibhāsā"), who were the ĀBHIDHARMIKAs associated with the Sarvāstivāda school, especially in Kashmir in northwestern India but also in Gandhāra and even BACTRIA. Because these masters considered their teachings to be elaborations of doctrines found in the encyclopedic Sarvāstivāda abhidharma treatise, the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ, they typically referred to themselves as Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāsika or simply Vaibhāsika. This group was later also distinguished from the MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA ("Root Sarvāstivāda"), a distinction that may have originated in a dispute over VINAYA recensions between the northwestern Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāsika school in Kashmir and Gandhāra and the Sarvāstivāda school of MATHURĀ in north-central India. The Mulasarvāstivāda is best known for its massive MuLASARVĀSTIVĀDA VINAYA, one of the oldest and by far the largest (by up to a factor of four) of the major monastic codes (see VINAYAPItAKA) of the mainstream Buddhist schools; because of its eclectic content, it functioned almost as a proto-canon. The Mulasarvāstivāda vinaya is the monastic code still followed today in the Tibetan traditions of Buddhism. See also SAUTRĀNTIKA.

sāsvatānta. (P. sassata; T. rtag pa'i mtha'; C. changbian; J. johen; K. sangbyon 常邊). In Sanskrit, "extreme of eternalism"; one of the two extremes (along with the extreme of annihilationism, or UCCHEDĀNTA) included in the ANTAGRĀHADṚstI, or "extreme views." There are six root afflictions (MuLAKLEsA), according to the hundred-dharma list (BAIFA) of the YOGĀCĀRA ABHIDHARMA, the last of which is DṚstI ([wrong] views); dṛsti is further subdivided into five types of wrong views, which in turn include antagrāhadṛsti. The "extreme view" refers specifically to the mistaken notion that (1) there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next, or (2) the continuum (SAMTĀNA) of consciousness is annihilated at death and thus not subject to rebirth. The former view is called the extreme of eternalism (sĀsVATADṚstI; P. sassataditthi); the latter, the extreme of annihilationism (UCCHEDADṚstI; P. ucchedaditthi). The praise of the Buddha by NĀGĀRJUNA at the opening of his MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ says that the Buddha avoided these two and six other extremes (the extremes of cessation and production, coming and going, difference and sameness) by teaching that all dharmas are products of a process of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) and are thus free from any essential nature (SVABHĀVA). Although variously defined, the term sāsvānta is generally used in descriptions of the view that phenomena possess a greater degree of permanence and reality than they in fact do, a tenet that is often ascribed to non-Buddhist schools, such as SāMkhya. The various schools of Buddhist philosophy also deploy the term polemically to denigrate the tenets of a rival. The SAUTRĀNTIKA school, for example, could claim that the Sarvāstivāda position that dharmas exist throughout all three time periods represented a mistaken attachment to the extreme of permanence; the MADHYAMAKA school could claim that the YOGĀCĀRA assertion that all objects have the nature of consciousness represented a mistaken attachment to the extreme of permanence. The extremes (anta) are contrasted with the middle (madhyama) that defines freedom from SAMSĀRA, or, in Mahāyāna works, freedom from the extremes of both SAMSĀRA and NIRVĀnA. The Buddhist middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between these two extremes posits that there is no permanent, perduring soul (countering eternalism), and yet there is karmic continuity from one lifetime to the next (countering annihilationism). See also SATKĀYADṚstI.

*satasāstra. (C. Bai lun [alt. Bo lun]; J. Hyakuron; K. Paek non 百論). In Sanskrit, lit., "The Hundred Treatise," a work attributed to the MADHYAMAKA master ĀRYADEVA, and counted as one of the "three treatises" of the SAN LUN ZONG of Chinese Buddhism, together with the Zhong lun ("Middle Treatise") and SHI'ERMEN LUN ("Twelve Gate Treatise"), both attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA. The Zhong lun is ostensibly a translation of Nāgārjuna's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ; however, KUMĀRAJĪVA's translation (dated 409) also contains his own annotation and a commentary to Nāgārjuna's text by Pingala (fl. fourth century CE). The Shi'ermen lun (*Dvādasamukhasāstra) is also attributed to Nāgārjuna and is purportedly an introductory manual to the Zhong lun. The satasāstra was translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva in 404. No Sanskrit or Tibetan recensions of the work are known to exist; the Sanskrit title is a reconstruction. Some have speculated that the work is an abbreviated version of Āryadeva's most famous work, the CATUḤsATAKA. The two works consider many of the same topics, including the nature of NIRVĀnA and the meaning of emptiness (suNYATĀ) in a similar fashion and both refute SāMkhya and Vaisesika positions, but the order of their treatment of these topics and their specific content differ; the satakasāstra also contains material not found in the Catuḥsataka. The satasāstra is therefore probably not a mere summary of the Catuḥsataka, but may instead represent Kumārajīva's interpretation of Āryadeva's text.

Satipatthānasutta. (S. *Smṛtyupasthānasutra; T. Dran pa nye bar bzhag pa'i mdo; C. Nianchu jing; J. Nenjogyo; K. Yomch'o kyong 念處經). In Pāli, "Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness"; the tenth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the ninety-eighth SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA; there is another unidentified recension in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARĀGAMA). An expanded version of the same sutta, titled the "Great Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness" (MAHĀSATIPAttHĀNASUTTANTA), which adds extensive discussion on mindfulness of breathing (P. ānāpānasati, S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI), is the twenty-second sutta in the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA. This sutta is one of the most widely commented upon texts in the Pāli canon and continues to hold a central place in the modern VIPASSANĀ (S. VIPAsYANĀ) movement. The sutta was preached by the Buddha to a gathering of disciples in the town of Kammāsadhamma in the country of the Kurus. The discourse enumerates twenty-one meditation practices for the cultivation of mindfulness (P. sati, S. SMṚTI), a term that refers to an undistracted watchfulness and attentiveness, or to recollection and thus memory. In the text, the Buddha explains the practice under a fourfold rubric called the four foundations of mindfulness (P. satipatthāna, S. SMṚTYUPASTHĀNA). The four foundations are comprised of "contemplation of the body" (P. kāyānupassanā, S. KĀYĀNUPAsYANĀ); "contemplation of sensations" (P. vedanānupassanā, S. vedanānupasyanā), that is, physical and mental sensations (VEDANĀ) that are pleasurable, painful, or neutral; "contemplation of mind" (P. cittānupassanā, S. cittānupasyanā), in which one observes the broader state of mind (CITTA) as, e.g., shrunken or expanded, while under the influence of various positive and negative emotions; and "contemplation of phenomena" (P. dhammānupassanā, S. dharmānupasyanā), which involves the contemplation of several key doctrinal categories, such as the five aggregates (P. khandha, S. SKANDHA) and the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. The first of the four, the mindfulness of the body, involves fourteen exercises, beginning with the mindfulness of the inhalation and exhalation of the breath (P. ānāpānasati, S. ĀNĀPĀNASMṚTI). Mindfulness of the breath is followed by mindfulness of the four physical postures (P. iriyāpatha, S. ĪRYĀPATHA) of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down. This is then extended to a full general awareness of all physical activities. Thus, mindfulness is something that is also meant to accompany all of one's actions in the course of the day, and is not restricted to formal meditation sessions. This discussion is followed by mindfulness of the various components of the body, an intentionally revolting list that includes fingernails, bile, spittle, and urine. Next is the mindfulness of the body as composed of the four great elements (MAHĀBHuTA) of earth, water, fire, and air. Next are the "contemplations on the impure" (P. asubhabhāvanā, S. AsUBHABHĀVANĀ), viz., contemplation of a corpse in nine successive stages of decomposition. The practice of the mindfulness of the body is designed to induce the understanding that the body is a collection of impure elements that arise and cease in rapid succession, utterly lacking any kind of permanent self. This insight into the three marks of existence-impermanence, suffering, and no-self-leads in turn to enlightenment. Mindfulness of the body is presented as the core meditative practice, with the other three types of mindfulness applied as the meditator's attention is drawn to those factors. The sutta calls the foundations of mindfulness the ekayānamagga, which in this context might be rendered as "the only path" or "the one way forward," and states that correct practice of the four foundations of mindfulness will lead to the stage of the worthy one (P. arahant, S. ARHAT), or at least the stage of the nonreturner (P. anāgāmi, S. ANĀGĀMIN), in as little as seven days of practice, according to some interpretations. See also ANUPASSANĀ.

satyadvaya. (P. saccadvaya; T. bden pa gnyis; C. erdi; J. nitai; K. ije 二諦). In Sanskrit, "the two truths," viz., "ultimate truth" (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and "conventional truth" (SAMVṚTISATYA). The two truths are central terms in Buddhist philosophy for categorizing the phenomena of the universe. Regardless of the school, the two truths are presumed to be exhaustive, with everything that exists, that is, all DHARMAs, falling into one of the two categories. This bifurcation is associated especially with the MADHYAMAKA school, but it occurs in other schools as well, with each providing its own view of what constitutes the two truths. In each case, however, conventional truths might be described as the objects of ordinary experience that tend to be misperceived by the unenlightened, by mistakenly ascribing to them a greater degree of reality than they in fact possess. Thus, despite being "truths," conventional truths are falsely perceived, as implied in the term saMvṛti, with its connotation of deception. Ultimate truths, literally "supreme object truths," might be described as those realities that exist as they appear and whose direct perception can lead to liberation from rebirth. For the VAIBHĀsIKA branch of SARVĀSTIVĀDA ABHIDHARMA, a conventional truth is any phenomenon that can be either physically or mentally broken down into parts; an ultimate truth is a partless particle of matter or an indivisible moment of consciousness. For the YOGĀCĀRA, conventional truths are dependent phenomena (PARATANTRA) as well as permanent phenomena such as space (ĀKĀsA); ultimate truths are consummate natures (PARINIsPANNA). In Madhyamaka, conventional truths are all phenomena other than emptiness (suNYATĀ), which is the ultimate truth. The Chinese SAN LUN ZONG(Madhyamaka) master JIZANG (549-623) discusses the three stages of the two truths, in which each of these stages serves to correct any possible reification of Buddhist truth.

Satyadvayavibhanga. (T. Bden pa gnyis rnam par 'byed pa). In Sanskrit, "Distinction Between the Two Truths," a work by the eighth-century MADHYAMAKA master JNĀNAGARBHA. According to Tibetan classification, the work belongs to the SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA, and within that, the SAUTRĀNTIKA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. This work, together with the MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRA by sĀNTARAKsITA and the MADHYAMAKĀLOKA of KAMALAsĪLA are known in Tibet as the "three works of the eastern *SVĀTANTRIKAs" (rang rgyud shar gsum) because the three authors were from Bengal. The Satyadvayavibhanga is composed in verses (kārikā) and includes a prose autocommentary (vṛtti) by the author. There is also a commentary (paNjikā) by sāntaraksita, who is said to have been a student of JNānagarbha. The text presumably takes its title from Nāgārjuna's statement in his MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ: "Those who do not comprehend the distinction between these two truths do not know the nature of the profound doctrine of the Buddha." The ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) is nondeceptive; its nature accords not with appearance, but with valid knowledge gained through reasoning (nyāya). It is also free from discursive thought (NIRVIKALPA). The conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA) includes ordinary appearances, or as the text says, "whatever appears even to cowherds and women." Within the category of the conventional, there are true and false conventions, which are distinguished based on their ability to perform a function (ARTHAKRIYĀ) in accordance with their appearance; thus water is a true convention and a mirage is a false convention. The work ends with a discussion of the three bodies (TRIKĀYA) of a buddha.

satya. (P. sacca; T. bden pa; C. di; J. tai; K. che 諦). In Sanskrit, "truth," in the sense of that which is nondeceptive and exists as it appears. The term appears in two famous lists: the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni) that were set forth in the Buddha's first sermon, the DHAMMACAKKAPPAVATTANASUTTA (S. DHARMACAKRAPRAVARTANASuTRA); and the two truths (SATYADVAYA) discussed in the Buddhist philosophical schools and especially in MADHYAMAKA, viz., the conventional truth, or SAMVṚTISATYA, and the ultimate truth, or PARAMĀRTHASATYA. In Madhyamaka, satya is also used in the compound satyasiddha, "truly existent" or "truly established," to refer to a false degree of truth or autonomy imagined by ignorance. It is also found in the compound SATYAVACANA ("statement of truth"), where magical powers derive from the truth inherent in one's words. In the MAHĀYĀNA, such solemn asseverations of truth reflect the power of a bodhisattva's aspiration to bring about the welfare of all sentient beings. See also SANDI.

Satyas (Sanskrit) Satya-s [from satya truth, reality] A name given in each kalpa to the twelve great gods (jayas) emanated by Brahma to bring about cosmic production or being. See also SADHYA

Sautrāntika-Svātantrika-Madhyamaka. (T. Mdo sde spyod pa'i dbu ma rang rgyud pa). One of the two subschools (along with the YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA) of the *SVĀTANTRIKA branch of MADHYAMAKA, as identified by Tibetan exegetes. This is the school of BHĀVAVIVEKA, his commentator AVALOKITAVRATA, and JNĀNAGARBHA. Like other Svātantrikas, these three exegetes assert that phenomena exist conventionally by way of their own qualities (SVALAKsAnA). They thus declare that external objects exist conventionally and deny the existence of a self-cognizing awareness (SVASAMVEDANA). With regard to the path, they contend that sRĀVAKAs and PRATYEKABUDDHAs understand the selflessness of the person (PUDGALANAIRĀTMYA) but not the selflessness of phenomena (DHARMANAIRĀTMYA), whereas BODHISATTVAs understand both kinds of nonself.

Sautrāntika. (T. Mdo sde pa; C. Jingliang bu; J. Kyoryobu; K. Kyongnyang pu 經量部). In Sanskrit, "Followers of the Sutras," one of the "mainstream" (that is, non-MAHĀYĀNA) schools of Indian Buddhism, which may have been a dissenting offshoot of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school. Its name was apparently meant to distinguish this school from those ĀBHIDHARMIKAs who based themselves on ABHIDHARMA treatises, such as the ABHIDHARMAMAHĀVIBHĀsĀ. The Sautrāntika were "Followers of the Sutras" because they were said to have rejected the validity of the abhidharma as being the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA) and advocated a doctrine of momentariness (KsAnIKAVĀDA), in which (again in distinction to the Sarvāstivāda) only present activity exists. No texts of the school are extant, but its positions are represented in the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, which presents the SARVĀSTIVĀDA-VAIBHĀsIKA positions in detail, and as deficient relative to a putative Sautrāntika position. According to Tibetan accounts, VASUBANDHU, the author of the Abhidharmakosabhāsya, wrote from the perspective of the Sautrāntika position even while he himself was a YOGĀCĀRA adherent. Similarly, some of the chapters of the Yogācāra DHARMAKĪRTI's explanation of Dignāga's logical system are written from the Sautrāntika perspective. According to sĀNTARAKsITA and his student KAMALAsĪLA, one major difference between the Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika schools is their respective rejection or acceptance of SVASAMVEDANA ("self-cognizing awareness"). Although both schools accept that atoms (PARAMĀnU) build up to form external objects that are perceived by consciousness, the Vaibhāsika say that the mind knows these objects directly, while the Sautrāntika position is that it knows them through images (ākāra). In late Indian and Tibetan classifications, the Sautrāntika and Vaibhāsika are called the two sRĀVAKA schools (T. nyan thos sde pa), to distinguish them from the two Mahāyāna schools of YOGĀCĀRA and MADHYAMAKA.

Sengzhao. (J. Sojo; K. Sŭngjo 僧肇) (374-414). Influential early Chinese monk and exegete, whose writings helped to popularize the works of the MADHYAMAKA school in China. Sengzhao is said to have been born into an improverished family but was able to support himself by working as a copyist. Thanks to his trade, he was able to read through much of traditional Chinese literature and philosophy, including such Daoist classics as the Zhuangzi and Laozi, and is said to have resolved to become a monk after reading the VIMALAKĪRTINIRDEsA. He later became a disciple of KUMĀRAJĪVA and served as the Chinese-language stylist for Kumārajīva's translations. After Yao Xing (r. 394-416) of the Latter Qin dynasty (384-417) destroyed the state of Liang in 401, Sengzhao followed his teacher to Chang'an, where he and his colleague Sengrui (352-436) were appointed as two of the main assistants in Kumārajīva's translation bureau there. Yao Xing ordered them to elucidate the scriptures Kumārajīva had translated, so Sengzhao subsequently wrote his BORE WUZHI LUN to explicate the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀSuTRA that Kumārajīva and his team had translated in 404. This and other influential treatises by Sengzhao were later compiled together as the ZHAO LUN. Sengzhao's treatises and his commentary on the Vimalakīrtinirdesa played a crucial role in the development of MAHĀYĀNA thought in China. Sengzhao is treated retrospectively as a vaunt courier in the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese analogue of the Madhyamaka school, which was formally established some two centuries later by JIZANG (549-623). The influential BAOZANG LUN is also attributed to Sengzhao, although that treatise is probably a later work of the early CHAN tradition.

Se ra. A large monastic complex counted among the "three seats" (GDAN SA GSUM) of the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism, located at the north end of the LHA SA valley. TSONG KHA PA wrote Rtsa she tik chen rigs pa'i rgya mtsho, his commentary on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, in a hermitage above the future site of the monastery and predicted that it would become a great seat of learning. Foundations for the complex were laid in 1419 by Byams chen chos rje Shākya ye shes (Jamchen Choje Shākya Yeshe, 1354-1435), a disciple of Tsong kha pa. Begun as a center for tantric studies, four colleges were later established, which were later consolidiated into two: Se ra smad (Sera Me) and Se ra byes (Sera Je). Se ra byes, the larger of the two, was constructed by Kun mkhyen blo gros rin chen seng ge (Künkyen Lodro Rinchen Senge, fl. fifteenth century), a disciple of both Tsong kha pa and Byams chen chos rjes. A third college, the Sngags pa drwa tshang (Ngakpa Dratsang) or tantric college, was established in the eighteenth century, most likely under the patronage of the Mongolian ruler Lha bzang Khan. Traditionally said to house 5,500 monks, Se ra was home to roughly eight thousand monks at its peak, with some thirty-five regional dormitories (khams tshan). Monks from Se ra participated in the 1959 uprising against the Chinese People's Liberation Army, which led to the monastery being closed and used as an army barracks. It also suffered significant damage during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. After that, it reopened as a monastery, but with a much smaller monastic population. Following the exodus of Tibetans into exile after 1959, a new Se ra monastery was also established in south India, near the town of Bylakuppe.

Shadja (Sanskrit) Ṣaḍja Born of six; the first of the seven svaras or primary notes of music, so called because in Hindu theory it is supposed to be produced by six organs: tongue, teeth, palate, nose, throat, and chest. The other six svaras are riishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata, and nishada. Nishada and gandhara are referred to as the udatta accent, the acute accent or a high or sharp tone; rishabha and dhaivata as the anudatta accent, the grave accent or a general accentless neutral tone which is neither high nor low; and shadja, madhyama, and panchama as the svarita accent, corresponding to the Greek circumflex or a kind of mixed tone produced by a combination of a high tone and a low. The sound of the shadja is said to resemble the note of peacocks.

Shākya mchog ldan. (Shākya Chokden) (1428-1507). A celebrated Tibetan scholar associated with the SA SKYA sect. A renowned scholar of MADHYAMAKA, he defended the GZHAN STONG ("other emptiness") view of the JO NANG. He was a student of the Sa skya master Rong ston Shes bya kun rig (Rongton Sheja Künrik, 1367-1149). His explanation of the SDOM GSUM RAB DBYE was intended as a defense of SA SKYA PAndITA's views, but later Sa skya writers rejected it as authoritative in favor of the works of his contemporary, the Sa skya master GO BO RAB 'BYAMS PA BSOD NAMS SENG GE. Shākya mchog ldan's collected works fill twenty-four volumes and are known for their consistently high quality of scholarship and erudition. He was particularly critical of the views of TSONG KHA PA, and engaged in a polemical exchange with Rje btsun pa Chos kyi rgyal mtshan (Jetsünpa Chokyi Gyeltsen, 1469-1546) whose works became the standard textbooks of the Byes (Je) college of SE RA monastery.

Shi'ermen lun. (S. *Dvādasamukhasāstra, J. Junimonron; K. Sibimun non 十二門論). In Chinese, lit., "Twelve Gate Treatise," a Chinese translation of the *Dvādasamukhasāstra, made by KUMĀRAJĪVA in 409. As one of the "three treatises" of the SAN LUN ZONG, the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA school of Indian Buddhist philosophy, along with the BAI LUN (S. *sATAsĀSTRA; "The Hundred Treatise") and the Zhong lun ("Middle Treatise"), the Shi'ermen lun is purportedly an introductory manual to NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ (C. Zhong lun), which was also translated by KUMĀRAJĪVA in the same year (409) as this text. No Sanskrit or Tibetan recensions of the Shi'ermun lun are known to have existed and the Sanskrit title is a tentative reconstruction. In this text, the putative author Nāgārjuna provides an interpretation of emptiness (suNYATĀ) in twelve chapters. Each chapter begins with an introductory verse, supplemented in some cases with additional exegetical verses; the text is thus composed of twenty-six verses in total. Prose exegeses follow, explaining each of the verses. All verses except the seven opening ones are quoted from the Mulamadhyamakakārikā (seventeen verses) or the sunyatāsaptatikārikā (C. Kong qishi lun) (two verses), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The authorship of this text has been questioned even within the tradition. The San lun exegete JIZANG (549-623), in his commentary to the text, the Shi'ermun lun shu, attributes the verses to Nāgārjuna and the prose part to Pingala (d.u.), the sixth patriarch of the Madhyamaka school.

siddhānta. (T. grub mtha'; C. zong; J. shu; K. chong 宗). In Sanskrit, "conclusion" or "tenet," the term is used to refer to the various schools of Indian philosophy (both Buddhist and non-Buddhist), to their particular positions, and to texts that set out those positions in a systematic fashion. The most important examples of Buddhist siddhānta texts in India are BHĀVAVIVEKA's [alt. Bhavya] autocommentary (called TARKAJVĀLĀ) on his MADHYAMAKAHṚDAYAKĀRIKĀ and sĀNTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA; both set forth the positions of non-Buddhist and Buddhist philosophies in order to demonstrate the superiority of their respective MADHYAMAKA positions. They are paralleled in Indian non-Buddhist literature by sankarācārya's Brahmasutrabhāsya, for example, that sets forth the views of nāstika (heterodox) and āstika (orthodox) schools and shows the weaknesses and strengths in each as a strategy to demonstrate the superiority of sankara's own Advaita Vedānta philosophy. None of these Indian works were written simply as informative textbooks about the tenets of different Indian schools of thought. They instead have clear polemical agendas: namely, demonstrating the superiority of their own position, and showing how the lesser philosophies are either a hindrance or a stepping stone to their own philosophy, as revealed by the Buddha in the case of Buddhist siddhānta, and by the Vedas in the case of non-Buddhists. The SarvadarsanasaMgraha, a medieval work written from the perspective of a later Advaita school based on sankara's model, was important during the early reception of Buddhism in Europe and America in the nineteenth century because it cites the works of different schools of philosophy, including YOGĀCĀRA and Madhyamaka writers that were otherwise unknown at the time. As a literary genre, siddhānta reaches its full development in Tibet, where ever more detailed classifications of Indian and later Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian schools of Buddhism are found. Of particular importance are works known by the names of their authors: Dbu pa blo gsal (Upa Losel) (fl, fourteenth century), the first 'JAM DBYANGS BZHAD PA (1648-1721), and Lcang skya Rol pa'i rdo rje (1717-1786). Customarily Tibetan Buddhist siddhāntas employ the following structure: under the rubric of non-Buddhist (T. phyi pa) philosophies, they discuss the positions of the six schools that include Nyāya, Vaisesika, JAINA, SāMkhya, Yoga, and MīmāMsā. They are all dismissed as inferior, based on their assertion of the existence of a self (ĀTMAN) and a creator deity (īsvara), both positions that are refuted in Buddhism. The Buddhist schools are set forth in ascending order, starting with the HĪNAYĀNA schools of VAIBHĀsIKA and SAUTRĀNTIKA, followed by the Mahāyāna schools of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka. A typical structure for the presentation of each school was a tripartite division into the basis (gzhi), which set forth matters of epistemology and ontology; the path (lam), which set forth the structure of the path according to the particular school; and the fruition ('bras bu), which set forth the school's understanding of the enlightenment of ARHATs and buddhas. In Tibet, the genre of siddhānta was later expanded to include works that set forth the various sects and schools of Tibetan Buddhism and Chinese Buddhism. Cf. JIAOXIANG PANSHI.

Siddhas (Sanskrit) Siddha-s [from the verbal root sidh to attain] Perfected one, one who has attained relative perfection in this manvantara through self-devised efforts lasting through many imbodiments towards that end. A buddha is in this sense at times called a siddha. Generally, a hierarchy of dhyani-chohans who, according to Hindu mythology, inhabit the space between the earth and heaven (bhuvar-loka); the Vishnu-Purana states that there are 88,000 of them occupying the regions of the sky north of the sun and south of the seven rishis (the Great Bear). In later mythology they are confused with or take the place of the sadhyas, but in the Vedas the siddhas are those who are possessed from birth of superhuman powers — the eight siddhis — as also of knowledge and indifference to the world (Svetasvatara-Upanishad).

Sigālovādasutta. (S. sīgālovādasutra; C. Shansheng jing; J. Zenshokyo; K. Sonsaeng kyong 善生經). In Pāli, "Instructions to Sigāla" (also known as the Singālovādasutta and Sigālakasutta); thirty-first discourse in the Pāli DĪGHANIKĀYA (several different recensions appear in Chinese translations, including a DHARMAGUPTAKA recension that is the sixteenth sutra in the DĪRGHĀGAMA, a SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension that is the 135th sutra in the MADHYAMĀGAMA, and other recensions as well in the EKOTTARĀGAMA and SAMYUKTĀGAMA); often interpreted within the tradition to offer the outlines of a code of conduct (VINAYA) for the laity. The buddha preached this discourse at Rājagaha (S. RĀJAGṚHA) to Sigāla [alt. Singāla], a young brāhmana householder. Following the wishes of his deceased father, it was Sigāla's practice to worship the six cardinal directions of east, south, west, north, nadir and zenith. The Buddha explains to him that the directions so worshipped are actually meant to symbolize, respectively, parents, teachers, wife and children, friends and associates, servants and workmen, and finally religious mendicants (sRAMAnA) and brāhmanas. True veneration thus consists of fulfilling one's incumbent responsibilities toward each of these six groups of people, responsibilities that should be reciprocated in turn by each group. For instance, students should minister to teachers by rising to greet them, waiting on them, paying intention to their instructions, serving them, and mastering what they are taught; teachers in turn should minister to their students by thoroughly instructing them, making sure they have understood, grounding them in essential skills, recommending them to colleagues, and offering them security. The Buddha also offers practical advice on how to follow a well-lived life as a layperson, such as avoiding six ways of squandering wealth (viz., alcoholism, wandering the streets at inappropriate times, attending fairs and shows, gambling, keeping bad company, laziness), each of which in turn has six dangers.

sīlabhadra. (T. Ngang tshul bzang po; C. Jiexian; J. Kaigen; K. Kyehyon 戒賢) (529-645). Indian YOGĀCĀRA monk who hailed from the NĀLANDĀ monastic university in India. A native of the Samatata kingdom in eastern India, he resided at Nālandā after meeting DHARMAPĀLA (530-561) there. sīlabhadra is perhaps best known as the principal teacher of XUANZANG, the great Chinese pilgrim and translator. Through Xuanzang's contact with sīlabhadra, Dharmapāla's scholastic lineage was brought back to China, where it served as the foundation of the Chinese FAXIANG ZONG, which was developed by Xuanzang and his two main disciples, WoNCH'ŬK and KUIJI. It is recorded that sīlabhadra was already 106 years old when Xuanzang came to Nālandā to study with him. FAZANG (643-712) in his Dasheng qixinlun yiji quotes Divākara (613-687, C. Rizhao), a monk from central India, who describes the controversy between sīlabhadra, as the successor of Dharmapāla within the Indian Yogācāra tradition, and JNānaprabha (d.u., C. Zhiguang), a successor of BHĀVAVIVEKA (c. 490-570) in the SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA tradition.

Somapura. A large Buddhist monastery in northern Bangladesh, near the modern town of Ompur, probably built in the early-ninth century by the Pāla dynasty ruler Devapāla (r. 810-850 CE), the son of Dharmapāla, who had built VIKRAMAsĪLA. Somapura was a mahāvihāra, or "great monastery," under royal supervision and was known as the Dharmapāla Mahāvihara of Somapura. The monastery, which had a unique architectural style, included 177 monks' cells organized on four floors around a courtyard. It was one of the largest monasteries of its day, probably housing some eight hundred monks at the apex of its influence. The most architecturally significant element of the monastery is the Pāhārpur Temple, which is unlike other Indian temples, Hindu or Buddhist. It has a cruciform base, a terraced structure with inset chambers, and a pyramid form, quite similar to Buddhist temples in Burma, Java, and Cambodia. It remains a matter of controversy whether Somapura monastery might have served as a model for Southeast Asian temple architecture. In the mid-eleventh century, the monastery was burned by a Hindu king, but seems to have been restored. It is said that ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA stopped at Somapura on his way to Tibet, translating there BHĀVAVIVEKA's MADHYAMAKARATNAPRADĪPA into Tibetan.

sopadhisesanirvāna. (P. sopādisesanibbāna; T. phung po lhag ma dang bcas pa'i mya ngan las 'das pa/lhag bcas myang 'das; C. youyu niepan; J. uyonehan; K. yuyo yolban 有餘涅槃). In Sanskrit, "nirvāna with remainder"; one of the two kinds of NIRVĀnA, along with the "nirvāna without remainder" (ANUPADHIsEsANIRVĀnA), "with remainder" here meaning the residue of the aggregates (SKANDHA). At the time of his enlightenment under the BODHI TREE, the Buddha achieved the nirvāna with remainder, because he had destroyed all causes for future rebirth, but the "remainder" of his mind and body, viz., a substratum (UPADHI) of existence, persisted. At the time of his death, there was nothing more of the skandhas remaining, thus producing the "nirvāna without remainder," a synonym for PARINIRVĀnA. According to those MAHĀYĀNA schools which assert that there is only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) and that all sentient beings will achieve buddhahood, ARHATs who appear to enter the nirvāna without remainder at death actually do not do so; for if they did, it would be impossible for them to enter the bodhisattva path. Instead, they enter the uncontaminated realm (ANĀSRAVADHĀTU), where they remain in states of deep concentration (inside lotus flowers according to some texts) until they are roused by the buddhas and exhorted to abandon their "unafflicted ignorance" (AKLIstĀJNĀNA) and proceed on the path to buddhahood. ¶ In a *PRĀSAnGIKA-MADHYAMAKA interpretation, the vision of reality free from all elaborations (PRAPANCA) or dualistic subject-object conceptualization (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA) in a state of absorption or equipoise (samāhitajNāna)-a state that occurs on the path of vision (DARsANAMĀRGA) and the path of cultivation (BHĀVANĀMĀRGA)-is referred to as "nirvāna without remainder," because there is no appearance of any conventional reality (SAMVṚTI) while the meditator is in that state. In the subsequent state (PṚstHALABDHAJNĀNA), conventional reality reappears; this state is called nirvāna with remainder. In this explanation, upadhi means any appearance of conventional reality.

Spa tshab lo tsā ba Nyi ma grags. (Patsap Lotsawa Nyima Drak) (1055-1145?). A Tibetan scholar of the eleventh and twelfth centuries who played a major role in establishing MADHYAMAKA in Tibet during the period of the second dissemination (PHYI DAR) of the dharma, through his translation of the two major works of CANDRAKĪRTI, the PRASANNAPADĀ and the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA, as well as ĀRYADEVA's CATUḤsATAKA and Candrakīrti's commentary on it. At any early age, he made the arduous journey to Kashmir, where he spent the next twenty-three years, the first ten studying Sanskrit and the remaining years translating Madhyamaka works into Tibetan in collaboration with Kashmiri panditas at the monastery of Ratnaguptavihāra near modern-day Srinagar. His teachers and collaborators included Mahājana and Suksmajana, the sons of the master Sajjana, as well as Mahāsumati, the disciple of Parahita. He eventually returned to Tibet, accompanied by two Kashmiri scholars: Kanakavarman and Tilakakalasa. Basing himself at the RA MO CHE temple in LHA SA, he taught Madhyamaka and revised earlier translations of Madhyamaka texts. He thus played a major role in introducing what came to be known as *PRĀSAnGIKA into Tibet and providing the texts upon which the distinction between Prāsangika and *SVĀTANTRIKA could be made. Those terms were not names of branches of Madhyamaka school in India; rather, those designations were coined in Tibet, and Spa tshab may have been the first to use the term *Prāsangika (thal 'gyur pa). He is credited by Tibetan historians as making the *Prāsangika perspective, that is, the perspective of Candrakīrti, the prevailing interpretation of the works of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva in Tibet.

srāvakabhumi. (T. Nyan thos kyi sa; C. Shengwen di; J. Shomonji; K. Songmun chi 聲聞地). In Sanskrit, the "Stage of the Listener" or "Stage of the Disciple," a work by ASAnGA included in the first and main section (Bahubhumika/Bhumivastu, "Multiple Stages") of his massive compendium, the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI. The work, which also circulated as an independent text, deals with practices associated with the sRĀVAKA (disciples) and consists of four major sections (yogasthāna), which treat spiritual lineage (GOTRA), different types of persons (PUDGALA), preparation for practice (PRAYOGA), and the mundane path (LAUKIKAMĀRGA) and supramundane path (LOKATTARAMĀRGA). The first yogasthāna on spiritual lineage is divided into three parts. First, the stage of lineage (gotrabhumi) discusses the spiritual potentiality or lineage (gotra) of the srāvaka from four standpoints: its intrinsic nature, its establishment or definition (vyavasthāna), the marks (LInGA) characterizing the persons belonging to that lineage, and the classes of people in that lineage. Second, the stage of entrance (avatārabhumi) discusses the stage where the disciple enters upon the practice; like the previous part, this section treats this issue from these same four standpoints. Third, the stage of deliverance (naiskramyabhumi) explains the stage where the disciple, after severing the bonds of the sensual realm (KĀMADHĀTU), practices to obtain freedom from passion (VAIRĀGYA) by following either the mundane or supramundane path; this section subsequently discusses thirteen collections or equipment (saMbhāra) necessary to complete both paths, such as sensory restraint, controlling food intake, etc. This stage of deliverance (naiskramyabhumi) continues over the second through fourth yogasthānas to provide an extended treatment of sravāka practice. The second yogasthāna discusses the theoretical basis of sravāka practice in terms of persons (pudgala), divided into nineteen subsections on such subjects as the classes of persons who cultivate the sravāka path, meditative objects, descriptions of various states of concentration (SAMĀDHI), hindrances to meditation, etc. The third yogasthāna concerns the preliminary practices (prayoga) performed by these persons, describing in detail the process of training. This process begins by first visiting a teacher. If that teacher identifies him as belonging to the srāvaka lineage, the practitioner should then cultivate in five ways: (1) guarding and accumulating the requisites of samādhi (samādhisaMbhāra-raksopacaya), (2) selection (prāvivekya), (3) one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ), (4) elimination of hindrances (ĀVARAnA-visuddhi), and (5) cultivation of correct mental orientation (MANASKĀRA-bhāvanā). Among these five, the section on cittaikāgratā contains one of the most detailed discussions in Sanskrit sources of the meditative procedures for the cultivation of sAMATHA and VIPAsYANĀ. In the fourth yogasthāna, the practitioner, who has accomplished the five stages of application (prayoga), proceeds to either the mundane (laukika) or supramundane (lokottara) path. On the mundane path, the practitioner is said to be reborn into the various heavens of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU) or the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) by cultivating the four subtle-materiality meditative absorptions (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA) or the four immaterial meditative absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). On the supramundane path, the sravāka practices to attain the stage of worthy one (ARHAT) by relying on the insight of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (catvāry āryasatyāni). See also BODHISATTVABHuMI.

srāvakayāna. (T. nyan thos kyi theg pa; C. shengwen sheng; J. shomonjo; K. songmun sŭng 聲聞乘). In Sanskrit, "vehicle of the disciples," in MAHĀYĀNA treatments of the path, one of the two constituents (along with PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA) of the so-called "lesser vehicle" (HĪNAYĀNA). These two vehicles (C. ER SHENG), together with the third vehicle of the BODHISATTVA, are the "three vehicles" (TRIYĀNA) often mentioned in Mahāyāna sutras. The proponents of the various Mahāyāna philosophical schools disagree as to whether or not the srāvakayāna is an expedient stratagem (UPĀYA), with the MADHYAMAKA arguing that it is and that all beings, including sRĀVAKAs, will eventually enter the Mahāyāna and achieve buddhahood, and the some YOGĀCĀRA thinkers holding that srāvakas will only become arhats and cannot go on to become buddhas.

stavakāya. (T. bstod tshogs). In Sanskrit, "collection of hymns," or "corpus of hymns"; the devotional works attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA. There are traditionally four works in this group, known collectively as the CATUḤSTAVA. They are the LOKĀTĪTASTAVA, the NIRAUPAMYASTAVA, the ACINTYASTAVA, and the PARAMĀRTHASTAVA, although a number of other important hymns, including the DHARMADHĀTUSTAVA, are also ascribed to Nāgārjuna. This group of texts is often referred to in connection with YUKTIKĀYA, the "corpus of reasoning" or "collection of reasoning," a term used to refer collectively to six works that traditionally constitute NĀGĀRJUNA's philosophical oeuvre. Those six works are the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, the YUKTIsAstIKĀ, the suNYATĀSAPTATI, the VIGRAHAVYĀVARTANĪ, the VAIDALYASuTRANĀMA, and the RATNĀVALĪ. In some versions, there are only five works in this corpus, with the Ratnāvalī eliminated. These two collections of Nāgārjuna's works figure prominently in the "self-emptiness, other-emptiness" (RANG STONG GZHAN STONG) debate in Tibetan Buddhism, where the parties disagree on the question of which corpus represents Nāgārjuna's definitive view. The proponents of the rang stong, or "self-empty" position, see a consistent philosophical view between the two collections, whereas the proponents of gzhan stong, or "other-emptiness," find a more substantialist position in the corpus of hymns and regard this as Nāgārjuna's true position.

Sthiramati. (T. Blo gros brtan pa; C. Anhui; J. An'e/Anne; K. Anhye 安慧) (475-555). Indian Buddhist philosopher associated particularly with YOGĀCĀRA school. His dates are uncertain (leading one scholar to posit three figures with this name), but he is generally placed in the sixth century, although he is said to have been a disciple of both VASUBANDHU and Gunamati. Sthiramati seems to have been primarily based in VALABHĪ, but may have also studied at NĀLANDĀ. He wrote a number of important commentaries on such Yogācāra works as the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA and MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA of MAITREYANĀTHA and VASUBANDHU's TRIMsIKĀ.

Subhasuttanta. (C. Yingwu jing; J. omukyo; K. Aengmu kyong 鸚鵡經). In Pāli, "Discourse to Subha"; tenth sutta of the DĪGHANIKĀYA (a related Pāli recension is included as the ninety-ninth sutra of the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA and a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension as the 152nd sutra in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by Ānanda at Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ) to the brāhmana Subha Todeyyaputta shortly after the Buddha's demise. In content that is very similar to the SĀMANNAPHALASUTTANTA (S. srāmanyaphalasutra), Subha invites Ānanda to tell him what things the Buddha extolled, what he inspired others to follow, and what he established others in. Ānanda responds that there were three bodies, or categories, of things which the Buddha extolled, inspired others to follow, and established them in. These were the noble body of morality (P. ariyasīlakkhandha, S. āryasīlaskandha), the noble body of concentration (P. ariyasamādhikkhandha, S. āryasamādhiskandha), and the noble body of wisdom (P. ariyapaNNākkhandha, S. āryaprajNāskandha). Under the noble body of morality (sĪLA), Ānanda enumerates the following points: the appearance of the Buddha in the world, understanding his teachings and entering the Buddhist order, training in the restraint of action and speech, and observance of minor points of morality, all of which leads to an absence of fear and a confidence of heart. Under the noble body of concentration (SAMĀDHI), he enumerates guarding the senses, mindfulness, contentment with little, freedom from the five hindrances, joy and peace of mind, and the four meditative absorptions (P. JHĀNA, S. DHYĀNA). Under the noble body of wisdom (PRAJNĀ), he enumerates insight into the conditioned nature and impermanence of body and mind, the power to conjure up mind-made bodies (MANOMAYAKĀYA), knowledge of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, and destruction of the contaminants (P. āsava, S. ĀSRAVA).

Suhṛllekha. (T. Bshes pa'i spring yig; C. Longshu pusa quanjie wang song; J. Ryuju bosatsu kankaioju; K. Yongsu posal kwon'gye wang song 龍樹菩薩勸誡王頌). In Sanskrit, "Friendly Letter," a famous work by the Madhyamaka exegete NĀGĀRJUNA. Like the RATNĀVALĪ, the work takes the form of advice to a king. In this case, scholars speculate that the king may be Gautamīputra satakarnī of the sātavāhana dynasty. The work is not concerned with philosophical doctrine but instead consists of advice to a Buddhist layperson on how to live an ethical life and accumulate merit (PUnYA). It is clearly a MAHĀYĀNA work, mentioning AVALOKITEsVARA and AMITĀBHA, but also contains numerous allusions to the Sanskrit ĀGAMAs.

sukha. (T. bde ba; C. le; J. raku; K. nak 樂). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "bliss," "ease," or "joy"; the fourth of the five constituents of meditative absorption (DHYĀNĀnGA). A sustained sense of sukha is obstructed by restlessness and worry (AUDDHATYA-KAUKṚTYA), the fourth of the five hindrances (NĪVARAnA) to DHYĀNA. Sukha is the maturation of the physical and mental tranquillity (PRAsRABDHI) that is associated with the coarser experience of physical "rapture" (PRĪTI). Sukha always appears in conjunction with prīti, but not necessarily the converse; whereas sukha is part of the perception aggregate (SAMJNĀ), prīti is instead grouped with the conditioning factors aggregate (SAMSKĀRA). Sukha leaves one "feeling well" and catalyzes the development of expansive mental states. Sukha is present in the first, second, and third of the meditative absorptions (dhyāna) associated with the realm of subtle materiality (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA), but fades into equanimity (UPEKsĀ) in the even subtler fourth dhyāna, wherein the meditator experiences neither pleasure nor pain and is left only with one-pointedness of mind (CITTAIKĀGRATĀ). The term sukha is also important in Buddhist TANTRA, especially ANUTTARAYOGATANTRA, where the movement of winds (PRĀnA) and drops (BINDU) up and down the central channel generate various forms of bliss; the bliss created by the upward movement of the winds and drops are particularly powerful. In order to achieve buddhahood, the bliss consciousness is used to understand emptiness (suNYATĀ).

Sŭngnang. (C. Senglang; J. Soro 僧朗) (c. 450-c. 520). A monk putatively from the early Korean kingdom of Koguryo, whom JIZANG (549-623) credits with being an important vaunt courier in the development of the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG (K. Sam non chong), the Chinese counterpart of the MADHYAMAKA branch of Indian philosophical exegesis. Sŭngnang is claimed to have taught the notion of "three truths" or "three judgments" (SANDI)-the truths of emptiness, provisional reality, and their mean-an exegetical schema that was influential in the subsequent development of both the San lun and TIANTAI schools. It is uncertain whether Sŭngnang actually hailed from Koguryo, or was instead either a Koguryo hostage of the Northern Wei dynasty or a person of Chinese ancestry from the Liaodong region (which had been captured in 397 CE by the Koguryo king Kwanggaet'o).

sunyatāsaptati. (T. Stong pa nyid bdun cu pa). In Sanskrit, "Seventy Stanzas on Emptiness"; one of the major works of NĀGĀRJUNA, and counted by Tibetans as part his philosophical corpus (YUKTIKĀYA). It is a work in seventy-three stanzas, which serves as a kind of appendix to the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, summarizing what is said there while adding some new topics. It declares that all phenomena, including the twelve links in the chain of dependent origination (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA) exist only conventionally; the statement that everything is impermanent does not imply the existence of entities that have the property of impermanence. Reasoning (YUKTI) demonstrates that ultimately everything is unproduced (ANUTPANNA), including NIRVĀnA. All entities (BHĀVA) are dependently arisen and empty (sunya), including KARMAN and the five aggregates (SKANDHA). Ignorance (AVIDYĀ) disappears when it is understood that there is no self. The ultimate (PARAMĀRTHA) is emptiness (suNYATĀ) but this realization is gained through the conventional (SAMVṚTTI); the person endowed with faith (sRADDHĀ) who investigates dependent origination with reasoning will achieve tranquility. There is an autocommentary (svavṛtti) to the text ascribed to Nāgārjuna. There is also a commentary by CANDRAKĪRTI, the sunyatāsaptativṛtti. The sunyatāsaptati is not included in the Chinese canon.

sunyatāsunyatā. (T. stong pa nyid kyi stong pa nyid; C. kongkong; J. kuku; K. konggong 空空). In Sanskrit, lit. the "emptiness of emptiness," the most famous of the sixteen, eighteen, or twenty types of emptiness, indicating that emptiness is itself devoid of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA) and is therefore itself empty. YOGĀCĀRA-influenced interpretations of sunyatāsunyatā associate it with the emptiness of knowledge (jNānasunyatā). According to these interpretations, the first three in the list of emptinesses are inner (adhyātma) emptiness, outer (bahirdhā) emptiness, and the emptiness of both (ubhaya), where inner is a word for the six sense bases (INDRIYA), outer for their six sensory objects (VIsAYA) and both for the physical receptacles (the physical eye and so on) of the six sense bases. Having understood the emptiness of all those elements, only the knowledge of emptiness remains; hence, the emptiness of that knowledge is called the emptiness of emptinesses, the fourth in the list.

sunyatā. (T. stong pa nyid; C. kong; J. ku; K. kong 空). In Sanskrit, "emptiness"; the term has a number of denotations, but is most commonly associated with the perfection of wisdom (PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ) sutras and the MADHYAMAKA school of Mahāyāna philosophy. In its earlier usage, "emptiness" (as sunya) is the third of the four aspects of the truth of suffering (DUḤKHASATYA), the first of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: viz., the aggregates (SKANDHA) are (1) impermanent, (2) associated with the contaminants, (3) empty of cleanliness, and (4) nonself. There are a number of explanations of emptiness in this early usage, but most suggest the absence of cleanliness or attractiveness in the body that would lead to grasping at the body as "mine" (S. ātmīya, mama). This misapprehension is counteracted by the application of mindfulness with regard to the body (KĀYĀNUPAsYANĀ), which demonstrates the absence or emptiness of an independent, perduring soul (ĀTMAN) inherent in the skandhas. In its developed usage in the Madhyamaka school, as set forth by NĀGĀRJUNA and his commentators, emptiness becomes an application of the classical doctrine of no-self (ANĀTMAN) beyond the person (PUDGALA) and the skandhas to subsume all phenomena (DHARMA) in the universe. Emptiness is the lack or absence of intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA) in any and all phenomena, the final nature of all things (DHARMATĀ), and the ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA). Despite its various interpretations among the various Madhyamaka authors, emptiness is clearly neither nothingness nor the absence of existence, but rather the absence of a falsely imagined type of existence, identified as svabhāva. Because all phenomena are dependently arisen, they lack, or are empty of, an intrinsic nature characterized by independence and autonomy. Nāgārjuna thus equates sunyatā and the notion of conditionality (PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA). The YOGĀCĀRA school introduces the concept of the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA) to give individual meanings to the lack of intrinsic existence (NIḤSVABHĀVA) in the imaginary nature (PARIKALPITASVABHĀVA), the dependent nature (PARATANTRASVABHĀVA), and the consummate nature (PARINIsPANNASVABHĀVA). Parinispanna in this Yogācāra interpretation is emptiness in the sense of the absence of a difference of entity between object and subject; it is the emptiness of the parikalpitasvabhāva or imagined nature in a paratantra or dependent nature. In Tibet, the question of the true meaning of emptiness led to the RANG STONG GZHAN STONG debate.

Sunya-vada: A Buddhist theory (vada) holding the world to be void (sunya) or unreal. Otherwise known as Madhyamaka (q.v.), this Mahayana (q.v.) school as founded by Nagarjuna and elaborated in the Madhyama-kasastra, is hardly correctly translated by nihilism. To be sure, the phenomenal world is said to have no reality, yet the world underlying it defies description, also because of our inability to grasp the thing-in-itself (svabhava). All we know is its dependence on some other condition, its co-called "dependent origination". Thus, nothing definite being able to be said about the real, it is, like the apparent, as nothing, in other words, sunya, void. -- K.F.L.

sunyavāda. (T. Stong pa nyid smra ba; C. Kong zong; J. Kushu; K. Kong chong 空宗). In Sanskrit, "Proponent of the Empty," another name for the MADHYAMAKA school, one usually used by the Buddhist and non-Buddhist opponents of Madhyamaka, who regarded the Madhyamaka view as a form of nihilism. However, it is important to note that CANDRAKĪRTI uses the term sunyatādarsana, "the philosophical school of emptiness." The term also indicates that, although the terms sunya and suNYATĀ are employed in all schools of Buddhist philosophy, they were associated particularly with the Madhyamaka.

sutrapitaka. (P. suttapitaka; T. mdo sde'i sde snod; C. jingzang; J. kyozo; K. kyongjang 經藏). In Sanskrit, "basket of discourses," one of the three constituents of the TRIPItAKA (together with the VINAYAPItAKA and the ABHIDHARMAPItAKA). This basket is a disparate collection of thousands of texts attributed to the Buddha (or said to be spoken with his sanction), varying in length from extended narrative accounts to short epigrams. The Pāli suttapitaka is divided into five groups, or NIKĀYA. These are the DĪGHANIKĀYA, or "Long Group," comprising thirty-four lengthier sutras; the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA, or "Middle [Length] Group," comprising 152 sutras; the SAMYUTTANIKĀYA or "Related Group," comprising (by some counts) some seven thousand sutras, organized largely by subject matter in fifty-six categories; the AnGUTTARANIKĀYA, literally, the "Group Increasing by a Factor," or more generally, the "Numerical Group," an anthology of nearly ten thousand brief texts organized by the number of the subject, with the first group dealing with single things, the second dealing with pairs, the third dealing with things that occur in threes, up to things that occur in groups of eleven; and finally the KHUDDAKANIKĀYA, or "Small Group," a diverse collection of miscellaneous texts, including such famous works as the Pāli DHAMMAPADA. Although the Khuddakanikāya contains some early works, as an independent nikāya, it appears to have been the last to be added to the tipitaka and is not mentioned in early accounts. The suttapitaka seems to have been preserved orally for centuries, before being committed to writing in Sri Lanka at the end of the first century BCE. The sutrapitakas of other Indian NIKĀYAs (schools) translated from a number of Indian languages into Chinese and Tibetan use the word ĀGAMA (tradition) in place of nikāya (group) for the groupings of sutras in their respective canons. In their Chinese translations, the DĪRGHĀGAMA or "Long Discourses," belonging to the DHARMAGUPTAKA school, corresponds to the Pāli Dīghanikāya; the MADHYAMĀGAMA or "Middle-Length Discourses" of the SARVĀSTIVĀDA school corresponds to the Pāli Majjhimanikāya; the SAMYUKTĀGAMA or "Connected Discourses," belonging to the Sarvāstivāda school (with a partial translation perhaps belonging to the KĀsYAPĪYA school) corresponds to the Pāli SaMyuttanikāya; and the EKOTTARĀGAMA or "Numerically Arranged Discourses," variously ascribed to the DHARMAGUPTAKAs, or less plausibly the MAHĀSĀMGHIKA school or its PRAJNAPTIVĀDA offshoot, corresponds to the Pāli Anguttaranikāya. Despite the similarities in the titles of these collections, there are substantial differences between the contents of the Sanskrit āgamas and the Pāli nikāyas. The Khuddakanikāya ("Miscellaneous Collection"), the fifth nikāya in the Pāli canon, has no equivalent in the extant Chinese translations of the āgamas; such miscellanies, or "mixed baskets" (S. ksudrakapitaka), were however known to have existed in several of the mainstream Buddhist schools, including the Dharmaguptaka, MahāsāMghika, and MAHĪsĀSAKA.

*suvibhaktadharmacakra. (T. legs par rnam par phye ba dang ldan pa'i chos 'khor; C. zhengzhuan falun; J. shotenporin; K. chŭngjon pomnyun 證轉法輪). In Sanskrit, lit., "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation"; the third of the three turnings of the wheel of the dharma described in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, said to have been delivered in VAIsĀLĪ. It is also known as the PARAMĀRTHAVINIsCAYADHARMACAKRA, or "the dharma wheel for ascertaining the ultimate," as the pravicayadharmacakra, or "the dharma wheel of investigation," and simply as the antyadharmacakra or "final wheel of the dharma." The sutra identifies this as a teaching for bodhisattvas and classifies it as definitive (NĪTĀRTHA); this third turning of the wheel is the teaching of the SaMdhinirmocanasutra itself. According to the commentators, in this sutra the Buddha, through his anamuensis Paramārthasamudgata, sets forth in clear and plain language what he means by his provisional statements in the first wheel of the dharma (see CATUḤSATYADHARMACAKRA), namely, that the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS exist; and his statement in his middle wheel of the dharma in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs (perfection of wisdom sutras) (see ALAKsAnADHARMACAKRA) that no dharmas exist. Both of the first two wheels are declared to be provisional (NEYĀRTHA). Here, in this definitive teaching called "the dharma wheel that makes a fine delineation," he says that dharmas have three natures (TRISVABHĀVA), and each of those in its own way lacks an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The three natures are the PARIKALPITA or imaginary nature, the PARATANTRA or dependent nature, and the PARINIsPANNA or consummate nature. ¶ In Tibet there were different schools of interpretation of the three wheels of doctrine. The third Karma pa RANG 'BYUNG RDO RJE, DOL PO PA SHES RAB RGYAL MTSHAN, and the nineteenth-century RIS MED masters assert that the SaMdhinirmocanasutra's third wheel of dharma is definitive and teaches a great MADHYAMAKA (DBU MA CHEN PO). They say this great Madhyamaka is set forth with great clarity in the sRĪMĀLĀDEVĪSIMHANĀDASuTRA and, particularly, in the RATNAGOTRAVIBHĀGA ("Delineation of the Jewel Lineage"; alt. title, Uttaratantra). They argue that in the second turning of the wheel, the prajNāpāramitā sutras, the Buddha uses apophatic language to stress the need to eliminate KLEsAs and false superimpositions. He does not clearly delineate, as he does in the third turning, the TATHĀGATAGARBHA, which is both empty (sunya) of all afflictions (klesa) and nonempty (asunya), viz., full of all the Buddha's virtues. Hence they assert that the third turning of dharma in the Samdhinirmocanasutra sets forth the "great Madhyamaka" (dbu ma chen po), and is a definitive teaching that avoids both apophatic and kataphatic extremes. Others, most notably TSONG KHA PA, disagree, asserting that the SaMdhinirmocanasutra's second turning of the wheel is the definitive teaching of the Buddha, and say that its third turning, i.e., the presentation of Buddhist tenets in the SaMdhinirmocanasutra, is a Yogācāra teaching intended for those temporarily incapable of understanding Madhyamaka.

svabhāvasunya. (T. rang bzhin gyis stong pa; C. zixing kong; J. jishoku; K. chasong kong 自性空). In Sanskrit, "empty of intrinsic nature," a term used in the MADHYAMAKA school to specify that all persons and phenomena are empty of an intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA). The term svabhāva is used in Madhyamaka to refer to a hypostatized and reified nature that is falsely attributed to phenomena by ignorance, such that phenomena are mistakenly conceived to exist in and of themselves. In this sense, it is used as a synonym for ĀTMAN. All phenomena are declared to lack, or be empty of, svabhāva and hence are svabhāvasunya. The term svabhāvasunyatā, "emptiness of intrinsic nature," is one in the list of emptinesses, sometimes as long as twenty, beginning with adhyātmasunyatā ("emptiness of the internal"), bahirdhāsunyatā ("emptiness of the external"), ubhayasunyatā ("emptiness of both,"), and including abhāvasunyatā ("emptiness of nonbeing").

svabhāva. (T. rang bzhin; C. zixing; J. jisho; K. chasong 自性). In Sanskrit, "self-nature," "intrinsic existence," or "inherent existence," the term has a general sense of "essence" or "nature," but is used in philosophical literature. It has at least three important, and different, usages, in MAHĀYĀNA Buddhist doctrine. In the MADHYAMAKA school, it refers to a hypostatized and reified nature that is falsely attributed to phenomena by ignorance, such that phenomena are mistakenly conceived to exist in and of themselves. In this sense, it is used as a synonym for ĀTMAN. Therefore, there is no svabhāva, nothing possesses svabhāva, and all phenomena are said to lack, or be empty of, svabhāva. This doctrine is sufficiently central to Madhyamaka that the school is also called NIḤSVABHĀVAVĀDA, the "Proponents of No Svabhāva." In YOGĀCĀRA, as represented in the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, all phenomena can be categorized into three natures (TRISVABHĀVA): the imaginary (PARIKALPITA), the dependent (PARATANTRA), and the consummate (PARINIsPANNA). In the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, seven forms of svabhāva or natures are enumerated to account for the functioning of phenomena: (1) samudayasvabhāva (C. jixing zixing), the nature of things that derives from the interaction between various conditions; (2) bhāvasvabhāva (C. xing zixing), the nature that is intrinsic to things themselves; (3) laksanasvabhāva (C. xiangxing zixing), the characteristics or marks (LAKsAnA) that distinguish one thing from another; (4) mahābhutasvabhāva (C. dazhongxing zixing), the nature of things that derives from being constituted by the four physical elements (MAHĀBHuTA); (5) hetusvabhāva (C. yinxing zixing), the nature of things that is derived from the "proximate causes" (HETU) that are necessary for their production; (6) pratyayasvabhāva (C. yuanxing zixing), the nature derived from the "facilitating conditions" (PRATYAYA); (7) nispattisvabhāva (C. chengxing zixing), the consummate, actualized buddha-nature that is the fundamental reality of things. See also NIḤSVABHĀVA.

svalaksanasunya. (T. rang mtshan gyis stong pa; C. zixiang kong; J. jisoku; K. chasang kong 自相空). In Sanskrit, "empty of own characteristic," a term is used in the perfection of wisdom (PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ) literature to describe the fundamental truth of all phenomena. According to some ABHIDHARMA schools, the factors (DHARMA) that constitute physical and mental existence were real and were endowed with specific essential qualities (SVALAKsAnA). One of the major doctrinal developments present in prajNāpāramitā literature is the assertion that ultimate reality should be properly understood as devoid of such characteristics (svalaksanasunya). The term svalaksana was used in the *PRĀSAnGIKA branch of MADHYAMAKA to specify an intrinsic nature. In this context, the term svalaksana takes on the meaning of "established by means of it own characteristic," and thus is identified as a false quality imagined to exist by ignorance, a quality that all phenomena in the universe lack and of which they are empty; hence, they are svalaksanasunya.

svalaksana. (T. rang mtshan; C. zixiang; J. jiso; K. chasang 自相). In Sanskrit, "own characteristic," or "specifically characterized," a term used in contrast to "general" or "generic" "characteristic" (SĀMĀNYALAKsAnA). In views that Tibetan doxographers have associated with the SAUTRĀNTIKA school, as set forth in the early chapters of DHARMAKĪRTI's PRAMĀnAVĀRTTIKA, svalaksana is used to refer to impermanent things, which are objects of direct perception (PRATYAKsA) and hence can be perceived in all of their specificity, as opposed to the objects of thought, which must be apprehended through the medium of mental images. For the *PRĀSAnGIKA branch of MADHYAMAKA, svalaksana takes on the meaning of "established by means of it own characteristic," and thus is identified as a quality falsely ascribed to persons and phenomena by ignorance, a quality that all phenomena in the universe lack and of which they are empty. Thus, in Madhyamaka, nothing is svalaksanasiddha, or "established by way of own nature." All phenomena lack this quality and are therefore described as SVALAKsAnAsuNYA.

Svara (Sanskrit) Svara [from the verbal root svṛ to utter sound] Sound, tone, voice, noise; tone in recitation, a note of the musical scale (seven tones being enumerated: nishada, rishabha, gandhara, shadja, madhyama, dhaivata, panchama). “I am informed by persons competent to judge of the matter, that the Vedas have a distinct dual meaning — one expressed by the literal sense of the words, the other indicated by the metre and the swara (intonation), which are, as it were, the life of the Vedas. . . . Learned Pundits and philologists of course deny that swara has anything to do with philosophy or ancient esoteric doctrines; but the mysterious connection between swara and light is one of its most profound secrets” (Subba Row, Five Years of Theosophy 154).

svarga. (P. sagga; T. mtho ris; C. tianshang; J. tenjo; K. ch'onsang 天上). In Sanskrit, "heaven," the realm of the divinities within the cycle of rebirth (SAMSĀRA). The terms encompasses the six heavens of the sensuous realm (KĀMADHĀTU) as well as the heavens of the subtle-materiality realm (RuPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU). Although sublime states, none of these are permanent abodes; the beings reborn there eventually die and are reborn elsewhere when the causes that led to their celestial births are exhausted. However, the Buddha repeatedly teaches the virtues that result in rebirth in heaven, and such rebirth has been one of the primary goals of Buddhist practice, especially among the laity, throughout the history of Buddhism. Rebirth as a divinity (DEVA) is presumed to be the reward of wholesome acts (KUsALA-KARMAN) performed in previous lives and is thus considered a salutary, if provisional, religious goal. For example, in his typical "graduated discourse" (P. ANUPUBBIKATHĀ) the Buddha uses the prospect of heavenly rebirth, and its attendant pleasures, as one means of attracting laypersons to the religious life. Despite the many appealing attributes of these heavenly beings, such as their physical beauty, comfortable lives, and long life spans, even heavenly existence is ultimately unsatisfactory because it does not offer permanent release from the continued cycle of birth and death (SAMSĀRA). Since devas are merely enjoying the rewards of their previous good deeds rather than performing new wholesome actions, they are considered to be spiritually stagnant, such that when the karmic effect of the deed that led to rebirth in heaven is exhausted, they are inevitably reborn in a lower realm of existence (GATI), perhaps even in one of the baleful destinies (DURGATI). For these reasons, Buddhist soteriological literature sometimes condemns religious practice performed solely for the goal of achieving rebirth in the heavens. It is only in certain higher level of the heavens, such as the those belonging to the five pure abodes (sUDDHĀVĀSA), that beings are not subject to further rebirth, because they have already eliminated all the fetters (SAMYOJANA) associated with that realm and are destined to achieve ARHATship. ¶ In traditional Indian cosmology, the heavens of the sensuous realm are thought to rest on and extend far above the peak of Mt. SUMERU, the axis mundi of the universe. They are ranked according to their elevation, so the higher the heaven, the greater the enjoyments of their inhabitants. The lowest of these heavens is the heaven of the four heavenly kings (CĀTURMAHĀRĀJAKĀYIKA), who are protectors of the dharma (DHARMAPĀLA). The highest is the heaven of the divinities who have power over the creations of others, or the divinities who partake of the pleasures created in other heavens (PARANIRMITAVAsAVARTIN), which is said to be the heaven where MĀRA resides. TUsITA, the heaven into which sĀKYAMUNI was born as the divinity sVETAKETU in his penultimate life, is the fourth of the kāmadhātu heavens, in ascending order. ¶ The heavens of the subtle-materiality realm are grouped into four categories that correspond to the four stratified levels of DHYĀNA-states of profound meditative concentration. Thus, rebirth into any one of these heavens is dependent on the attainment of the dhyāna to which it corresponds in the immediately preceding lifetime. Each of the four dhyāna has various heavens. The lowest of these heavens is the heaven of brahmā's retainers (BRAHMAKĀYIKA), which corresponds to the first subtle-materiality absorption (RuPĀVACARADHYĀNA), and the highest is the highest heaven (AKANIstHA), which is also classified as one of the "pure abodes," or sUDDHĀVĀSA. ¶ The heavens of the immaterial realm similarly correspond to the four immaterial dhyānas (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA), beginning with the sphere of infinite space (ĀKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA) and so on up to the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA). As noted, despite their many enjoyments, none of these realms is eternal and all are thus understood to fall within the realm of saMsāra. For a full account of all the heavens, see DEVA.

svasaMvedana. (T. rang rig; C. zizheng/zijue; J. jisho/jikaku; K. chajŭng/chagak 自證/自覺). In Sanskrit, lit. "self-knowledge" or "self-awareness," also seen written as svasaMveda, svasaMvit, svasaMvitti. In Buddhist epistemology, svasaMvedana is that part of consciousness which, during a conscious act of seeing, hearing, thinking, and so on, apprehends not the external sensory object but the knowing consciousness itself. For example, when a visual consciousness (CAKsURVIJNĀNA) apprehends a blue color, there is a simultaneous svasaMvedana that apprehends the caksurvijNāna; it is directed at the consciousness, and explains not only how a person knows that he knows, but also how a person can later remember what he saw or heard, and so on. There is disagreement as to whether such a form of consciousness exists, with proponents (usually YOGĀCĀRA) arguing that there must be this consciousness of consciousness in order for there to be memory of past cognitions, and opponents (MADHYAMAKA) propounding a radical form of nonessentialism that explains memory as a mere manipulation of objects with no more than a language-based reality. Beside the basic use of the term svasaMvedana to explain the nature of consciousness and the mechanism of memory, the issue of the necessary existence of svasaMvedana was pressed by the Yogācāra school because of how they understood enlightenment (BODHI). They argued that the liberating vision taught by the Buddha consisted of a self-reflexive act that was utterly free of subject-object distortion (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). In ordinary persons, they argued, all conscious acts take place within a bifurcation of subject and object, with a sense of distance between the two, because of the residual impressions or latencies (VĀSANĀ) left by ignorance. Infinite numbers of earlier conscious acts have been informed by that particular deeply ingrained ignorance. These impressions are carried at the foundational level of consciousness (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA). When they are finally removed by the process of BHĀVANĀ, knowledge (JNĀNA) purified of distortion emerges in a fundamental transformation (ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI), thus knowing itself in a nondual vision. Such a vision presupposes self-knowledge. In tantric literature, svasaMvedana has a less technical sense of a profound and innate knowledge or awareness. See also RIG PA.

svatantraprayoga. (T. rang rgyud kyi sbyor ba). In Sanskrit, "autonomous syllogism." Among the many meanings of the term PRAYOGA is its use as a technical term in logic, where it is often translated as "syllogism," and refers to a statement that contains a subject, a predicate, and a reason. A svatantraprayoga leads to a svatantrānumāna (T. rang rgyud rjes dpag), an "autonomous inference." The correct syllogism that gives rise to correct inference is composed of three parts, the subject (dharmin), the property being proved (SĀDHYADHARMA), and the reason (HETU or LInGA). For example, consider the syllogism "Sound is impermanent because of being produced." The subject is sound, the property being proved is impermanence, and the reason is being produced. For the syllogism to be correct, three relations must exist among its three components: (1) the reason must be a property (DHARMA) of the subject, also called the "position" (PAKsA); (2) there must be a relationship of forward pervasion (anvayavyāpti) between the reason and the property being proved (SĀDHYADHARMA), such that whatever is the reason is necessarily the property being proved, and (3) there must be a relationship of "exclusion" or reverse pervasion (vyatirekavyāpti) between the property being proved and the reason such that whatever is not the property being proved is necessarily not the reason. In the example ("Sound is impermanent because of being produced"), the syllogism is correct because the reason ("being produced") is a quality of the subject ("sound"), there is forward pervasion in the sense that whatever is produced is necessarily impermanent, and there is reverse pervasion because whatever is not impermanent is necessarily not produced. It is generally the case in Indian logic that all elements of the syllogism must be accepted by both parties in a debate (see SAMĀNAPRATIBHĀSADHARMIN); such a syllogism is referred to as an "autonomous syllogism" (svatantrānumāna or svatantraprayoga). In the Madhyamaka school of Indian Buddhist philosophy, there was a controversy over whether such syllogisms were acceptable when a Madhyamaka debated with a proponent of another school. The locus classicus of the controversy is the debate between BHĀVAVIVEKA and CANDRAKĪRTI concerning BUDDHAPĀLITA's commentary on the first chapter of NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. It was Candrakīrti's position that the Madhyamaka should only use consequences (PRASAnGA) or an inference familiar to others (PARAPRASIDDHĀNUMĀNA), i.e., that they should only draw out the unintended consequences in others' positions; to use an autonomous syllogism implied acceptance of intrinsically established relations among the elements of the syllogism. Bhāvaviveka had argued that it was necessary for the Madhyamaka to state an autonomous syllogism at the conclusion of a debate. Based on this controversy, the Tibetans coined the terms *SVĀTANTRIKA and *PRĀSAnGIKA to designate these two positions.

*Svātantrika. (T. rang rgyud pa). In Sanskrit, "Autonomist," one of the two main branches (together with the *PRĀSAnGIKA or "Consequentialist") of the MADHYAMAKA school in India. It is important to note that the designation Svātantrika as a subschool of Madhyamaka does not occur in Indian literature and was coined retrospectively in Tibet to describe the developments of the Madhyamaka in India. The name *Svātantrika is derived from the insistence on the use of autonomous syllogisms (SVATANTRAPRAYOGA) in debates about the nature of reality, as set forth by BHĀVAVIVEKA and rejected by CANDRAKĪRTI in their respective commentaries on NĀGĀRJUNA's MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. In the Tibetan doxographies, the leading proponents of the *Svātantrika include BHĀVAVIVEKA and sĀNTARAKsITA; the former is regarded as the founder of the SAUTRĀNTIKA-SVĀTANTRIKA branch and the latter is considered the founder of the YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA branch.

swadhyaya. ::: personal study; study of the sacred texts

Taehyon. [alt. T'aehyon] (C. Daxian/Taixian; J. Daiken/Taigen 大賢/太賢) (d.u.; fl. c. mid-eighth century). In Korean, "Great/Grand Sagacity"; Silla-dynasty monk during the reign of king Kyongdok (r. 742-765) and reputed founder of the Yuga (YOGĀCĀRA) tradition in Korea; also known as Ch'onggu Samun ("Green Hill [viz., Korea] sRAMAnA") and often referred to as Yuga cho, "Patriarch of Yogācāra," due to his mastery of that school's complex doctrine. As one of the three most productive scholars of the Silla Buddhist tradition, Taehyon is matched in his output only by WoNHYO (617-686) and Kyonghŭng (fl. c. eighth century). Although renowned for his mastery of Yogācāra doctrine, his fifty-two works, in over one hundred rolls, cover a broad range of Buddhist doctrinal material, including Yogācāra, MADHYAMAKA, Hwaom (C. HUAYAN ZONG), and bodhisattva-precept texts. It is presumed that Taehyon was a disciple of WoNCH'ŬK's (613-696) student Tojŭng (d.u.), and that his scholastic positions were therefore close to those of the Ximing school, a lineage of FAXIANG ZONG thought that derived from Wonch'ŭk; their connection remains, however, a matter of debate. Taehyon's Song yusik non hakki ("Study Notes to the CHENG WEISHI LUN [*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi-sāstra]") (six rolls), the only complete Korean commentary on the Cheng weishi lun that is still extant, is particularly important because of its copious citation of the works of contemporary Yogācāra exegetes, such as KUIJI (632-682) and Wonch'ŭk. Taehyon appears to have been influenced by the preeminent Silla scholiast Wonhyo, since Taehyon accepts in his Taesŭng kisin non naeŭi yak tamgi ("Brief Investigation of the Inner Meaning of the DASHENG QIXIN LUN") Wonhyo's ecumenical (HWAJAENG) perspective on the "Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna." Although Taehyon never traveled abroad, his works circulated throughout East Asia and were commented upon by both Chinese and Japanese exegetes. His Pommang kyong kojokki ("Record of Old Traces of the FANWANG JING"), for example, was widely consulted in Japan and more than twenty commentaries on Taehyon's text were composed by Japanese monks, including EISON (1201-1290) and GYoNEN (1240-1321). Unfortunately, only five of Taehyon's works are extant; in addition to the above three texts, these are his Yaksa ponwon kyong kojokki ("Record of Old Traces of the BHAIsAJYAGURUSuTRA") and Pommang kyong posalgyebon chongyo ("Doctrinal Essentials of the Bodhisattva's Code of Morality from the 'Sutra of Brahmā's Net'").

Taesŭng kisin non so. (C. Dasheng qixin lun shu; J. Daijo kishinron sho 大乘起信論疏). In Korean, "Commentary on the 'Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna'"; an influential commentary on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN composed by the eminent Korean monk WoNHYO (617-686); also known as the Haedong so (lit. the "Korean commentary"). Wonhyo's commentary is traditionally regarded as one of the three great commentaries on the "Awakening of Faith," along with FAZANG's (643-712) DASHENG QIXIN LUN YI JI and JINGYING HUIYUAN's (523-592) Dasheng qixin lun yishu. Wonhyo's exegesis was especially influential in Fazang's (643-712) understanding of the text. The Taesŭng kisin non so builds upon the ideas developed in Wonhyo's earlier work, the Taesŭng kisin non pyolgi, but provides an exhaustive line-by-line exegesis of the entire text. In this commentary, Wonhyo attempts to combine MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA thought by demonstrating that the "one mind" (K. ilsim; see YIXIN) or TATHĀGATAGARBHA is the ground of all existence. He explains "mind as suchness" (K. sim chinyo; C. xin zhenru) and "mind that is subject to production-and-cessation" (K. sim saengmyol; C. xin shengmie) as being two aspects of the "one mind." Although Yogācāra and tathāgatagarbha materials formed the basis of his analysis of the Dasheng qixin lun, Wonhyo introduces Madhyamaka method as well into this commentary; for example, he uses the Madhyamaka tetralemma to explicate ineffable suchness. In distinction to Huiyuan, Wonhyo explains the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA as consisting of "three subtle characteristics," namely, the characteristic of KARMAN (K. opsang; C. yexing), perceiving subject (K. nŭnggyon sang; C. nengjian xiang), and perceived objects (K. kyonggye sang; C. jingjie xing), which was adopted later by the Chinese Huayan master Fazang in his own commentary on the Dasheng qixin lun.

Tarkajvālā. (T. Rtog ge 'bar ba). In Sanskrit, the "Blaze of Reasoning"; the extensive prose autocommentary on the MADHYAMAKAHṚDAYA, the major work of the sixth-century Indian MADHYAMAKA (and, from the Tibetan perspective, *SVĀTANTRIKA) master BHĀVAVIVEKA (also referred to as Bhavya and Bhāviveka). The Madhyamakahṛdaya is preserved in both Sanskrit and Tibetan; the Tarkajvālā only in Tibetan. It is a work of eleven chapters, the first three and the last two of which set forth the main points in Bhāvaviveka's view of the nature of reality and the Buddhist path, dealing with such topics as BODHICITTA, the knowledge of reality (tattvajNāna), and omniscience (SARVAJNATĀ). The intervening chapters set forth the positions (and Bhāvaviveka's refutations) of various Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools, including the sRĀVAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, SāMkhya, Vaisesika, Vedānta, and MīmāMsā. These chapters (along with sĀNTARAKsITA's TATTVASAMGRAHA) are an invaluable source of insight into the relations between Madhyamaka and the other Indian philosophical schools of the day. The chapter on the srāvakas, for example, provides a detailed account of the reasons put forth by the srāvaka schools as to why the MAHĀYĀNA sutras are not the word of the Buddha (BUDDHAVACANA). Bhāvaviveka's response to these arguments, as well as his refutation of Yogācāra in the subsequent chapter, are particularly spirited.

tathāgatagotra. (T. de bzhin gshegs pa'i rigs; C. rulai xing; J. nyoraisho; K. yorae song 如來性). In Sanskrit, "tathāgata lineage"; a term used to describe that element in the mental continuum (SAMTĀNA) of a sentient being that makes it destined to achieve enlightenment as a buddha. In this sense, the term is roughly synonymous with TATHĀGATAGARBHA and BUDDHADHĀTU ("buddha element," or "buddha-nature"). The Mahāyāna schools differ on the question of whether all sentient beings are endowed with this lineage, with the MADHYAMAKA asserting that they are, while some followers of the YOGĀCĀRA argue that beings are endowed with different lineages, which will lead them to follow the paths of the sRĀVAKA or PRATYEKABUDDHA to become an ARHAT, and still other beings have no spiritual lineage at all (see ICCHANTIKA).

tathatā. (T. de bzhin nyid/de kho na nyid; C. zhenru; J. shinnyo; K. chinyo 眞如). In Sanskrit, "suchness" or "thusness"; a term for ultimate reality, especially in the MAHĀYĀNA schools. Along with terms such as DHARMATĀ, DHARMADHĀTU, and BHuTAKOtI, it has a more "positive" connotation than emptiness (suNYATĀ), referring to the eternal nature of reality that is "ever thus" or "just so" and free of all conceptual elaborations. In YOGĀCĀRA/VIJNĀNAVĀDA, the term refers to the ultimate wisdom that is free from the subject-object distinction (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA). Buddhahood is sometimes described as tathatāvisuddhi, or "purity of suchness," that is, ultimate reality purified of all obstructions. In the MADHYAMAKA school, any attempt to substantiate the nature of reality is rejected, and tathatā is instead identified with emptiness and the cessation of all dichotomizing tendencies of thought. The Chinese equivalent, ZHENRU, is a seminal term in in East Asian Buddhist philosophy, figuring prominently, for example, in the DASHENG QIXIN LUN. See also TATTVA.

tathyasaMvṛti. (T. yang dag pa'i kun rdzob). In Sanskrit, "real conventionality"; a term used in MADHYAMAKA philosophy in connection with MITHYĀSAMVṚTI, "false conventionality." Real conventionality is a conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA) in the sense that it is not the object of an ultimate consciousness and is falsely imagined to possess SVABHĀVA, or intrinsic existence. However, although it is falsely conceived, it is not utterly nonexistent (like a false conventionality) because a real conventionality is capable of performing its function (ARTHAKRIYĀ). For example, a lake would be a true conventionality because it can perform the function of a lake, whereas a mirage would be a false conventionality because it could not perform the function of a lake. Only a real conventionality is a conventional truth; it is true in the sense that it can perform a function. A false conventionality is not a conventional truth because it does not exist even conventionally.

Tattvaratnāvalī. (T. De kho na nyid rin po che'i phreng ba). In Sanskrit, the "Necklace of Principles"; a scholastic exposition of Buddhist TANTRA by Advayavajra, the apparent pen name of the Indian master Maitrīpāda, who flourished in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries CE. The work provides some insight into how Buddhism was understood in the late period of Indian Buddhism, dividing it into the three vehicles of the sRĀVAKAYĀNA, PRATYEKABUDDHAYĀNA, and MAHĀYĀNA, with the Mahāyāna further subdivided into the "way of the perfections" (pāramitānaya) and the "way of mantra" (mantranaya). The work also states that the Madhyamaka school is divided into the two, the Māyopamādvayavāda, or "Proponents of Illusion-like Nonduality," and the Sarvadharmāpratisthānavāda, or "Proponents That All Dharmas Are Nonabiding."

The line of Karma pas originated during the twelfth century with DUS GSUM MKHYEN PA, a close disciple of SGAM PO PA BSOD NAMS RIN CHEN, who had himself studied under the famous YOGIN MI LA RAS PA. Dus gsum mkhyen pa established several important monasteries, including Mtshur phu, which served as the main seat of the Karma pas and the Karma bka' brgyud in central Tibet. Dus gsum mkhyen pa's successor, the second Karma pa KARMA PAKSHI, is remembered especially for his prowess in meditation and thaumaturgy. He was patronized by the Mongols, first by Mongke (1209-1259) and later by his brother, the Yuan emperor Qubilai Khan (r. 1260-1294) before losing the emperor's support. The third Karma pa RANG 'BYUNG RDO RJE continued this affiliation with the Mongol court, playing a role in emperor Toghun Temür's (r. 1333-1368) ascension to the throne. The fourth Karma pa Rol pa'i rdo rje and fifth Karma pa Bde bzhin gshegs pa maintained ties with the Chinese court-the former with Toghun Temür and the latter serving as the preceptor of the Yongle emperor (reigned 1402-1424) of the Ming dynasty, a position of great influence. The sixth Karma pa Mthong ba don ldan did not maintain the same political connections of his predecessors; he is remembered especially for his contributions to the religious life of the Karma bka' brgyud, producing meditation and ritual manuals. The seventh Karma pa Chos grags rgya mtsho is known primarily for his philosophical works on logic and epistemology (PRAMĀnA); his voluminous text on the topic is still used today as a principal textbook in many Bka' brgyud monasteries. The eighth Karma pa MI BSKYOD RDO RJE is among the most renowned scholars of his generation, a prolific author whose writings encompassed Sanskrit, poetry, and art, as well as MADHYAMAKA philosophy and tantra. The ninth Karma pa DBANG PHYUG RDO RJE is revered for his influential works on the theory and practice of MAHĀMUDRĀ. It was during his lifetime that the DGE LUGS hierarchs ascended to power, with an attendant decline in the political fortunes of his sect in central Tibet. His successor, the tenth Karma pa Chos kyi dbang phyug, was thus forced into a life of virtual exile near the Sino-Tibetan border in the east as his patron, the king of Gtsang, was defeated by the Gushri Khan, patron of the Dge lugs. As the war came to an end, the tenth Karma pa returned to LHA SA where he established ties with the fifth Dalai Lama NGAG DBANG BLO BZANG RGYA MTSHO. The eleventh Karma pa Ye shes rdo rje and twelfth Karma pa Byang chub rdo rje lived relatively short lives, although the latter made an important journey through Nepal together with his disciple, the brilliant scholar and Sanskritist Si tu CHOS KYI 'BYUNG GNAS. The life of the thirteenth Karma pa Bdud 'dul rdo rje was, for the most part, lived outside the sphere of politics. He is remembered for his love of animals, to which he taught the dharma. Beginning during his lifetime and continuing into that of the fourteenth Karma pa Theg mchog rdo rje, there was a revival of Bka' brgyud doctrine in the eastern Tibetan province of Khams, as part of what has come to be called the RIS MED or non-sectarian movement. The fourteenth Karma pa's disciple, 'JAM MGON KONGS SPRUL BLO GROS MTHA' YAS, played a leading role. The fifteenth Karma pa Mkha' khyab rdo rje, a principal disciple of 'Jam mgon kongs sprul, was a prolific scholar. The sixteenth Karma pa RANG 'BYUNG RIG PA'I RDO RJE, like other lamas of his generation, saw the Communist Chinese occupation of Tibet, fleeing to India in 1959 and establishing an exile seat at Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim. He was the first Karma pa to visit the West. The seventeenth Karma pa O rgyan 'phrin las rdo rje was enthroned at Mtshur phu monastery on September 27, 1992. In late December 2000, he escaped into exile, establishing a residence in Dharamsala, India. Although his identification as the Karma pa has been disputed by a small number of followers of a rival candidate, O rgyan 'phrin las rdo rje is regarded as the seventeenth Karma pa by the majority of the Tibetan community, including the Dalai Lama.

“The term Triyana is also used to denote the three schools of mysticism [in India] — the Mahayana, the Madhyimayana and Hinayana schools; of which the first is the ‘Greater,’ and the second the ‘Middle,’ and the last the ‘Lesser’ Vehicle. All and every system between the Greater and the Lesser Vehicles are considered ‘useless.’ Therefore the Pratyeka Buddha is made to correspond with the Madhyimayana. For, as explained, ‘this (the Pratyeka Buddha state) refers to him who lives all for himself and very little for others, occupying the middle of the vehicle, filling it all and leaving no room for others.’ Such is the selfish candidate for Nirvana” (TG 344-5).

Thích Minh Chau. (釋明珠) (1918-2012). Vietnamese monk born in Quảng Nam (Central Vietnam), he received ordination in 1946 from Venerable Thích Tịnh Khiét at Tường Van Temple in Hué. In 1951, he went to India to study Pāli and Buddhism at Nalanda University. He obtained a PhD in 1961 with a thesis entitled "A Comparative Study between the Pāli MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA and the Chinese MADHYAMA ĀGAMA." After returning to South Vietnam, he became a founding member of Vạn Hạnh University as well as its rector from 1964 until its disestablishment in 1975 when South Vietnam fell to communist forces from the North. A prolific writer and translator, Thích Minh Chau single-handedly translated into Vietnamese more than thirty works from the PĀLI canon. He also wrote a three-volume Pāli grammar. After the closing of Vạn Hạnh University, he founded the Vạn Hạnh Buddhist Institute, where he continued his research and translation. In 1989, he became president of the Vietnam Institute of Buddhist Studies and head of the Committee on the Translation of the Tripitaka. Many expatriate Vietnamese Buddhists regard Thích Minh Chau with some suspicion because of his alleged collaboration with the Communist government after 1975, while acknowledging his important contributions to Vietnamese Buddhist literature.

ti. (J. tai; K. ch'e 體). In Chinese, lit. "body," and by extension "essence," or "substance"; a term widely used in East Asian religious traditions, including Buddhism. "Essence" often constitutes a philosophical pair together with the term "function" (YONG). In early Confucian texts, such as the Lunyu ("Analects") and the Mengzi, ti simply referred to a "body" or the "appearance" of a person or a thing. It was Wang Bi (226-249), the founder of the "Dark Learning" (XUANXUE) school of Chinese philosophy, who imbued the term with philosophical implications, using ti as a synonym for the Daoist concepts of "nonbeing" (WU) or "voidness" (xu). However, ti, along with its companion yong, was not widely used until the Buddhists adopted both terms to provide a basic conceptual frame for reality or truth. For example, the Later Qin (384-417) monk SENGZHAO (384-414?) identified ti as the nature of calmness (ji) and advocated its unity with yong, which he defined as the function of illumination (zhao). The SAN LUN ZONG master JIZANG (549-623), in discussing the two-truth (SATYADVAYA) theory of MADHYAMAKA, argued that "neither ultimate nor conventional" (feizhen feisu) was the ti ("essence") of the two truths, while "both ultimate and conventional" (zhensu) were their yong ("function"). The LIUZU TAN JING ("Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch") associates ti and yong with two modes of meditation: concentration (SAMĀDHI) is the ti or essence of wisdom (PRAJNĀ); wisdom is the yong or function of concentration. GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841), the Tang master of both the HUAYAN ZONG scholastic and the Heze Chan traditions, systematized the Chinese discourse of the terms. Based on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna"), Zongmi interpreted ti as the unchanging essence of true thusness (ZHENRU), calling this absolute aspect of mind the "void and calm, numinous awareness" (KONGJI LINGZHI; see LINGZHI). Yong instead referred to the diverse functional aspects of true thusness, which corresponded to the "production-and-cessation" aspect of mind (shengmie). He also aligned ti and yong with other indigenous Chinese philosophical polarities such as, respectively, "nature" (XING) and "characteristics" (xiang), "principle" (LI) and "phenomena" (SHI), and "root" (ben) and "branches" (mo). Subsequently, Neo-Confucian thinkers, such as Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200), adopted this paradigm into their own philosophical systems. In particular, Zhu Xi connected ti to the "nature bestowed by the heavenly mandate" (tianming zhixing) and yong to the "physical nature" (qizhi zhixing).

tīksnendriya. (P. tikkhindriya; T. dbang po rnon po; C. ligen; J. rikon; K. igŭn 利根). In Sanskrit, "sharp faculties," the highest of the "three capacities" (TRĪNDRIYA), used to describe those disciples of the Buddha whose intellectual and spiritual abilities are greater than that of those of average (MADHYENDRIYA) and dull capacities (MṚDVINDRIYA). The term appears particularly in discussions of UPĀYA, the Buddha's ability to adapt his teachings to the intellects, interests, and aspirations of his disciples, with his highest teachings said to be reserved for disciples of sharp faculties. Thus the term is also often used polemically to describe one's preferred teaching as intended only for those of sharp faculties, while dismissing other competing teachings as intended for those of dull or average faculties. See also MAHĀPURUsA; INDRIYA.

trīndriya. (T. dbang po gsum; C. sangen; J. sankon; K. samgŭn 三根). In Sanskrit, "three capacities," or "three faculties"; a division of disciples of the Buddha or of a particular teaching, based on relative levels of aptitude, understanding, or profundity. The three are as follows: those of dull faculties (MṚDVINDRIYA), those of intermediate faculties (MADHYENDRIYA), and those of sharp faculties (TĪKsnENDRIYA). The term is often used polemically to describe one's preferred teaching as intended only for those of sharp faculties, while dismissing other competing teachings as intended for those of dull or intermediate faculties. See also INDRIYA.

triyāna. (T. theg pa gsum; C. sansheng; J. sanjo; K. samsŭng 三乘). In Sanskrit, "three vehicles," three different means taught in Buddhist soteriological literature of conveying sentient beings to liberation. There are two common lists of the three: (1) the vehicles of the sRĀVAKA, PRATYEKABUDDHA (both of which lead to the state of an ARHAT), and BODHISATTVA (which leads to buddhahood); (2) the HĪNAYĀNA, MAHĀYĀNA, and VAJRAYĀNA, although the vajrayāna is considered by its adherents to be a form of the Mahāyāna; the vajrayāna would speak instead of the HĪNAYĀNA, PĀRAMITĀYĀNA, and VAJRAYĀNA. According to some Mahāyāna sutras, most famously the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA ("Lotus Sutra"), the three vehicles (in the first sense above) are an expedient device (UPĀYA) developed by the Buddha to entice beings of differing spiritual capacities toward enlightenment; in fact, however, there is really only one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) by which all beings proceed to buddhahood. Thus, in the Mahāyāna philosophical schools, the question arises of whether or not there are "three final vehicles," that is, whether the state of the arhat is a permanent dead end or whether arhats would also eventually continue on to buddhahood. For example, the position that there are three separate and final vehicles is associated with the YOGĀCĀRA school of ASAnGA and the Chinese FAXIANG ZONG. The position that there are not three, but instead a single decisive vehicle, is associated with the MADHYAMAKA school of NĀGĀRJUNA and CANDRAKĪRTI and the Chinese TIANTAI ZONG.

Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa. (Tsong kha pa Losang Drakpa) (1357-1419). A Tibetan scholar and teacher venerated as the founder of the DGE LUGS sect of Tibetan Buddhism; typically known simply as Tsong kha pa. Born in the Tsong kha region of A mdo in northeastern Tibet, he received his initial lay vows under the fourth KARMA PA and began his religious education in the BKA' GDAMS tradition. In 1372, he traveled to central Tibet for further study. He became a disciple of the SA SKYA scholar Red mda' ba Gzhon nu blo gros (Rendawa Shonu Lodro, 1349-1412) but went on to study under many of the leading scholars of the day, including masters of various schools and sectarian affiliations. Another influential teacher was the lama Dbu ma pa (Umapa), from whom he received instructions on the KĀLACAKRATANTRA. He distinguished himself as a brilliant scholar and exegete of both SuTRA and TANTRA. According to his traditional biographies, Tsong kha pa experienced visions of Indian masters such as NĀGĀRJUNA and BUDDHAPĀLITA, who helped to clarify difficult points of doctrine. He is also said to have maintained a special relationship with MANJUsRĪ, the bodhisattva of wisdom, who appeared in visions throughout Tsong kha pa's life offering instruction and advice; Tsong kha pa is sometimes called 'Jam mgon, or "protected by MaNjusrī." Tsong kha pa's biographies speak of four major deeds undertaken during his lifetime. The first, in 1399, was his restoration of an image of the future buddha, MAITREYA. The second was a council to reform the code of VINAYA, convened in 1403 and attended by monks representing all sects of Tibetan Buddhism. The third was the Great Prayer Festival (SMON LAM CHEN MO) inaugurated in 1409 at the JO KHANG in LHA SA, in which he offered the ornaments of a SAMBHOGAKĀYA to the famous statue of JO BO SHĀKYAMUNI, celebrating the Buddha's performance of the sRĀVASTĪ MIRACLES. The festival became an important annual event, drawing thousands of participants from all quarters of the Tibetan Buddhist world. The fourth was the founding in 1409 of DGA' LDAN monastery, which would become one of principal religious institutions in the Lha sa region and seat of the leader of the Dge lugs sect. Tsong kha pa was an original and penetrating philosopher, who saw reason and intellectual development as key aspects of the path to enlightenment. Born during a period when the Tibetan Buddhist canon had been newly formulated, he sought a comprehensive explanation of the Buddhist path, with the PRĀSAnGIKA-MADHYAMAKA of BUDDHAPĀLITA and CANDRAKĪRTI as the highest philosophical view. His works are marked with a concern with systematic consistency, whether it be between sutra and tantra or PRAMĀnA and MADHYAMAKA. A prolific author, Tsong kha pa's works fill eighteen volumes. Among his best known writings are the LAM RIM CHEN MO ("Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment"), composed in 1402 at RWA SGRENG monastery, the SNGAGS RIM CHEN MO ("Great Treatise on the Stages of Mantra"), and the Drang nges LEGS BSHAD SNYING PO ("Essence of Eloquence on the Definitive and Interpretable"). Tsong kha pa called his system of religious practice the Bka' gdams gsar ma, or "New Bka' gdams," after the sect founded by the Bengali master ATIsA DĪPAMKARAsRĪJNĀNA. His followers were later known as Dga' ldan pa (Gandenpa), "those of Dga' ldan," after the monastic seat established by Tsong kha pa. This was sometimes abbreviated as Dga' lugs pa, "those of the system of Dga' ldan," eventually evolving into the current name Dge lugs pa, "those of the system of virtue." Tsong kha pa's fame was greatly elevated through the political power of the Dge lugs sect after the establishment of the institution of the DALAI LAMA. His tomb at Dga' ldan became an important site of pilgrimage prior to its destruction during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Tsong kha pa's fame in Tibet was sufficiently great that he is commonly known simply as Rje rin po che, the "precious leader."

ucchedadṛsti. (P. ucchedaditthi; T. chad lta; C. duanjian; J. danken; K. tan'gyon 斷見). In Sanskrit, lit. the "[wrong] view of annihilationism"; one of the two "extreme views" (ANTAGRĀHADṚstI) together with sĀsVATADṚstI, the "[wrong] view of eternalism." Ucchedadṛsti is variously defined in the Buddhist philosophical schools but generally refers to the wrong view that causes do not have effects, thus denying the central tenets of KARMAN and rebirth (the denial of the possibility of rebirth was attributed to the Cārvāka school of ancient India). Among the divisions of the root affliction (MuLAKLEsA) of "wrong view" (DṚstI), ucchedadṛsti occurs in connection with SATKĀYADṚstI, where it is defined as the mistaken belief or view that the self is the same as one or all of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) and that as such it ceases to exist at death. In this context, it is contrasted with sĀsVATADṚstI, the mistaken belief that the self is different from the aggregates and that it continues to exist eternally from one rebirth to the next. Annihilationism is thus a form of antagrāhadṛsti, "[wrong] view of holding to an extreme," i.e., the view that the person ceases to exist at death and is not reborn (ucchedadṛsti), in distinction to the view that there is a perduring soul that continues to be reborn unchanged from one lifetime to the next (sāsvatadṛsti). The Buddhist middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD) between these two extremes posits that there is no permanent, perduring soul (countering eternalism), and yet there is karmic continuity from one lifetime to the next (countering annihilationism). In the MADHYAMAKA school, ucchedadṛsti is more broadly defined as the view that nothing exists, even at a conventional level. Thus, following statements in the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ SuTRAs, the Madhyamaka school sets forth a middle way between the extremes of existence and nonexistence. In general, the middle way between extremes is able to acknowledge the insubstantiality of persons and phenomena (whether that insubstantiality is defined as impermanence, no-self, or emptiness) while upholding functionality, most importantly in the realm of cause and effect (and thus the conventional reality of karman and rebirth).

ucchedānta. (T. chad mtha'; C. duanbian; J. danhen; K. tanbyon 斷邊). In Sanskrit, "extreme of annihilation" or "extreme of nihilism"; along with the extreme of permanence (sĀSVATĀNTA), one of the two extremes to be avoided in pursuit of the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD). Precisely how these two extremes are defined varies among the schools of Indian Buddhist philosophy. All Buddhist schools would consign the various non-Buddhist schools of Indian philosophy to one of the two extremes, with the SāMkhya, Vaisesika, JAINA, Vedānta, MīmāMsaka, and Nyāya falling into the extreme of permanence (sĀsVATĀNTA) and the Cārvāka falling into the extreme of nihilism (ucchedānta). The Buddhist schools each claim to avoid these two extremes, avoiding the extreme of permanence by denying the existence of a perduring, indivisible, and independent self, and avoiding the extreme of annihilation by upholding the existence of moral cause and effect (KARMAN) and of rebirth. Beyond this basic analysis, the various Buddhist schools refine the two extremes according to their specific tenets and charge their rivals with falling into one or the other of the two extremes. For example, the YOGĀCĀRA school claims that the MADHYAMAKA doctrine that all phenomena are devoid of intrinsic nature (NIḤSVABHĀVA) flirts with the extreme of nihilism, and the Madhyamaka claims that the Yogācāra emphasis on the autonomy of consciousness (VIJNĀNA; VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ) tends toward the extreme of permanence.

Upadhyaya (Sanskrit) Upādhyāya [from upa near, according to + adhi above + the verbal root i to go] He who makes go (i.e., learn) according to, a standard of truth or doctrine; a spiritual guide, preceptor, leader, or guru.

Upagupta. (T. Nyer sbas; C. Youpojuduo; J. Ubakikuta; K. Ubagukta 優婆毱多). An Indian ARHAT, said to have lived in the MATHURĀ region of India. Upagupta is unknown in Pāli canonical sources but appears frequently in the Sanskrit AVADĀNA literature, especially the AsOKĀVADĀNA and the DIVYĀVADĀNA. Upagupta is famed for having tamed (and in some versions, converted) MĀRA by placing a garland of corpses around his neck. Upagupta was later invited to PĀtALIPUTRA by King AsOKA, and then conducted the monarch on a tour of the sacred sites (MAHĀSTHĀNA) associated with the life of the Buddha. The cult of Upagupta became popular in Southeast Asian Buddhist countries from the twelfth century onward, thanks to his prominent appearance in Sanskrit materials, and he eventually comes to be featured in noncanonical Pāli materials as well. Upagupta occupies pride of place in Burmese (Myanmar) Buddhism, where he is presumed to reside in a pavilion in the southern ocean, whence he is invited to rituals to protect the Burmese from Māra's interference. At the conclusion of the ceremonies, an image of Upagupta is placed on a raft and floated downstream. Upagupta is listed in SARVĀSTIVĀDA sources as the fifth of the Indian patriarchs who are said to have succeeded the Buddha as head of the SAMGHA, following MAHĀKĀsYAPA, ĀNANDA, MADHYĀNTIKA, and sĀnAKAVĀSIN; the East Asian CHAN tradition typically lists him instead as the fourth patriarch. According to a Chinese account of the origins of the VINAYA, Upagupta had five major disciples who were said to have established their own schools based on their differing views regarding doctrine; these five also redacted separate editions of the vinaya, which the Chinese refer to as the "five vinaya recensions" (wubu lü).

Upālisutta. (C. Youpoli jing; J. Ubarikyo; K. Ubari kyong 優婆離經). In Pāli, "Discourse to Upāli," the fifty-sixth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 133rd SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached to the householder (P. gahapati; S. GṚHAPATI) Upāli, a wealthy lay disciple of Nigantha Nātaputta (S. NIRGRANTHA JNĀTĪPUTRA; a.k.a. MAHĀVĪRA; see also JAINA) at the Pāvārika's mango grove in NĀLANDĀ. Nigantha Nātaputta dispatched his lay disciple Upāli to engage the Buddha in a debate on the nature of action (P. kamma; S. KARMAN). The Jaina leader held that, of the three types of action, physical, verbal, and mental, it is bodily action that is the most productive of consequences for the actor. The Buddha maintained, in contrast, that it is mental action that is the most productive of consequences for the actor, since it is the mental intention (CETANĀ) that initiates the physical action. Convinced of the Buddha's explanations, Upāli dedicated himself as a lay disciple of the Buddha. When Nigantha Nātaputta heard of Upāli's conversion, he was filled with rage and vomited blood.

utpāda. (P. uppāda; T. skye ba; C. shengqi; J. shoki; K. saenggi 生起). In Sanskrit, "production," or "arising," the generation of a specific fruition or effect (PHALA) from a given cause (HETU). In generic Buddhist accounts of causality or etiology, hetu designates the main or primary cause of production, which operates in conjunction with various concomitant or subsidiary conditions (PRATYAYA); together, these two bring about the production (utpāda) of a specific "fruition" or result (phala). In the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and the MADHYAMAKA school, the notion of production comes under specific criticism (see VAJRAKAnĀ), with NĀGĀRJUNA famously asking, e.g., how an effect can be produced from a cause that is either the same as or different from itself. The prajNāpāramitā sutras thus famously declare that all dharmas are actually ANUTPĀDA, or "unproduced."

Vach is also mystic speech “by whom Occult Knowledge and Wisdom are communicated to man, and thus Vach is said to have ‘entered the Rishis.’ . . . she is called ‘the mother of the Vedas,’ since it was through her power (as mystic speech) that Brahma revealed them . . . ” (SD 1:430). The Rig-Veda and Upanishads give four kinds of Vach — vaikhari, madhyama, pasyanti, and para — corresponding to the four cosmic principles: the physical universe, the light of the Logos, the Logos itself, and parabrahman or the infinite.

Vaikhari (Sanskrit) Vaikharī As feminine adjective commonly connected with Vach (mystic speech) which is of four kinds: para, pasyanti, madhyama, and vaikhari. Vaikhari is that form of speech which is uttered, expressed, or otherwise manifested as the vehicle of thought. As one of the four main aspects of the Logos in space, Vaikhari-Vach is the whole cosmos in its objective or manifested form.

vajrakanā. (T. rdo rje gzegs ma). In Sanskrit, lit. "diamond slivers"; a term used to describe one of the chief reasonings used by NĀGĀRJUNA in the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ. A critique of production (UTPĀDA), it argues that a given thing does not intrinsically exist because of not being produced (1) from itself, (2) from something that is intrinsically different from itself, (3) from something that is both itself and intrinsically different from itself, or (4) without cause.

Vanapatthasutta. (C. Lin jing; J. Ringyo; K. Im kyong 林經). In Pāli, the "Discourse on Forest Dwelling"; the seventeenth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as SuTRA nos. 107-108 in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha describes the suitable conditions for a monk to practice meditation. Should he find a place suitable for neither material support (e.g., alms food, robes, lodgings) nor meditation practice, he should abandon that place. Should he find a place suitable for material support but not practice, he should abandon that place also. Should he find a place suitable for meditation practice but not for support, he should remain there. Should he find a place suitable for material support and meditation practice, he should take up lifelong residence there.

Vasubandhu. (T. Dbyig gnyen; C. Shiqin; J. Seshin; K. Sech'in 世親) (fl. c. fourth or fifth centuries CE). One of the most influential authors in the history of Buddhism, and the only major figure to make significant contributions to both the MAINSTREAM BUDDHIST SCHOOLS and MAHĀYĀNA. In Tibetan Buddhism, Vasubandhu is counted as one of the "six ornaments" (T. rgyan drug), along with NĀGĀRJUNA, ĀRYADEVA, ASAnGA, DIGNĀGA, and DHARMAKĪRTI. There has been considerable speculation about his dates, so much so that ERICH FRAUWALLNER proposed that there were two different Vasubandhus. This theory has been rejected, but there is still no consensus on his dates, with most scholars placing him in the fourth or fifth century CE. Vasubandhu is said to have been born in Purusapura in GANDHĀRA (identified with Peshawar in modern Pakistan), as the brother or half brother (with the same mother) of Asanga. He was ordained as a monk in a SARVĀSTIVĀDA school and studied VAIBHĀsIKA ABHIDHARMA philosophy in KASHMIR-GANDHĀRA, as well as the tenets of the rival SAUTRĀNTIKA school. At the conclusion of his studies, he composed his first and what would be his most famous work, the Abhidharmakosa, or "Treasury of the Abhidharma." In over six hundred stanzas in nine chapters, he set forth the major points of the Vaibhāsika system. He then composed a prose autocommentary, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, in which he critiqued from a Sautrāntika perspective some of the Vaibhāsika positions that he had outlined in the verses. These two texts would become two of the most influential texts on the abhidharma in the later history of Buddhism on the subcontinent and beyond, serving, for example, as the root texts for abhidharma studies in Tibet and as the foundational text for the Kusha (Kosa) school of early Japanese Buddhism. At some point after his composition of the Kosa, he encountered his half brother Asanga, author of at least some of the texts collected in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, who "converted" him to the Mahāyāna. After his conversion, Vasubandhu became a prolific author on Mahāyāna materials, helping especially to frame the philosophy of the Yogācāra school. Major works attributed to him include the VIMsATIKĀ, or "Twenty [Stanzas]" and the TRIMsIKĀ, or "Thirty [Stanzas]," two works that set forth succinctly the basic philosophical positions of the Yogācāra. The TriMsikā was, together with DHARMAPĀLA's commentary to the text, the basis of XUANZANG's massive commentary, the CHENG WEISHI LUN (*VijNaptimātratāsiddhi), which was the foundational text for the FAXIANG ZONG of East Asian Yogācāra. In his TRISVABHĀVANIRDEsA, Vasubandhu also set forth the central doctrine of the Yogācāra, the "three natures" (TRISVABHĀVA), of imaginary (PARIKALPITA), dependent (PARATANTRA), and consummate (PARINIsPANNA). His VYĀKHYĀYUKTI set forth principles for the exegesis of passages from the sutras. He is also credited with commentaries on a number of Mahāyāna sutras, including the AKsAYAMATINIRDEsA, the SADDHARMAPUndARĪKASuTRA, and the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA (with his commentary serving as the basis of the DI LUN ZONG in China), as well as commentaries on three of the five treatises of MAITREYA, the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA, the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, and the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA. He also wrote a commentary on Asanga's MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA. His KARMASIDDHIPRAKARAnA, or "Investigation Establishing [the Correct Understanding] of KARMAN," examines the theory of action in light of the Yogācāra doctrine of the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. The PANCASKANDHAPRAKARAnA, or "Explanation of the Five Aggregates," presents a somewhat different view of the five aggregates (SKANDHA) than that found in his Abhidharmakosabhāsya and thus probably dates from his Mahāyāna period; it is a reworking of the presentation of the five aggregates found in Asanga's ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. In addition to the Abhidharmakosabhāsya and the ViMsatikā, a third text of his was highly influential in East Asia. It is a commentary on the larger SUKHĀVATĪVYuHA, whose Sanskrit title might be reconstructed as the *Sukhāvatīvyuhopadesa. However, the work is known only in Chinese, as the JINGTU LUN, and its attribution to Vasubandhu has been called into question. Nonetheless, based on this traditional attribution, Vasubandhu is counted as an Indian patriarch of the PURE LAND schools of East Asia. ¶ In Tibet, a bṛhattīkā commentary on the sATASĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ and a paddhati on three PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ sutras (T. Yum gsum gnod 'joms) are attributed to Vasubandhu, although his authorship is disputed.

Vatthupamasutta. (C. Shuijing fanzhi jing; J. Suijobonjikyo; K. Sujong pomji kyong 水淨梵志經). In Pāli, the "The Simile of the Cloth Discourse"; the seventh sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the ninety-third SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA, as well as an unidentified recension in the Chinese translation of the EKOTTARĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to a group of disciples in the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha describes the difference between a pure mind and a defiled mind by citing the example of cloth: just as only a clean cloth will absorb dye properly, so only a pure mind will be receptive to the dharma. The Buddha then lists a set of seventeen imperfections that defile the mind, which the monk must learn to abandon in order to gain confidence in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) and ultimately liberation.

vidyāsthāna. (P. vijjātthāna; T. rigs pa'i gnas; C. ming chu; J. myosho; K. myong ch'o 明處). In Sanskrit, lit. "abode of knowledge," but often translated as "science," especially in the context of the five traditional sciences of ancient India, which a BODHISATTVA is also expected to master. These five sciences (PANCAVIDYĀ) are sabda, which includes grammar and composition; hetu [alt. PRAMĀnA], or logic; cikitsā, or medicine; silpakarma, which includes the arts and mathematics; and adhyātmavidyā, the "inner science," which in the case of Buddhism was said to be knowledge of the TRIPItAKA and the twelve categories of scriptures (DVĀDAsĀnGA[PRAVACANA]).

Vigrahavyāvartanī. (T. Rtsod pa bzlog pa; C. Huizheng lun; J. Ejoron; K. Hoejaeng non 廻諍論). In Sanskrit, "Refutation of Objections"; one of the major works of NĀGĀRJUNA and considered as part of his philosophical corpus (YUKTIKĀYA). The work, which is preserved in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese, has seventy stanzas; there is also an autocommentary by the author. The work appears to have been composed after the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, responding to objections that might be raised to arguments in that text; hence, the title "Refutation of Objections." As in the case of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā, the opponent is presumably an adherent of the ABHIDHARMA, although it is directed specifically to Naiyāyika-type arguments. Perhaps the most famous objection and response comes at the beginning of the text. In the first stanza of the work, the opponent states that, if it is true, as Nāgārjuna claims, that all things lack intrinsic nature (SVABHĀVA), then Nāgārjuna's own statement must also lack intrinsic nature, in which case the statement cannot deny the intrinsic nature of things. In the famous twenty-ninth stanza, Nāgārjuna responds, "If I had some thesis (PRATIJNĀ), I would incur that fault; because I have no thesis, I am faultless." The autocommentary explains that there can be no thesis when all things are empty, utterly quiescent, and naturally pristine. Therefore, because he has no thesis, no mark of a thesis is entailed by his previous statement that all things lack intrinsic nature. The text is widely quoted by later commentators, both in India and in Tibet.

vijNānānantyāyatana. (P. viNNānaNcāyatana; T. rnam shes mtha' yas skye mched; C. shi wubian chu; J. shikimuhenjo; K. sik mubyon ch'o 識無邊處). In Sanskrit, "sphere of infinite consciousness"; the second (in ascending order) of the four levels of the immaterial realm (ĀRuPYADHĀTU) and the second of the four immaterial absorptions (ĀRuPYĀVACARADHYĀNA). It is "above" the first level of the immaterial realm, called infinites space (AKĀsĀNANTYĀYATANA), and "below" the third and fourth levels, "nothingness" (ĀKIMCANYĀYATANA) and "neither perception nor nonperception" (NAIVASAMJNĀNĀSAMJNĀYATANA). It is a realm of rebirth as well as a meditative state that is entirely immaterial (viz., there is no physical, or form [RuPA], component to existence), in which the mind seems to expand to the point that it is essentially infinite. Beings reborn in this realm are thought to live as long as forty thousand eons (KALPA). However, as a state of being that is still subject to rebirth, even the realm of infinite consciousness remains part of SAMSĀRA. Like the other levels of the realm of subtle materiality (RuPADHĀTU) and the immaterial realm, one is reborn in this state by achieving the specific level of meditative absorption of that state in the previous lifetime. One of the most famous and influential expositions on the subject of these immaterial states comes from the VISUDDHIMAGGA of BUDDHAGHOSA, written in the fifth century. Although there are numerous accounts of Buddhist meditators achieving immaterial states of SAMĀDHI, they are also used polemically in Buddhist literature to describe the attainments of non-Buddhist YOGINs, who mistakenly identify these exalted states within saMsāra as states of permanent liberation from rebirth. See also DHYĀNASAMĀPATTI; DHYĀNOPAPATTI.

VīmaMsakasutta. (C. Qiujie jing; J. Gugekyo; K. Kuhae kyong 求解經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Investigation"; the forty-seventh sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 186th SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); delivered by the Buddha to a gathering of monks in the JETAVANA grove at the town of Sāvatthi (sRĀVASTĪ). In this sutta, the Buddha describes specific means by which it may be determined whether or not the TATHĀGATA has in fact attained buddhahood. He directs the inquirer to rely on what he has seen and heard to determine whether the tathāgata possesses any defiled states, mixed states, or impure states; whether he possesses wholesome states; and whether he is free from the dangers of renown and fame, free from fear and sexual passion, and free from contempt for others due to their failings. Finally the Buddha states that the monk gains true confidence in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) by learning the Buddha's teachings and confirming their truth through direct experience born of practice.

Vimuktisena. [alt. Ārya Vimuktisena] (T. Grol sde). An Indian scholar-monk (likely from the sixth century CE) who is the author of the first extant commentary (vṛtti) on the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA, a work associated with the name of MAITREYA or MAITREYANĀTHA, the most influential PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ commentary for Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vimuktisena connects the AbhisamayālaMkāra to the PANCAVIMsATISĀHASRIKĀPRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ ("Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines"), making the otherwise cryptic AbhisamayālaMkāra comprehensible. In scholastic Tibetan Buddhism his name is linked with the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka synthesis, but Vimuktisena's view is more closely aligned to MADHYAMAKA, without the distinctive terminology associated with the PRAMĀnA school of DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI.

Vitakkasanthānasutta. (C. Zengshangxin jing; J. Zojoshingyo; K. Chŭngsangsim kyong 增上心經). In Pāli, "Discourse on Removing Distracting Thoughts," the twentieth sutta in the MAJJHIMANIKĀYA (a separate SARVĀSTIVĀDA recension appears as the 101st SuTRA in the Chinese translation of the MADHYAMĀGAMA); preached by the Buddha to an assembly of monks at the JETAVANA grove in the town of Sāvatthi (S. sRĀVASTĪ). The Buddha teaches five methods that can be used to overcome unwholesome, distracting thoughts (P. vitakka; S. VITARKA) that may arise during the course of meditation. These methods include replacing the unwholesome thought with a wholesome thought, contemplating the danger of the unwholesome thought, ignoring the unwholesome thought, progressively stilling the process of thought formation, and forcibly suppressing the unwholesome thought through the application of concentration. An analogous treatment of five methods of controlling thoughts also appears in the YOGĀCĀRABHuMIsĀSTRA.

Vyavahārasiddhi. (T. Tha snyad grub pa). In Sanskrit, "Proof of Convention"; a work attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA; it is no longer extant, but six stanzas are cited by sĀNTARAKsITA in his MADHYAMAKĀLAMKĀRAVṚTTI. The verses state that a MANTRA is composed of letters just as a medicine is composed of ingredients, but the mantra and the medicine are neither the same as nor different from the elements of which they are comprised. Because they are dependently arisen, they cannot be said to be either existent or nonexistent; instead, they exist conventionally. This fact is true of all phenomena, including cessation (NIRODHA), which were set forth by the Buddha for specific purposes.

Wonhyo. (C. Yuanxiao; J. Gangyo 元曉) (617-686). In Korean, "Break of Dawn"; famous monk of the Silla dynasty and probably one of the two most important monks in all of Korean Buddhist history, who was renowned for both his scholastic achievements and his efforts to propagate Buddhism among the common people. He is reputed to have written over one hundred commentaries, of which some twenty are extant. According to the hagiographical accounts of Wonhyo in the SONG GAOSENG ZHUAN and the SAMGUK YUSA, Wonhyo tried, but failed, to travel to China with his friend ŬISANG in order to study with the Chinese translator and YOGĀCĀRA exegete XUANZANG. While on the road, Wonhyo is said to have attained enlightenment after a traumatic experience in which he discovered that the earthen sanctuary in which the two travelers had taken refuge one stormy night was in fact a tomb. This experience prompted his awakening that all things are created by mind, which led Wonhyo to realize that he did not need to continue on to China in order to understand Buddhism. (Ŭisang did travel to the mainland, where he studied with the early HUAYAN exegete ZHIYAN.) As the legends about Wonhyo's enlightenment experience evolve, this story becomes even more horrific: Wonhyo is said to have discovered that the sweet water he drank in the tomb to slake his thirst was actually offal rotting in a skull, a traumatic experience that immediately prompted his realization that the mind creates all things. Wonhyo spent much of his life writing commentaries to the many new translations of Buddhist scriptures then being introduced into the Korean peninsula. A brief affair with the widowed princess of Yosok palace led to the birth of a son, who would grow up to become the famous literatus, Sol Ch'ong (c. 660-730), the creator of Idu ("clerical writing"), the earliest Korean vernacular writing system. After the affair, Wonhyo changed into lay clothes and traveled among the peasantry, singing and dancing with a gourd he named Unhindered (Muae) and practicing "unconstrained conduct" (K. muae haeng; C. WU'AI XING). ¶ In Wonhyo's many treatises, he pioneered a hermeneutical technique he called "reconciling doctrinal controversies" (HWAJAENG), which seeks to demonstrate that various Buddhist doctrines, despite their apparent differences and inconsistencies, could be integrated into a single coherent whole. This "ecumenical" approach is pervasive throughout Wonhyo's works, although its basic principle is explained chiefly in his Simmun hwajaeng non ("Ten Approaches to the Reconciliation of Doctrinal Controversy," only fragments are extant), TAESŬNG KISILLON SO ("Commentary to the 'Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna'"), and KŬMGANG SAMMAEGYoNG NON ("Exposition of the VAJRASAMĀDHISuTRA"). Wonhyo was versed in the full range of Buddhist philosophical doctrines then accessible to him in Korea, including MADHYAMAKA, YOGĀCĀRA, Hwaom, and TATHĀGATAGARBHA thought, and hwajaeng was his attempt to demonstrate how all of these various teachings of the Buddha were part of a coherent heuristic plan within the religion. Since at least the twelfth century, Wonhyo's hwajaeng exegesis has come to be portrayed as characteristic of a distinctively Korean approach to Buddhist thought.

wuxin. (J. mushin; K. musim 無心). In Chinese, lit. "no-mind." The term wuxin appears in the Chinese classic the Zhuangzi and was adapted by the early Chinese Buddhists exegetes of PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ literature as a gloss on the Madhyamaka notion of suNYATĀ or "emptiness." These exegetes were collectively known as the "school of the nonexistence of mind" (xinwu zong) and belonged to the larger tradition known as "Dark Learning" (XUANXUE). In later Buddhist treatises, most notably those belonging to the CHAN tradition, "no-mind" came to refer ambiguously either to a state in which all mental activity had ceased or one in which the mind was free of all discrimination, making it effectively equivalent to nonconceptualization (see NIsPRAPANCA). In this latter sense, the term is closely synonymous with "no-thought" (WUNIAN). See also WUXIN LUN.

xing zong. (J. shoshu; K. song chong 性宗). In Chinese, the "school of the nature"; also known as the FAXING ZONG, or "Dharma Nature" school. In distinction to the XIANG ZONG, or "characteristics school," which mainly involved the analysis of phenomena, the xing school refers to those Buddhist intellectual traditions that studied the underlying essence or "nature" of reality. While the xiang school, i.e., the FAXIANG or "Dharma Characteristics" school, was a pejorative term referring to the Chinese YOGĀCĀRA school established on the basis of the new Yogācāra texts introduced from India by XUANZANG (600/602-664) and elaborated by his lineage, the name "xing zong" was used polemically to refer to the MADHYAMAKA teachings of the SAN LUN ZONG, the TATHĀGATAGARBHA teachings, or the last three of the five teachings in the HUAYAN school's hermeneutical taxonomy (see JIAOXIANG PANSHI): the advanced teachings of Mahāyāna (Dasheng zhongjiao), i.e., the sudden teachings (DUNJIAO) and the perfect teachings (YUANJIAO). Maintaining a strict differentiation between the xing and xiang tendencies was called xingxiang juepan (differentiation between nature and characteristics); a scholastic approach that sought to harmonize the two trends was characterized as xingxiang ronghui (harmonizing nature and characteristics).

xinxin. (J. shinjin; K. sinsim 信心). In Chinese, "mind of faith" or "faith in mind"; the compound is typically interpreted to mean either faith in the purity of one's own mind or else a mind that has faith in the three jewels (RATNATRAYA) and the principle of causality. The "mind of faith" is generally considered to constitute the inception of the Buddhist path (MĀRGA). In the elaborate fifty-two stage path schema outlined in such scriptures as the AVATAMSAKASuTRA, the RENWANG JING, and the PUSA YINGLUO BENYE JING, "mind of faith" (xinxin) constitutes the first of the ten stages of faith (shixin), a preliminary level of the BODHISATTVA path generally placed prior to the generation of the thought of enlightenment (BODHICITTOTPĀDA) that occurs on the first of the ten abiding stages (shizhu). The MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA also says that the buddha-nature (FOXING) can be called the "great mind of faith" (da xinxin) because a bodhisattva-mahāsattva, through this mind of faith, comes to be endowed with the six perfections (PĀRAMITĀ). ¶ In the PURE LAND traditions, the mind of faith typically refers to faith in the vows of the buddha AMITĀBHA, which ensures that those who have sincere devotion and faith in that buddha will be reborn in his pure land of SUKHĀVATĪ. SHANDAO (613-681) divided the mind of faith into two types: (1) faith in one's lesser spiritual capacity (xinji), which involves acceptance of the fact that one has fallen in a state of delusion during myriads of rebirths, and (2) faith in dharma (xinfa), which is faith in the fact that one can be saved from this delusion through the vows of Amitābha. SHINRAN (1173-1262) glosses the mind of faith as the buddha-mind realized by entrusting oneself to Amitābha's name and vow. ¶ The term xinxin is also used as a translation of the Sanskrit sRADDHĀ (faith), which is one of the five spiritual faculties (INDRIYA), and of ADHYĀsAYA (lit. "determination," "resolution"), which is used to describe the intention of the bodhisattva to liberate all beings from suffering. See also XINXIN MING.

Yamāntaka. (T. Gshin rje gshed; C. Yanmandejia/Daweide mingwang; J. Enmantokuka/Daiitoku myoo; K. Yommandokka/Taewidok myongwang 焰曼德迦/大威德明王). In Sanskrit, "Destroyer of Death" (lit. "he who brings an end (antaka) to death (yama)"), closely associated with BHAIRAVA ("The Frightening One") and VAJRABHAIRAVA; one of the most important tantric deities. In Tibetan Buddhism, he was one of the three primary YI DAM of the DGE LUGS sect (together with GUHYASAMĀJA and CAKRASAMVARA). Yamāntaka is considered to be a fully enlightened buddha, who appears always in a wrathful form. He is depicted both with and without a consort; the solitary depiction, called "sole hero" (ekavīra), is particularly popular. Bhairava also appears in the Hindu tantric pantheon as a wrathful manifestation of the god siva. According to Buddhist mythology, MANJUsRĪ, the bodhisattva of wisdom, took the form of the terrifying bull-headed deity in order to destroy the Lord of Death (YAMA) who was ravaging the country; hence the epithet Yamāntaka (Destroyer of Death). Yamāntaka has nine heads, thirty-four arms, and sixteen legs, each arm holding a different weapon or frightening object, and each foot trampling a different being. Each of these receives detailed symbolic interpretation in ritual and meditation texts associated with Yamāntaka. Thus, his two horns are said to represent the two truths (SATYADVAYA) of MADHYAMAKA philosophy: ultimate truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA) and conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA). His nine heads represent the nine categories (NAVAnGA[PĀVACANA]) of Buddhist scriptures. His thirty-four arms, together with his body, speech, and mind, symbolize the thirty-seven "factors pertaining to awakening" (BODHIPĀKsIKADHARMA). His sixteen legs symbolize the sixteen emptinesses (suNYATĀ). The humans and animals that he tramples with his right foot represent the attainment of the eight accomplishments, viz., supernatural abilities acquired through tantric practice, including the ability to fly, to become invisible, and travel underground. The birds that he tramples with his left foot represent the attainment of the eight powers, another set of magical abilities, including the ability to travel anywhere in an instant and the power to create emanations. His erect phallus represents great bliss, his nakedness means that he is not covered up with obstacles, and his hair standing on end symbolizes his passage beyond all sorrow (DUḤKHA). The Yamāntaka root tantras are the Sarvatathāgatakāyavāgcittakṛsnayamāritantra ("Body, Speech, and Mind of All Tathāgatas: Black Enemy of Death Tantra") in eighteen chapters; Sarvatathāgatakāyavāgcittaraktayamāritantra ("Red Enemy of Death Tantra," in large part, a different version of the same tantra in nineteen chapters); and the important Kṛsnayamārimukhatantra, also called the "Three Summaries Tantra" (T. Rgyud sdom gsum) because it has no chapters. Also included in the cycle is the Yamāntakakrodhavijayatantra ("Victorious Wrathful Yamāntaka Tantra"), a CARYĀTANTRA. Based on these three works, in Tibet, the three varieties of Yamāntaka are called the "red, black, and the frightening" (T. dmar nag 'jigs gsum) derived from Raktayamāri (Red Enemy of Death), Kṛsnayamāri (Black Enemy of Death), and Vajrabhairava.

Ye shes sde. (Yeshe De) (fl. late eighth/early ninth century). A Tibetan translator (LO TSĀ BA) during the early dissemination (SNGA DAR) of Buddhism in Tibet; a native of Ngam shod of the Sna nam clan, also referred to by the clan name Zhang. He is said to have been a disciple of both PADMASAMBHAVA and sRĪSIMHA, from whom he received tantric instructions, especially in the SEMS SDE (mind class) of RDZOGS CHEN. He collaborated with some fifteen Indian scholars, among them Jinamitra, sīlendrabodhi, and Dānasīla, on the translation of as many as 347 different works, if the later canonical records are correct. His translations includes upwards of 163 Mahāyāna sutras, among them the PRAJNĀPĀRAMITĀ, AVATAMSAKASuTRA, and RATNAKutASuTRA collections, translations of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI and other basic MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA treatises, as well as a number of works by his contemporaries sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA. He is also credited with the translation of tantric works that would come to be known as the "old translations" used by the RNYING MA sect. He is said to have been a practitioner of the VAJRAKĪLAYA tantras. He is also author of a number of original compositions, among them the Lta ba'i khyad par ("Differences in Views"), preserved in both a BSTAN 'GYUR and DUNHUANG version, which divides the Madhyamaka school into Sautrāntika-Madhyamaka and Yogācāra-Madhyamaka. See also DPAL BRTSEGS; KLU'I RGYAL MTSHAN.

yixin. (S. ekacitta; J. isshin; K. ilsim 一心). In Chinese, "one mind"; the ground of being and the principle (LI) foundational to all phenomena (SHI). The LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA and the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna"), both central texts in the TATHĀGATAGARBHA corpus of literature, treat the "one mind" as a central doctrine. The Lankāvatārasutra states that the "calm extinction [of NIRVĀnA] is called the one mind, and this one mind is called the tathāgatagarbha." The Dasheng qixin lun presents all of Buddhism in terms of the one mind and its two aspects: the mind's true-thusness aspect (xin zhenru men) and production-and-cessation aspect (xin shengmie men). The Dasheng qixin lun, arguably the most influential tathāgatagarbha text within the East Asian Buddhist tradition, has long been considered the principal treatise outlining the doctrine of the one mind and its associations with the YOGĀCĀRA theory of consciousness and tathāgatagarbha thought. ¶ The exegeses to the Dasheng qixin lun by JINGYING HUIYUAN (523-592), WoNHYO (617-686), and FAZANG (643-712), which the tradition has regarded as its three major commentaries (san dashu), have each elucidated in considerable detail the foundational role that the notion of the one mind plays in that text. Fazang, for example, glossed the one mind of the Dasheng qixin lun as the "one tathāgatagarbha mind" and thus identified the one mind with the tathāgatagarbha; the two aspects of the one mind, true thusness and production-and-cessation, were correlated, respectively, with either MADHYAMAKA and YOGĀCĀRA or principle (li) and phenomena (shi). Fazang thus places tathāgatagarbha thought above both the SAN LUN ZONG (the Chinese analogue of the Madhyamaka school) and the FAXIANG ZONG (Yogācāra) teachings in his doctrinal taxonomy (panjiao; see JIAOXIANG PANSHI). By contrast, Huiyuan's commentary treats the one mind within the context of the nine-consciousnesses theory of the SHE LUN ZONG, an early Yogācāra-oriented strand of Chinese Buddhist thought. In his analysis of the two aspects of the one mind, Huiyuan correlates the true-thusness aspect of the one mind with the ninth "immaculate consciousness" (AMALAVIJNĀNA); he correlates the production-and-cessation aspect of the one mind with the eighth "storehouse consciousness" (ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA). Unlike Fazang's interpretation, tathāgatagarbha is here not identified with the one mind but is instead viewed as the production-and-cessation aspect of the mind. In Wonhyo's case, rather than seeking as Fazang did to distinguish the Faxiang teachings of Yogācāra from tathāgatagarbha thought, he sought instead to reconcile the Faxiang perspective on consciousness with the Dasheng qixin lun's analysis of mind. Like Huiyuan, Wonhyo identified the tathāgatagarbha with the production-and-cessation aspect of the one mind. ¶ The one mind is also a central theme of the ZONGJING LU, an encyclopedic CHAN anthology compiled by YONGMING YANSHOU (904-976) in the FAYAN ZONG, which seeks to unify the various Chinese schools of Buddhism, including HUAYAN, Yogācāra, and TIANTAI, and to demonstrate the compatibility of doctrinal teachings and meditative practice. Yanshou draws on the doctrinal classification schema of GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841), the Chan scholiast who was also the fifth patriarch of the Huayan school, in positing three broad strands of Buddhist teaching: dharma characteristics (Faxiang zong), destruction of characteristics (Poxiang), dharma nature (FAXING ZONG). Yanshou states that the Faxing (dharma nature) teachings, which include both the Huayan and Chan schools and which are based on tathāgatagarbha thought, treat both aspects of true thusness or the one mind, that is, the aspect of "immutability" (bubian) and "adaptability" (lit., "according to conditions," suiyuan); the Faxiang (dharma characteristics) teachings, by contrast, only treat the aspect of "adaptability." ¶ In the TIANTAI school, one mind or sometimes one thought (yinian) is said to be the ground of all things in existence in both their tainted and pure manifestations, a notion expressed in the aphorism "one thought [contains] the TRICHILIOCOSM" (YINIAN SANQIAN), one of the main doctrines of the school. The Tiantai teaching that "one mind," viz., a single instance of thought, contains all three "viewpoints" (yixin sanguan) also expresses how the three inseparable aspects of phenomena (SANDI)-viz., the truth of emptiness (kongdi), the truth of being only provisionally real (jiadi), and the truth of the mean (zhongdi)-are each contained in one thought moment. In the PURE LAND tradition, one mind generally refers to single-minded recollection (NIANFO) of, especially, the buddha AMITĀBHA, and is a synonym of one-pointedness of mind.

Yogabhāvanāmārga. [alt. Bhāvanāyogamārga; Yogabhāvanāpatha] (T. Rnal 'byor bsgom pa'i lam). In Sanskrit, "Path of Yogic Cultivation"; a work on the BODHISATTVA path usually attributed to the eighth-century Indian master JNānagarbha, who is known as the teacher of sĀNTARAKsITA (c. 725-788) and a disciple of srīgupta. It is presumed that the Yogabhāvanāmārga is an example of the later MADHYAMAKA school's attention to the theme of the stages of meditative cultivation (BHĀVANĀ), as best exemplified by KAMALAsĪLA's three BHĀVANĀKRAMAs. There are two JNānagarbhas known to the tradition, one from the early ninth century and the other from the eleventh century. Some scholars suggest that the commentary to the Maitreya chapter of the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA should be attributed to the first JNānagarbha, while authorship of the Yogabhāvanāmārga should be ascribed to the second. The Yogabhāvanāmārga, along with JNānagarbha's two other works, the Satyadvayavibhanga ("Analysis of the Two Truths") and its autocommentary Satyadvayavibhangavṛtti ("Commentary on Analysis of the Two Truths"), are only extant in Tibetan translation.

Yogācāra-Svātantrika-Madhyamaka. (T. Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i dbu ma rang rgyud pa). According to Tibetan exegetes, who coined the term, one of the two branches of the SVĀTANTRIKA school of MADHYAMAKA, together with the SAUTRĀNTIKA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. Its main proponents include sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA. Like YOGĀCĀRA, the school holds that external objects do not exist and that objects are of the nature of consciousness. Like MADHYAMAKA, the school holds that consciousness is empty of true existence. In its presentation of the three vehicles (TRIYĀNA), it correlates each vehicle with a different wisdom, thus bringing together the views of the HĪNAYĀNA, Yogācāra, and Madhyamaka. In order to achieve liberation from rebirth as an ARHAT, the sRĀVAKA must understand that a perduring self (ATMAN) does not exist. A PRATYEKABUDDHA must understand that objects, and hence the external world, do not exist separately from the consciousnesses that perceive them, thereby abandoning the GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA, the misconception of there being a bifurcation between subject and object. In order to achieve buddhahood, the BODHISATTVA must understand the emptiness (suNYATĀ) of all phenomena.

Yogācāra. (T. Rnal 'byor spyod pa; C. Yuqiexing pai; J. Yugagyoha; K. Yugahaeng p'a 瑜伽行派). In Sanskrit, "Practice of YOGA"; one of the two major MAHĀYĀNA philosophical schools (along with MADHYAMAKA) in India, known especially for its doctrines of "mind-only" (CITTAMĀTRA) or "representation-only" (VIJNAPTIMĀTRATĀ), the TRISVABHĀVA, and the ĀLAYAVIJNĀNA. In addition, much of the exposition of the structure of the Mahāyāna path (MĀRGA) and of the Mahāyāna ABHIDHARMA derives from this school. The texts of the school were widely influential in Tibet and East Asia. Although several of the terms associated with the school occur in such important Mahāyāna sutras as the DAsABHuMIKASuTRA, the LAnKĀVATĀRASuTRA, and especially the SAMDHINIRMOCANASuTRA, the exposition of the key doctrines was largely the work of two Indian scholastics of the fourth to fifth centuries CE, the half brothers ASAnGA and VASUBANDHU and their commentators, especially STHIRAMATI and DHARMAPĀLA. Asanga's major works include the central parts of the YOGĀCĀRABHuMI, the MAHĀYĀNASAMGRAHA, and the ABHIDHARMASAMUCCAYA. Vasubandhu's most famous Yogācāra works are the VIMsATIKĀ and the TRIMsIKĀ (his most famous work of all, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA, is said to have been composed prior to his conversion to the Mahāyāna). Among the "five books of MAITREYA" (see BYAMS CHOS SDE LNGA), three are particularly significant in Yogācāra: the MADHYĀNTAVIBHĀGA, the DHARMADHARMATĀVIBHĀGA, and the MAHĀYĀNASuTRĀLAMKĀRA. Important contributions to Yogācāra thought were also made by the logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI. Although Yogācāra and Madhyamaka engaged in polemics, in the latter phases of Buddhism in India, a synthesis of Yogācāra and Madhyamaka took place in the works of such authors as sĀNTARAKsITA and KAMALAsĪLA; Tibetan doxographers dubbed this synthesis YOGĀCĀRA-SVĀTANTRIKA-MADHYAMAKA. ¶ Yogācāra authors offered detailed presentations and analyses of virtually all of the important topics in Buddhist thought and practice, built upon an edifice deriving from meditative experience. The school is perhaps most famous for the doctrines of "mind-only" (cittamātra) and "representation-only" (vijNaptimātra), according to which the conception of the objects of experience as existing external to and independent of the consciousness perceiving them was regarded as the fundamental ignorance and the cause of suffering. Instead of the standard six consciousnesses (VIJNĀNA) posited by other Buddhist schools (the five sensory consciousnesses and the mental consciousness), some Yogācāra texts described eight forms of consciousness: these six, plus the seventh "afflicted mind" (KLIstAMANAS), which mistakenly generates the false notion of a perduing self (ĀTMAN), and the eighth foundational, or "storehouse," consciousness (ālayavijNāna). This foundational consciousness is the repository of seeds (BĪJA) or imprints (VĀSANĀ) produced by past actions (KARMAN) that fructify as experience, producing simultaneously consciousness and the objects of consciousness. The afflicted mind mistakenly regards the foundational consciousness as a permanent and independent self. The doctrine of the three natures (trisvabhāva), although variously interpreted, is also often explained in light of the doctrine of representation-only. The imaginary nature (PARIKALPITA) refers to misconceptions, such as the belief in self and in the existence of objects that exist apart from consciousness. The dependent nature (PARATANTRA) encompasses impermanent phenomena, which are products of causes and conditions. The consummate nature (PARINIsPANNA) is reality, classically defined as the absence of the imaginary nature in the dependent nature. By removing these latent predispositions from the ālayavijNāna and overcoming the mistaken bifurcation of experience between a perceiving subject and perceived objects (GRĀHYAGRĀHAKAVIKALPA), a transformation of consciousness (ĀsRAYAPARĀVṚTTI) occurs which turns the deluded mind of the sentient being into the enlightenment cognition of the buddhas (BUDDHAJNĀNA), with the ālayavijNāna being transformed into the mirrorlike wisdom (ĀDARsAJNĀNA). In the realm of soteriology, much of what would become the standard Mahāyāna elaboration of the five paths (PANCAMĀRGA) and the bodies (KĀYA, e.g., TRIKĀYA) of a buddha is found in works by Yogācāra authors, although there are important differences between Yogācāra and Madhyamaka on a number of key soteriological questions, including whether there is one vehicle (EKAYĀNA) or three final vehicles (TRIYĀNA), that is, whether all beings are destined for buddhahood, or whether some, such as the ARHATs of the mainstream Buddhist schools, are stuck in a soteriological dead end. ¶ Not all the scholastics regarded as Yogācāra exegetes adhered to all of the most famous doctrines of the school. The most common division of the school is into those who do and do not assert the existence of eight consciousnesses (and hence the ālayavijNāna). The former, who include Asanga and Vasubandhu, are called "followers of scripture" (āgamānusārin), and the latter, who include the famous logicians DIGNĀGA and DHARMAKĪRTI, are called "followers of reasoning" (nyāyānusārin). Yogācāra strands of Buddhism were extremely influential in the development of indigenous East Asian schools of Buddhism, including the mature schools of HUAYAN and even CHAN. For specifically East Asian analogues of Yogācāra, see FAXIANG ZONG, XIANG ZONG, DI LUN ZONG, and SHE LUN ZONG.

yong. (J. yu; K. yong 用). In Chinese, "function," or "application"; a term often deployed in the East Asian religious traditions, including Buddhism, as a philosophical pair with "essence" (TI). Chinese Daoist and "Dark Learning" (XUANXUE) texts first imbued the term with philosophical implications: the Daode jing refers to yong as the "attributes" of the way, and the Daodejing zhu, Wang Bi's (226-249) commentary to the text, employs the term to indicate the functions or attributes of "nonbeing" (WU) or "voidness" (xu). However, yong, along with its companion ti, was not widely used until the Buddhists adopted both terms to provide a basic conceptual frame for reality or truth. For example, the SAN LUN ZONG master JIZANG (549-623) used ti and yong to explicate his theory of the middle way (MADHYAMAPRATIPAD). He connected the middle (zhong) to ti, which he described as "neither ultimate nor conventional" (feizhen feisu), and the provisional (jia) to yong, which he described as "ultimate and conventional" (zhensu). The ti and yong pair was often used in the HUAYAN, TIANTAI, and CHAN traditions. GUIFENG ZONGMI (780-841), a Tang-dynasty master of both the HUAYAN ZONG and Heze Chan traditions, provided a systematic explanation for yong and ti, based on the DASHENG QIXIN LUN ("Awakening of Faith According to the Mahāyāna"). In particular, he distinguished between two different types of function in his theory of mind: the "inherent function of the self-nature" (zixing benyong), which he called "numinous awareness" (LINGZHI), and the responsive functions that accord with conditions (suiyuan yingyong), which he described as the various mental functions that derive from the inherent function of the mind. Many Chinese and Korean Neo-Confucian thinkers, such as Cheng Yi (1033-1107), Zhu Xi (1130-1200), and Yi Hwang (1501-1570), applied Zongmi's interpretation of this pair to their own philosophical systems.

yuktikāya. (T. rigs tshogs). In Sanskrit, literally "corpus of reasoning," or "collection of reasoning"; a term used in the Indian and Tibetan traditions to refer collectively to six works that traditionally constitute NĀGĀRJUNA's philosophical oeuvre. The six works are the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ, YUKTIsAstIKĀ, suNYATĀSAPTATI, VIGRAHAVYĀVARTANĪ, VAIDALYAPRAKARAnA, and RATNĀVALĪ. (Some versions list only five works in the corpus, eliminating the Ratnāvalī; others substitute the AKUTOBHAYĀ in place of the Ratnāvalī as the sixth work). This group of texts is often referred to in connection with the STAVAKĀYA, or "corpus of hymns," the devotional works attributed to Nāgārjuna. There are traditionally four works in this group of hymns, known collectively as the CATUḤSTAVA: the LOKĀTĪTASTAVA, NIRAUPAMYASTAVA, ACINTYASTAVA, and PARAMĀRTHASTAVA, although a number of other important hymns are also ascribed to Nāgārjuna. These two collections of Nāgārjuna's works figure prominently in the "self-emptiness, other emptiness" (RANG STONG GZHAN STONG) debate in Tibetan Buddhism, where the parties disagree on the question of which corpus represents Nāgārjuna's final view.

Yuktisastikā. (T. Rigs pa drug cu pa; C. Liushisong ruli lun; J. Rokujuju nyoriron; K. Yuksipsong yori non 十頌如理論). In Sanskrit, "Sixty Stanzas of Reasoning"; one of the most famous and widely cited works attributed to NĀGĀRJUNA, traditionally counted as one of the texts in his "corpus of reasoning" (YUKTIKĀYA). Although lost in the original Sanskrit, the work is preserved in both Tibetan and Chinese; a number of the Sanskrit stanzas have however been recovered as citations in other works. Sixty-one stanzas in length, the work is a collection of aphorisms generally organized around the topic of PRATĪTYASAMUTPĀDA. It begins with the famous homage to the Buddha, "Obeisance to the King of Sages who proclaimed dependent origination, this mode by which production and disintegration are abandoned." The work argues throughout that the world that is subject to production and disintegration is an illusion created by ignorance and that the path taught by the Buddha is the means to destroy this illusion and the suffering it creates. Individual stanzas are quoted by such commentators as BHĀVAVIVEKA, CANDRAKĪRTI, and sĀNTARAKsITA in support of some of the central debates in MADHYAMAKA, such as whether ARHATs must understand the Madhyamaka conception of emptiness (suNYATĀ) in order to be liberated from rebirth and whether Nāgārjuna held that external objects do not exist (the thirty-fourth stanza can be read to suggest that he held this view).

Zhongguan lun shu. (J. Chugan ronsho; K. Chunggwan non so 中觀論疏). In Chinese, "Commentary on the MuLAMADHYAMAKAKĀRIKĀ"; composed by the Chinese SAN LUN ZONG monk JIZANG in 608. Jizang begins with his observations on Sengrui's (378-444?) preface to their teacher KUMĀRAJĪVA's translation of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā. He then analyzes the twenty-seven chapters of the Mulamadhyamakakārikā in a manner consistent with other scholars of the San lun tradition. Jizang contends that the middle way is a path traversed by the buddhas and BODHISATTVAs and explains its contents in terms of conventional truth (SAMVṚTISATYA), absolute truth (PARAMĀRTHASATYA), and neither conventional nor absolute truth. (See also SANDI.) Jizang supports his arguments by citing numerous sutras, commentaries, and theories of other teachers. For his analysis of emptiness (suNYATĀ), Jizang frequently makes recourse to the MAHĀPARINIRVĀnASuTRA.

zhung lnga. (shung nga). [alt. gzhung chen bka' pod lnga/gzhung chen pod lnga]. In Tibetan, "the five books," five Indian treatises that provided the foundation for the monastic curriculum of the DGE LUGS sect. The five works are the ABHISAMAYĀLAMKĀRA of MAITREYA, the MADHYAMAKĀVATĀRA of CANDRAKĪRTI, the PRAMĀnAVĀRTTIKA of DHARMAKĪRTI, the ABHIDHARMAKOsABHĀsYA of VASUBANDHU, and the VINAYASuTRA of GUnAPRABHA.

zushi. (J. soshi; K. chosa 祖師). In Chinese, "patriarch" (lit. "ancestral teacher"), referring to eminent teachers in lineages that are claimed to trace back to sĀKYAMUNI Buddha or even earlier buddhas. Indian Sanskrit texts dating from the 2nd century CE onward refer to a tradition of five "masters of the dharma" (dharmācārya) who succeeded the Buddha as head of the SAMGHA: MAHĀKĀsYAPA, ĀNANDA, MADHYĀNTIKA, sĀnAKAVĀSIN, and UPAGUPTA . Later sources expand this list into a roster of nine eminent masters who "handed down the lamplight of wisdom successively through the generations." Often, these genealogies were extended as far back as the seven buddhas of antiquity (SAPTATATHĀGATA). It is widely presumed that this notion of dharma-transmission lineages developed from the earlier VINAYA concept of the "preceptor" (UPĀDHYĀYA), a senior monk who confers the lower ordination (pravrajyā, see PRAVRAJITA) to new novices (sRĀMAnERA) and higher ordination (UPASAMPADĀ) to monks (BHIKsU). This personal connection between preceptor and disciple created incipient ordination families connected to specific preceptors, connections that later could be extended to dharma transmission as well. ¶ In East Asia, these lists of Indian dharma masters continued to be expanded and elaborated upon so that they also included the preeminent indigenous figures within each lineage, thus connecting the Chinese patriarchs of each lineage with their Indian predecessors. Most of the indigenous traditions of East Asian Buddhism, including the CHAN ZONG, TIANTAI ZONG, JINGTU ZONG, and HUAYAN ZONG, draw their legitimacy at least partially from their claims that their teachings and practices derive from an unbroken lineage of authoritative teachers that can be traced back geographically to India and temporally to the person of the Buddha himself. The specific names and numbers of patriarchs recognized within each lineage typically change over time and vary widely between the different traditions. Of these lists, the list of patriarchs recognized in the Chan school has received the lion's share of scholarly attention in the West. This Chan list varies widely, but a well-established roster includes twenty-eight Indian and six Chinese patriarchs. These six Chinese patriarchs (liu zu)-BODHIDHARMA, HUIKE, SENGCAN, DAOXIN, HONGREN, and HUINENG-are credited by the classical tradition with the development and growth of Chan in China, but early records of the Chan school, such as the LENGQIE SHIZU JI and LIDAI FABAO JI, reveal the polemical battles fought between disparate contemporary Chan communities to place their own teachers on this roster of patriarchal orthodoxy. It is important to note that all of these various lists of patriarchs, in all the different traditions, are created retrospectively as a way of legitimizing specific contemporary lineages or teachers and verifying the authenticity of their teachings; thus their accounts of the chronology and history of their lineages must be used critically. The compound zushi can mean either "patriarch" (lit., ancestral teacher) or in other contexts "patriarchs and teachers," as in the stock phrase "all the buddhas of the three time-periods and patriarchs and teachers throughout successive generations" (sanshi zhufo lidai zushi), which explicitly traces a school's ancestral lineage from the past to the present and into the future. Some modern Buddhists, especially in the West, deplore the sexism inherent in the term "patriarch," preferring instead to render it with the gender-neutral term "ancestor." See also CHUANDENG LU; FASI; PARAMPARĀ; YINKE.



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IN CHAPTERS [42/42]



   17 Yoga
   12 Integral Yoga


   19 Sri Aurobindo
   13 Sri Ramakrishna
   3 Sri Ramana Maharshi
   3 Nolini Kanta Gupta


   13 The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
   6 Record of Yoga
   3 Talks
   3 Essays On The Gita
   3 Essays In Philosophy And Yoga
   2 The Life Divine


1.01 - SAMADHI PADA, #Patanjali Yoga Sutras, #Swami Vivekananda, #Hinduism
  nirvichamvaisharadye Adhyatmaprasadah
  The mind, or common sensory, the aggregate of all senses

1.04 - ADVICE TO HOUSEHOLDERS, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER: "After I had experienced samdhi, my mind craved intensely to hear only about God. I would always search for places where they were reciting or explaining the sacred books, such as the Bhagavata, the Mahabharata, and the Adhytma Rmyana. I used to go to Krishnakishore to hear him read the Adhytma Rmyana.
  Krishnakishore's faith
  --
  "One day I went to see him and found him in a pensive mood. When I asked him about it, he said: 'The tax-collector was here. He threatened to dispose of my brass pots, my cups, and my few utensils, if I didn't pay the tax; so I am worried.' I said: 'But why should you worry about it? Let him take away your pots and pans. Let him arrest your body even. How will that affect you? For your nature is that of Kha!' (Narendra and the others laugh.) He used to say to me that he was the Spirit, all-pervading as the sky. He had got that idea from the Adhytma Rmyana. I used to tease him now and then, addressing him as 'Kha'. Therefore I said to him that day, with a smile: 'You are Kha.
  Taxes cannot move you!'

1.057 - The Four Manifestations of Ignorance, #The Study and Practice of Yoga, #Swami Krishnananda, #Yoga
  Every one of these effects of avidya is properly being described. While the nature of ignorance is of this particular feature mentioned, its immediate progeny, which is asmita, or the self-affirming faculty which becomes egoism later on, is again a kind of mix-up of values between the perceiver and what is perceived. This is what is known in Vedanta as Adhyasa the character of the Self getting transferred to the object and, vice versa, the character of the object getting transferred to the Self. The confirmation that one exists as an individual the rootedness of oneself in the feeling I am as a separate individual is called asmita. This feeling that you exist, or I exist, is also a mistake. It is not wisdom, because the affirmation I am is the outcome of a confusion between two types of character: the character that belongs to Pure Consciousness, and the character that belongs to what is not the Self. The conviction that one exists is due to the Being of Consciousness. The atman or the purusha that is within is responsible for this affirmation.
  The existence aspect of this affirmation belongs to the nature of True Being, which is at the background of all these phenomena. But, this affirmation of Being in the feeling I am is not merely an affirmation of Being; there is some other element also which infects this feeling of Being namely, the isolatedness of a part of Being from other parts. When we say I am, or feel I am, we imply thereby that I am different from others, though we do not make that statement openly. The implication of the affirmation of oneself as an individual is that one is cut off from other individuals; otherwise, the feeling of I am itself cannot be there. How do we know that we are different from others? There is no reason behind this. We have a prejudiced notion that we are different from others, and this irrational prejudice is the basis of all our actions even the so-called altruistic actions. Even the most philanthropic of deeds is based upon this notion that we are different from others, which itself cannot be justified rationally.

1.08 - Adhyatma Yoga, #Amrita Gita, #Swami Sivananda Saraswati, #Hinduism
  object:1.08 - Adhyatma Yoga
  class:chapter
  --
  THUS ENDS AdhyATMA YOGA

1.08 - The Gods of the Veda - The Secret of the Veda, #Vedic and Philological Studies, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  But for my own part I do not hold myself bound by European research&European theories.My scepticism of nineteenth century results goes farther than is possible to any European scepticism. The Science of comparative religion in Europe seems to me to be based on a blunder. The sun & star theory of comparative mythology with its extravagant scholastic fancies & lawless inferences carries no conviction to my reason. I find in the Aryan & Dravidian tongues, the Aryan and Dravidian races not separate & unconnected families but two branches of a single stock. The legend of the Aryan invasion & settlement in the Panjab in Vedic times is, to me, a philological myth. The naturalistic interpretation of theVedas I accept only as a transference or Adhyaropa of European ideas into the Veda foreign to the mentality of the Vedic Rishis & Max Mullers discovery of Vedic henotheism as a brilliant & ingenious error. Whatever is sound & indisputable in European ideas & discoveries, I am bound to admit & shall use, but these large generalisations & assumptions ought, I think, no longer to pass current as unchallengeable truth or the final knowledge about the Vedas. My method is rather to make a tabula rasa of all previous theories European or Indian & come back to the actual text of the Veda for enlightenment, the fundamental structure & development of the old Sanscrit tongue for a standard of interpretation and the connection of thought in the hymns for a guide to their meaning. I have arrived as a result at a theory of the Vedic religion, of which this book is intended to give some initial indications.
  I put aside at the beginning the common assumption that since religion started from the fears & desires of savages a record of religion as ancient as the Vedas must necessarily contain a barbarous or semi-barbarous mythology empty of any profound or subtle spiritual & moral ideas or, if it contains them at all, that it must be only in the latest documents. We have no more right to assume that the Vedic Rishis were a race of simple & frank barbarians than to assume that they were a class of deep and acute philosophers. What they were is the thing we have to discover and we may arrive at either conclusion or neither, but we must not start from our goal or begin our argument on the basis of our conclusion. We know nothing of the history & thought of the times, we know nothing of the state of their intellectual & social culture except what we can gather from the Vedic hymns themselves. Indications from other sources may be useful as clues but the hymns are our sole authority.

1.1.2 - Commentary, #Kena and Other Upanishads, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  existence and the spiritual, the adhidaiva and Adhyatma. But the
  Kena Upanishad: Commentary - II

1.12 - The Significance of Sacrifice, #Essays On The Gita, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  That this is the right interpretation results also from the opening of the eighth chapter where the universal principles are enumerated, aks.ara (brahma), svabhava, karma, ks.ara bhava, purus.a, adhiyajna. Akshara is the immutable Brahman, spirit or self, Atman; swabhava is the principle of the self, Adhyatma, operative as the original nature of the being, "own way of becoming", and this proceeds out of the self, the Akshara; Karma proceeds from that and is the creative movement, visarga, which brings all natural beings and all changing subjective and objective shapes of being into existence; the result of
  Karma therefore is all this mutable becoming, the changes of nature developed out of the original self-nature, ks.ara bhava out of svabhava; Purusha is the soul, the divine element in the becoming, adhidaivata, by whose presence the workings of Karma become a sacrifice, yajna, to the Divine within; adhiyajna is this secret Divine who receives the sacrifice.

1.13 - THE MASTER AND M., #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  "The Chitakti, as Mahamaya, has deluded all with ignorance. It is said in the Adhytma Rmyana that when the rishis saw Rma, they prayed to Him in these words only: 'O
  Rma, please do not delude us with Your world-bewitching maya.' "

1.16 - WITH THE DEVOTEES AT DAKSHINESWAR, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  A little later Ramlal began to read from the Adhytma Rmyana. The Master and M.
  listened while he read:
  --
  "All women are the embodiments of akti. It is the Primal Power that has become women and appears to us in the form of women. It is said in the Adhytma Rmyana that Nrada and others praised Rma, saying: 'O Rma, Thou alone art all that we see as male, and Sita, all that we see as female. Thou art Indra, and Sita is Indrani; Thou art iva and Sita is Sivani; Thou art man, and Sita is woman. What more need I say?
  Thou alone dost exist wherever there is a male, and Sita wherever there is a female.'

1.18 - M. AT DAKSHINESWAR, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  Day and night he used to study the Upanishads, the Adhytma Rmyana, and similar books on Vednta. He would turn up his nose at the mention of the forms of God. Once I ate from the leaf-plates of the beggars. At this Haladhri said to me, 'How will you be able to marry your children?' I said: 'You rascal! Shall I ever have children? May your mouth that repeats words from the Git and the Vednta be blighted!' Just fancy! He declared that the world was illusory and, again, would meditate in the temple of Vishnu with turned-up nose."
  In the evening Balarm and the other devotees returned to Calcutta. The Master remained in his room, absorbed in contemplation of the Divine Mother: After a while the sweet music of the evening worship in the temples was heard.

1.19 - THE MASTER AND HIS INJURED ARM, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  "The same thing has been described in the Adhytma Rmyana. Nrada said, 'O Rma, all men are Thy forms, and it is Sita who has become all women.' On looking at the actors in the Ramlila, I felt that Narayana Himself had taken these human forms. The genuine and the imitation appeared to be the same.
  "Why do people worship virgins? All women are so many forms of the Divine Mother.

1.21 - A DAY AT DAKSHINESWAR, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER (in surprise): "How is that? What then of the Adhytma Rmyana? It is written there that, while praying to Rma, Nrada said: 'O Rma, Thou art the Supreme Brahman described in the Vedas. Thou dwellest with us as a man; Thou appearest as a man. In reality Thou art not a man; Thou art that Supreme Brahman.' Rma said: 'Nrada, I am very much pleased with you. Accept a boon from Me.' Nrada replied: 'What boon shall I ask of Thee? Grant me pure love for Thy Lotus Feet, and may I never be deluded by Thy world-bewitching my!' The Adhytma Rmyana is full of such statements regarding jnna and bhakti."
  The conversation turned to Amrita, a disciple of Keshab.

1.240 - 1.300 Talks, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
  Explaining Adhyaropapavadabhyam (superimposition and its elimination), Sri Bhagavan pointed out that the first turns you inward to the Self; and then according to the second, you know that the world is not apart from the Self.
  16th December, 1936

1.240 - Talks 2, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
  Explaining Adhyaropapavadabhyam (superimposition and its elimination), Sri Bhagavan pointed out that the first turns you inward to the Self; and then according to the second, you know that the world is not apart from the Self.
  16th December, 1936

1.439, #Talks, #Sri Ramana Maharshi, #Hinduism
  M.: Adhyatma sakti is working within him and leading him on. That is enough. What more is necessary?
  19th August, 1938

2.01 - AT THE STAR THEATRE, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER: "You were already blessed. Your father is also a good man. I saw him the other day. He has faith in the Adhytma Rmyana."
  MAHENDRA: "Please bless me that I may have love for God."

2.01 - The Yoga and Its Objects, #Essays In Philosophy And Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Yoga are not sufficient and even the Trimarga will not serve; we must go higher and resort to the Adhyatmayoga. The principle of
   Adhyatmayoga is, in knowledge, the realisation of all things that we see or do not see but are aware of, - men, things, ourselves, events, gods, titans, angels, - as one divine Brahman, and in action and attitude, an absolute self-surrender to the Paratpara Purusha, the transcendent, infinite and universal Personality who is at once personal and impersonal, finite and infinite, self-limiting and illimitable, one and many, and informs with his being not only the Gods above, but man and the worm and the clod below.
  --
  "Laying down all actions upon Me, with thy whole conscious being in Adhyatmayoga, become free from desire and the sense of belongings; fight, let the fever of thy soul pass from thee." For this great and complete liberation it is necessary that you should be nih.spr.ha, nirdvandva and nirahankara, without the longing and reaching after things, free from the samskara of the dualities
  The Yoga and Its Objects

2.02 - Brahman, Purusha, Ishwara - Maya, Prakriti, Shakti, #The Life Divine, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Brahman the Reality is the self-existent Absolute and Maya is the Consciousness and Force of this self-existence; but with regard to the universe Brahman appears as the Self of all existence, Atman, the cosmic Self, but also as the Supreme Self transcendent of its own cosmicity and at the same time individual-universal in each being; Maya can then be seen as the self-power, Atma-Shakti, of the Atman. It is true that when we first become aware of this Aspect, it is usually in a silence of the whole being or at the least in a silence within which draws back or stands away from the surface action; this Self is then felt as a status in silence, an immobile immutable being, self-existent, pervading the whole universe, omnipresent in all, but not dynamic or active, aloof from the ever mobile energy of Maya. In the same way we can become aware of it as the Purusha, separate from Prakriti, the Conscious Being standing back from the activities of Nature. But this is an exclusive concentration which limits itself to a spiritual status and puts away from it all activity in order to realise the freedom of Brahman the self-existent Reality from all limitation by its own action and manifestation: it is an essential realisation, but not the total realisation. For we can see that the Conscious-Power, the Shakti that acts and creates, is not other than the Maya or all-knowledge of Brahman; it is the Power of the Self; Prakriti is the working of the Purusha, Conscious Being active by its own Nature: the duality then of Soul and WorldEnergy, silent Self and the creative Power of the Spirit, is not really something dual and separate, it is biune. As we cannot separate Fire and the power of Fire, it has been said, so we cannot separate the Divine Reality and its Consciousness-Force, Chit-Shakti. This first realisation of Self as something intensely silent and purely static is not the whole truth of it, there can also be a realisation of Self in its power, Self as the condition of world-activity and world-existence. However, the Self is a fundamental aspect of Brahman, but with a certain stress on its impersonality; therefore the Power of the Self has the appearance of a Force that acts automatically with the Self sustaining it, witness and support and originator and enjoyer of its activities but not involved in them for a moment. As soon as we become aware of the Self, we are conscious of it as eternal, unborn, unembodied, uninvolved in its workings: it can be felt within the form of being, but also as enveloping it, as above it, surveying its embodiment from above, Adhyaks.a; it is omnipresent, the same in everything, infinite and pure and intangible for ever. This Self can be experienced as the Self of the individual, the Self of the thinker, doer, enjoyer, but even so it always has this greater character; its individuality is at the same time a vast universality or very readily passes into that, and the next step to that is a sheer transcendence or a complete and ineffable passing into the Absolute. The Self is that aspect of the Brahman in which it is intimately felt as at once individual, cosmic, transcendent of the universe. The realisation of the Self is the straight and swift way towards individual liberation, a static universality, a
  Nature-transcendence. At the same time there is a realisation of Self in which it is felt not only sustaining and pervading and enveloping all things, but constituting everything and identified in a free identity with all its becomings in Nature. Even so, freedom and impersonality are always the character of the Self.

2.03 - The Supreme Divine, #Essays On The Gita, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Here we have certain expressions which give us in their brief sum the chief essential truths of the manifestation of the supreme Divine in the cosmos. All the originative and effective aspects of it are there, all that concerns the soul in its return to integral self-knowledge. First there is that Brahman, tad brahma; Adhyatma, second, the principle of the self in Nature; adhibhuta and adhidaiva next, the objective phenomenon and subjective phenomenon of being; adhiyajna last, the secret of the cosmic principle of works and sacrifice. I, the Purushottama (mam viduh.), says in effect Krishna, I who am above all these things, must yet be sought and known through all together and by means of their relations, - that is the only complete way for the human consciousness which is seeking its path back towards
  Me. But these terms in themselves are not at first quite clear or at least they are open to different interpretations, they have to be made precise in their connotation, and Arjuna the disciple at once asks for their elucidation. Krishna answers very briefly, - nowhere does the Gita linger very long upon any purely metaphysical explanation; it gives only so much and in such a way as will make their truth just seizable for the soul to proceed on to
  --
   experience. By that Brahman, a phrase which in the Upanishads is more than once used for the self-existent as opposed to the phenomenal being, the Gita intends, it appears, the immutable self-existence which is the highest self-expression of the Divine and on whose unalterable eternity all the rest, all that moves and evolves, is founded, aks.aram paramam. By Adhyatma it means svabhava, the spiritual way and law of being of the soul in the supreme Nature. Karma, it says, is the name given to the creative impulse and energy, visargah., which looses out things from this first essential self-becoming, this Swabhava, and effects, creates, works out under its influence the cosmic becoming of existences in Prakriti. By adhibhuta is to be understood all the result of mutable becoming, ks.aro bhavah.. By adhidaiva is intended the
  Purusha, the soul in Nature, the subjective being who observes and enjoys as the object of his consciousness all that is this mutable becoming of his essential existence worked out here by

2.04 - ADVICE TO ISHAN, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  "It is written in the Adhytma Rmyana that Lakshmana asked Rma 'Rma, in how many forms and moods do You exist? How shall I be able to recognize You?' Rma said: 'Brother, remember this. You may be certain that I exist wherever you find the manifestation of ecstatic love.' That love makes one laugh and weep and dance and sing; if anyone has developed such love, you may know for certain that God Himself is manifest there. Chaitanyadeva reached that state."
  The devotees listened spellbound to Sri Ramakrishna. His burning words entered their souls, spurring them along the path of renunciation.

2.05 - The Divine Truth and Way, #Essays On The Gita, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Divine. It becomes in the turns of her progression this or that personality; it follows always the curve of its own law of being as a manifestation of the divine Nature, whether in her higher and direct or her lower and derived movement, whether in ignorance or in knowledge; it returns out of her action into her immobility and silence in the lapse of the cycle. Ignorant, it is subject to her cyclic whirl, not master of itself, but dominated by her, avasah. prakr.ter vasat; only by return to the divine consciousness can it attain to mastery and freedom. The Divine too follows the cycle, not as subject to it, but as its informing Spirit and guide, not with his whole being involved in it, but with his power of being accompanying and shaping it. He is the presiding control of his own action of Nature, Adhyaks.a, - not a spirit born in her, but the creative spirit who causes her to produce all that appears in the manifestation. If in his power he accompanies her and causes all her workings, he is outside it too, as if One seated above her universal action in the supracosmic mastery, not attached to her by any involving and mastering desire and not therefore bound by her works, because he infinitely exceeds them and precedes them, is the same before, during and after all their procession in the cycles of Time. All their mutations make no difference to his immutable being. The silent self that pervades and supports the cosmos is not affected by its changes because, though supporting, it does not participate in them. This greatest supreme supracosmic Self also is not affected because it
  The Divine Truth and Way

2.06 - WITH VARIOUS DEVOTEES, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  "There is another big man: Captain. Though a man of the world, he is a great lover of God. (To Mahima) Talk to him some time. He knows the Vedas, the Vednta, the Bhagavata, the Git, the Adhytma Rmyana, and other scriptures by heart. You will find that out when you talk to him.
  "He has great piety. Once I was going along a street in Baranagore and he held an umbrella over my head. He invites me to his house and shows me great attention. He fans me, massages my feet, and feeds me with various dishes. Once at his house I went into samdhi in the toilet; and he took care of me there though he is so particular about his orthodox habits. He didn't show any abhorrence for the place.

2.14 - AT RAMS HOUSE, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER: "Whole and part are like fire and its sparks. An Incarnation of God is for the sake of the bhaktas and not of the jnanis. It is said in the Adhytma Rmyana that Rma alone is both the Pervading Spirit and everything pervaded. 'You are the Supreme Lord distinguished as the Vachaka, the signifying symbol, and the Vachya, the object signified.'"
  CAPTAIN: "The 'signifying symbol' means the pervader, and the 'object signified' means the thing pervaded."

2.15 - CAR FESTIVAL AT BALARMS HOUSE, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER: "One day in the Kli temple Haladhri and Nangta were reading the Adhytma Rmyana. Suddenly I had a vision of a river with woods on both sides. The trees and plants were green. Rma and Lakshmana were walking along wearing their shorts. One day, in front of the kuthi, I saw Arjuna's chariot. Sri Krishna was seated in it as the charioteer. I still remember it. Another day, while listening to kirtan at Kamarpukur, I saw Gaurnga in front of me.
  "At that time a naked person, emerging from my body, used to go about with me. I used to joke with him. He looked like a boy and was a paramahamsa. I can't describe to you all the divine forms I saw at that time. I was suffering then from indigestion, which would become worse when I saw visions; so I would try to shun these divine forms and would spit on the ground when I saw them. But they would follow me and obsess me like ghosts. I was always overwhelmed with divine ecstasy and couldn't tell the passing of day and night. On the day after such a vision I would have a severe attack of diarrhoea, and all these ecstasies would pass out through my bowels."

2.15 - Reality and the Integral Knowledge, #The Life Divine, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  There is, then, in the conception or the realisation of the truth of the Absolute no inherent inevitable consequence of a rejection or a dissolution of the truth of the universe. The idea of an essentially unreal universe manifested somehow by an inexplicable Power of illusion, the Absolute Brahman regarding it not or aloof and not affecting it even as it is unaffected by it, is at bottom a carrying over, an imposing or imputation, Adhyaropa, of an incapacity of our mental consciousness to That so as to limit it. Our mental consciousness, when it passes beyond its limits, loses its own way and means of knowledge and tends towards inactivity or cessation; it loses at the same time or tends to have no further hold on its former contents, no continuing conception of the reality of that which once was to it all that was real: we impute to absolute Parabrahman, conceived as non-manifest for ever, a corresponding inability or separation or aloofness from what has become or seems now to us unreal; it must, like our mind in its cessation or self-extinction, be by its very nature of pure absoluteness void of all connection with this world of apparent manifestation, incapable of any supporting cognition or dynamic maintenance of it that gives it a reality - or, if there is such a cognition, it must be of the nature of an Is that is not, a magical Maya. But there is no binding reason to suppose that this chasm must exist; what our relative human consciousness is or is not capable of, is no test or standard of an absolute capacity; its conceptions cannot be applied to an absolute self-awareness: what is necessary for our mental ignorance in order to escape from itself cannot be the necessity of the Absolute which has no need of self-escape and no reason for refusing to cognise whatever is to it cognisable.
  There is that unmanifest Unknowable; there is this manifest knowable, partly manifest to our ignorance, manifest entirely to the divine Knowledge which holds it in its own infinity. If it is true that neither our ignorance nor our utmost and widest mental knowledge can give us a hold of the Unknowable, still it is also true that, whether through our knowledge or through our ignorance, That variously manifests itself; for it cannot be manifesting something other than itself, since nothing else can exist: in this variety of manifestation there is that Oneness and through the diversity we can touch the Oneness. But even so, even accepting this coexistence, it is still possible to pass a final verdict and sentence of condemnation on the Becoming and decide on the necessity of a renunciation of it and a return into the absolute Being. This verdict can be based on the distinction between the real reality of the Absolute and the partial and misleading reality of the relative universe.

2.17 - THE MASTER ON HIMSELF AND HIS EXPERIENCES, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
  MASTER: "Have you read the Adhytma Rmyana?"
  PUNDIT: "Yes, sir, a little."
  --
  MASTER: "It is further said in the Adhytma Rmyana that God alone has become the universe and its living beings."
  The pundit was delighted. He recited a hymn to that effect from the tenth chapter of the Bhagavata:

27.02 - The Human Touch Divine, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 06, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
   How far can the human be divinised? The Divine as Avatara does become human, almost totally - in appearance at least. One may recall not only the impulses and passions, all the foibles and lapses, even misdeeds liberally recorded of Sri Krishna. But this does not mean that the human has been divinised in him, the Divine has only assumed the human character and qualities, it is after all a disguise, it is an assumption, the Adhyaropaof Maya upon Brahman. The Divine is beyond the Maya. The question remains then how far can human remain human and yet be truly divinised. The feeling, the experience in the heart of the saintly human being which we have variously described as commiseration, 'caritas', 'karuna', seems to set the limit of divinisation. There is love of course, but it is a dangerous and ambiguous term. The central truth and reality of love is Ananda - ananda in the category of Sat-chit-ananda. But there I am afraid the human element gets dissolved.
   The tear-drop in the eye of the Divine seems to be the supreme status of the human in the Divine. Can one go farther?

30.09 - Lines of Tantra (Charyapada), #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 07, #Nolini Kanta Gupta, #Integral Yoga
   The three elements here may well represent the body, life and mind, and the Light is the inner Consciousness that rules over them. The Vedantin may say that this Light is no other than his Brahman whose attributes are Existence, Conscious Power and Bliss,saccidananda. It is remarkable that the Rishis of the Upanishads too speak somewhat in analogous style and. language of an Ineffable Something, which is "difficult to be seen, a secret immanent lying as in a cave or deep cavity", durdarsyam gudham-anupravistam guhahitam gahvarestham. Long before the Upanishads, the Rishis of the Rigveda also have spoken of a similar experience: Non-Being was not there nor was Being. Who was, or what it was, who can tell? Only He can tell who is the overlord of all this. Or perhaps, He too cannot tell - ye asya Adhyaksa parame vyoman, so anga veda yadi va na veda.
   So we see that our ancient Rishis were not so far removed after all from these Siddhacharyas. There was something about these non-conformist Tantriks that was of the essence of Vedanta; those who to an apparent view seem to have lived beyond the pale have shown themselves to be the peers

3.4.03 - Materialism, #Essays In Philosophy And Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  Three things will remain from the labour of the secularist centuries; truth of the physical world and its importance, the scientific method of knowledge,which is to induce Nature and Being to reveal their own way of being and proceeding, not hastening to put upon them our own impositions of idea and imagination, Adhyropa, and last, though very far from least, the truth and importance of the earth life and the human endeavour, its evolutionary meaning. They will remain, but will turn to another sense and disclose greater issues Surer of our hope and our labour, we shall see them all transformed into light of a vaster and more intimate world-knowledge and self-knowledge.
  ***

36.07 - An Introduction To The Vedas, #Collected Works of Nolini Kanta Gupta - Vol 08, #unset, #Zen
   The Rigveda Samhita also has been suitably divided and arranged in different chapters. Two different methods have been adopted in this arrangement. Firstly, the whole of the Samhita has been divided into ten books, and each book is called a mandala and each Mandala is composed of different series of mantras; each series is called a sukta, each mantra is called a rk. Each Mandala or book is generally attributed to a Rishi. For instance, the second Mandala has been the contri bution of the Rishi Gritsamada and his descendants. The authorship of the third Mandala goes to the Rishi Vishwamitra. The fourth Mandala is attri buted to Vamadeva, while the fifth, the sixth, the seventh are respectively attri buted to Atri, Bharadwaja and Vasishtha. The whole of the ninth Mandala has been exclusively devoted to the god Soma. The first and the tenth have been the contri butions of many Rishis. Each sukta of these two books contains mantras offered to a particular god or several gods related to that very god. Besides, there is another method by which the whole of the Samhita has been divided into eight parts and each part is called an astaka (a group of eight). Again each astaka is divided into Adhyayas (chapters), sub-chapters and a series of cognate mantras. But the principle followed in this kind of division is hard to determine.
   Be that as it may, we are not so much concerned with the external forms of the Veda as with its inner significance. For long the Veda has been solely the subject of archaeological researches. To be sure, the Veda has a living spirit. The true significance of the Veda lies in the fact that it points out to man the true goal and the means to the attainment of a higher and nobler life. In spite of his ignorance, lack of power and want of bliss, the dream that man has dreamt, the ideal that he has pursued through all the vicissitudes of his life has been: "What shall I do with that which can not bring me Immortality?" This quest for Immortality of the human soul finds its absolute fulfilment in the Veda which is truly a vast ocean of boundless delight. The true purpose of one's studying the Veda is served only when its mantras arouse in oneself the aspiration for the divine Delight.

3.7.1.09 - Karma and Freedom, #Essays In Philosophy And Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  But here the critical negative analytic thinker, ancient nihilistic Buddhist or modern materialist, comes in to take away the basis of any actual freedom in our earthly or in any possible heavenly existence. The Buddhist denied the existence of a Self free and infinite; that, he thought, was only a sublimation of the idea of ego, an imposition, Adhyropa, or gigantic magnified shadow thrown by the falsehood of our personality on eternal Non-Existence. But as for the soul, there is no soul, but only a stream of forms, ideas and sensations, and as the idea of a chariot is only a name for the combination of planks and pole and wheels and axles, so is the idea of individual soul or ego only a name for the combination or continuity of these things.Nor is the universe itself anything other than such a combination, sa
  ghta, formed and maintained in its continuity by the successions of Karma, by the action of Energy. In this mechanical existence there can be no freedom from Karma, no possible liberty; but there is yet a possible liberation, because that which exists by combination and bondage to its combinations can be liberated from itself by dissolution. The motive power which keeps Karma in motion is desire and attachment to its works, and by the conviction of impermanence and the cessation of desire there can come about an extinction of the continuity of the idea in the successions of Time.

3 - Commentaries and Annotated Translations, #Hymns to the Mystic Fire, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  and Adhyatmayoga) that satyam and Veda become directly selfmanifest and luminous to the Yogin. Without this sanyama no
  Yoga is possible, no effective action of any kind is possible.

4.16 - The Divine Shakti, #The Synthesis Of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
  The Purusha and prakriti are on the mental level as in the rest of our being closely joined and much involved in each other and we are not able to distinguish clearly soul and nature. But in the purer substance of mind we can more easily discern the dual strain. The mental Purusha is naturally able in its own native principle of mind to detach itself, as we have seen, from the workings of its prakriti and there is then a division of our being between a consciousness that observes and can reserve its will-power and an energy full of the substance of consciousness that takes the forms of knowledge, will and feeling. This detachment gives at its highest a certain freedom from the compulsion of the soul by its mental nature. For ordinarily we are driven and carried along in the stream of our own and the universal active energy partly floundering in its waves, partly maintaining and seeming to guide or at least propel ourselves by a collected thought and an effort of the mental will muscle; but now there is a part of ourselves, nearest to the pure essence of self, which is free from the stream, can quietly observe and to a certain extent decide its immediate movement and course and to a greater extent its ultimate direction. The Purusha can at last act upon the prakriti from half apart, from behind or from above her as a presiding person or presence, Adhyaksa, by the power of sanction and control inherent in the spirit.
  What we shall do with this relative freedom depends on our aspiration, our idea of the relation we must have with our highest self, with God and Nature. It is possible for the Purusha to use it on the mental plane itself for a constant self-observation, self-development, self-modification, to sanction, reject, alter, bring out new formulations of the nature and establish a calm and disinterested action, a high and pure sattwic balance and rhythm of its energy, a personality perfected in the sattwic principle. This may amount only to a highly mentalised perfection of our present intelligence and the ethical and the psychic being or else, aware of the greater self in us it may impersonalise, universalise, spiritualise its self-conscious existence and the action of its nature and arrive either at a large quietude or a large perfection of the spiritualised mental energy of its being. It is possible again for the Purusha to stand back entirely and by a refusal of sanction allow the whole normal action of the mind to exhaust itself, run down, spend its remaining impetus of habitual action and fall into silence. Or else this silence may be imposed on the mental energy by rejection of its action and a constant comm and to quietude. The soul may through the confirmation of this quietude and mental silence pass into some ineffable tranquillity of the spirit and vast cessation of the activities of Nature. But it is also possible to make this silence of the mind and ability to suspend the habits of the lower nature a first step towards the discovery of a superior formulation, a higher grade of the status and energy of our being and pass by an ascent and transformation into the supramental power of the spirit. And this may even, though with more difficulty, be done without resorting to the complete state of quietude of the normal mind by a persistent and progressive transformation of all the mental into their greater corresponding supramental powers and activities. For everything in the mind derives from and is a limited, inferior, groping, partial or perverse translation into mentality of something in the supermind. But neither of these movements can be successfully executed by the sole individual unaided power of the mental Purusha in us, but needs the help, intervention and guidance of the divine Self, the Ishwara, the Purushottama. For the supermind is the divine mind and it is on the supramental plane that the individual arrives at his right, integral, luminous and perfect relation with the supreme and universal Purusha and the supreme and universal Para prakriti.

9.99 - Glossary, #The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, #Sri Ramakrishna, #Hinduism
     Adhyatma Ramayana: A book dealing with the life of Rama and harmonizing the ideals of jnana and bhakti.
    advaita: Non-duality; a school of the Vedanta philosophy, declaring the oneness of God, soul, and universe.

r1912 07 13, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   Ananda Mimansa begun last night; the first Adhyaya completed this morning.
   The proof of preparation of beauty in a very initial stage has during the last few days at last begun to appear.

r1913 12 22, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   The 21 Dec marks the close of a period. The first chatusthaya, hitherto always subject to apparent & superficial relapse by Adhyaropa & intrusion of trouble, asamata & nirananda from outside, is now superior, by reason of the final repulsion of desire and recognition of the conditions of the Yoga, to these intrusions, although a minor Adhyaropa is still possible. The second is firm, under the surface and often on the surface, in all except sraddha, firm in itself, but not complete in its range or all its circumstances. Sraddha in the Yoga siddhi has been accepted by the intellect, but not sraddha in the kriti. There the surviving intellectuality demands certain objective proofs before assenting to the ideal faith as anything more than a possibility or probability justified by the general nature of past experience. The doubt resolves itself into a deficiency in the sraddha Bhagavati. The Allpowerful Master of the Yoga is accepted as the Master & Lover of the Jiva and there is faith in His grace for the Yoga, but not in His grace for the life, nor in His ritam, nor in His Adesha. For this reason the swashaktyam sraddha is also overcast by doubt and limited in its range, because it is thoroughly experienced and accepted that own-Power can do nothing without the divine sanction and grace. The third chatustaya is in all, but rupadrishti, so far established in self-expansive force & inevitability of self perfection that its entire fulfilment remains only a matter of time. Physical siddhi is moving towards that stage, but has not reached it. Brahmasiddhi is now deficient only in nityasmarana and depth. Karmasiddhi remains now as the sole nexus of the asiddhi.
   The third chatusthaya is chiefly advanced in vangmaya thought, in general jnana where jnana does not pass into telepathy (prakamya-vyapti). The main difficulty lies in the defects of the interpretative power, daksha & ketu, which, although transferred in type to the ideality whether of vijnanabuddhi or vijnana, alternates practically between vijnana, vijnanabuddhi and those parts of manasabuddhi which are either pseudo-intuitional in the nature of their activity or else attempt to preserve the fragments of the old intellectual reasoning or of the undercurrent of habitual mentality. This defect is now being steadily mended; ideal interpretation is being applied to the material of telepathy, lipi, rupa, samadhi etc; but until this process is complete, the positive defects of knowledge, as opposed to mere occasional inactivity, incompleteness or limitation of range, must continue. Meanwhile the range has begun to be extended. Occasional inactivity of knowledge will remain & be used for ananda & uddeshya, the purposes of life & the joy of life. Power acts with frequency, but not with full mastery; nevertheless it is now often rapid, instantaneous[,] effortless & persistent in its efficacy. Lipi is organising itself materially, but lacks habituality of vividness & spontaneous fullness in the akasha. Chitra & sthapatya of rupa is now almost perfect, the human figure, animal, landscape & group being rich, various & perfect in all; the isolated object or object group is still obstructed, but is moving towards the same variety & richness. Perfection is already not uncommon. Akasharupa is now persistent in manifestation, but cannot yet acquire a free stability. The vishayadrishtis have all an occasional perfect action, but are limited to a few habitual forms. Samadhi is still deficient in free combination and prolonged continuity of vision and experience.

r1913 12 24, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   Yesterdays descent into the intellectuality gave an opportunity for an attack of the mortal mind which reproduced briefly & by a sort of violence certain features of the old asamata and duhkham connected with the asraddha. The effects were entirely physical and mechanical and had no psychological reality or importance or any just causality. They seem to be a physical adjunct always possible by mechanical revival of old sanskara when dwelling on the plane of mortal mind or in any condition exposed to shadows from the martya manas in the world. They are in the nature of the minor Adhyaropa of the asiddhi to which the first chatusthaya is still liable.
   Rasadrishti continues to develop. Many tastes manifest, mostly on the verge of sufficient materialisation, some just over it, a few depending on some material help and masquing behind an eatable object of quite different taste, eg sour behind pungent, or the memory of an eatable formerly eaten, either a little while ago or a few hours before or the last day. Sound quiescent since yesterday is again manifesting. The other drishtis are as yet stationary (touch) or imprisoned (satyarupa & hearing).

r1914 04 08, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   Dream this night, after a long struggle, recovered a sufficient coherence, not perfect,for two separate dreams, connected in purpose or thought but diverse in time & surroundings, were falsely linked and there was false Adhyaropa of personal & present ego in the principal personage,but sufficient for the vijnana to work and disengage truth from error. There is a tendency also to recovered activity of coherent & thought-governed swapna-samadhi.
   Lipis

r1914 04 11, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   Dreams many & for the most part perfectly coherent; only the last two or three were affected by present personality & associations, but not by present images. The incidents & forms were real & coherent, & the incoherence existed only in the thought of the sakshi fixed by Adhyaropa on the central images,rupa & karma were correct, nama only confused,eg the Salle de Lecture of Pondicherry Adhyaropita on a small but efficient & nobly built library, the Baroda College or a place of education in the same locality, London, brother, sister etc being brought in & fixed on forms & places entirely different. There was also a tendency to run different dreams into each other. In Samadhi thought has become fluent, coherent & self-possessed above the sushupta mind, lipi is clear & frequent, writing or print struggles to be coherently legible, forms & incidents are still in the stage of obstructed progress towards stability.
   The difficulty now is to harmonise the chanda action of the Mahakali personality with the luminous effectiveness of the vijnana, as it has been harmonised with the internal purity, liberty & bhukti. For the luminous & effective vijnana has hitherto been the privilege of Maheswari-Mahasaraswati, & the Mahakali bhava has been always accompanied by false action, false tejas, false knowledge due to eagerness, hope, desire & preference. The old association has revived in the environmental nature owing to the liberation of the asiddha vayavic forces in the surroundings.

r1919 08 05, #Record of Yoga, #Sri Aurobindo, #Integral Yoga
   The Ishwara has now begun to prepare his final overt occupation of the Adhyakshatwa. Strong dasya of the Shakti manifested, and although there is fluctuation is taking possession. Tertiary ideal dasya in intensity has definitely replaced the remnants of the old mental tertiary mixed with the over prominence of Prakriti which maintained the remnants of the secondary dasya. But the dasya is sometimes to the ideal ganas, sometimes direct to the Ishwara
   In samadhi idealisation proceeds, complete narrative (part drishya and dialogue) is growing; dialogue, still fragmentary, is preparing for expansion. Strong hermetic gnosis occurred in the samadhi.

Talks 500-550, #unset, #Arthur C Clarke, #Fiction
  M.: Adhyatma sakti is working within him and leading him on. That is enough. What more is necessary?
  19th August, 1938

Talks With Sri Aurobindo 2, #Talks With Sri Aurobindo, #unset, #Zen
  NIRODBARAN: Dutt says Rakta Golap is an imitation of Tagore's poeticprose novel Char Adhyaya (Four Chapters). Only the style is very good.
  That is true to some extent. She gave most of her attention to style and tried

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Wikipedia - Dewas Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Dewas (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Dhal Singh Bisen -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Dhar (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Dhar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Dhar -- Place in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - D. P. Chattopadhyaya
Wikipedia - Draft:Debaditya Bandyopadhyay -- Indian filmmaker
Wikipedia - Draft:Kismat lal nand -- 18th Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Dr. Ambedkar Nagar railway station -- Train station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Durga Das Uikey -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Durgeshnandini -- Novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Wikipedia - Dwijen Mukhopadhyay
Wikipedia - East Asian Madhyamaka
Wikipedia - Elar Char Adhyay
Wikipedia - Electric Loco Shed, Itarsi -- Loco shed in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Eran -- An ancient town and archaeological site in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Fatehabad Chandrawatiganj Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Gajanan Maharaj Temple, Indore -- Temple in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Gangesha Upadhyaya
Wikipedia - Gautampura Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Ghanshyam Patidar -- Indian politician, Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Gird, India -- Region of Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Gouri Sankar Bandyopadhyay -- Indian historian (born 1962)
Wikipedia - Govardhan Upadhyay -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Government Medical College, Chhindwara -- Medical college in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Government of Madhya Pradesh -- Indian governing authority
Wikipedia - Guna, India -- City in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Guna (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Gwalior Glory High School -- School in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Gwalior (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Haranya Kheri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Haripada Chattopadhyay -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Himadri Singh -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Holkar Science College -- Indian science college in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Indore Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Indore (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Indore -- Metropolis in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jabalpur Junction railway station -- Railway station at Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jabalpur -- Metropolis in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jabri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Jaora railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Jatashankar -- Cave and Hindu shrine in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jawad Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya -- Public university in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jhabua railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Jiban Mukhopadhyay -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Joura (Vidhan Sabha constituency) -- Constituency of the Madhya Pradesh legislative assembly in India
Wikipedia - Junnardeo railway station -- Railway station in Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Jyotirmayee Gangopadhyay -- Bengali educationist, feminist, and freedom fighter
Wikipedia - Kalakund railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Kalapipal railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay -- Indian freedom fighter
Wikipedia - Kamal Nath -- 18th Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Kamanio Chattopadhyay -- Indian materials engineer
Wikipedia - Kanha Tiger Reserve -- National Park in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Karchha railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Kasturi Rajadhyaksha -- Indian physician and community worker
Wikipedia - Kedar Nath Upadhyay -- Former Chief Justice of Nepal
Wikipedia - Keshav Prasad Upadhyaya -- Former Chief Justice of Nepal
Wikipedia - Khachrod railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khajrana Ganesh Temple -- Temple in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khandwa Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Khandwa (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khandwa -- City in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khargone (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khimlasa -- Town in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Khor, Jawad -- Town in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Kishori Mohan Bandyopadhyay -- Indian scientist, social worker
Wikipedia - Kotla Kheri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Krishna Chattopadhyay -- Indian singer
Wikipedia - Kundalpur -- Town in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Laxmibai Nagar Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Leena Gangopadhyay -- Indian writer, producer, and director.
Wikipedia - Lekoda railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - List of airports in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of chief ministers of Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of cities in Madhya Pradesh by population -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of cricket grounds in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikimedia list article
Wikipedia - List of deputy chief ministers of Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of districts of Madhya Pradesh by area -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of districts of Madhya Pradesh -- Regional divisions in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - List of engineering colleges in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of forts in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of governors of Madhya Pradesh -- Wikimedia list article
Wikipedia - List of institutions of higher education in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of Madhya Pradesh cricketers -- Wikimedia list article
Wikipedia - List of Monuments of National Importance in Madhya Pradesh/East -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of Monuments of National Importance in Madhya Pradesh/West -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of Monuments of National Importance in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of museums in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of Rajya Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of speakers of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of state highways in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - List of State Protected Monuments in Madhya Pradesh -- Wikipedia list article
Wikipedia - LNCT Indore -- Educational institution in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Lokmanya Nagar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Madhana village -- Village in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Madhavnagar Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Madhyama Agama
Wikipedia - Madhyamaheshwar -- Hindu temple in Gaundar village, Uttarakhand, India
Wikipedia - Madhyamaka
Wikipedia - Madhyamam -- Malayalam-language newspaper published in Kerala, India
Wikipedia - Madhyamavati -- Janya raga of Carnatic music
Wikipedia - Madhyamika
Wikipedia - Madhyamik Pariksha -- Secondary school exam in West Bengal
Wikipedia - Madhyanta-vibhaga-karika -- Key work in Buddhist philosophy of the Yogacara school
Wikipedia - Madhya Pradesh cricket team -- Indian cricket team
Wikipedia - Madhya Pradesh Power Generation Company Limited -- Indian government electricity company
Wikipedia - Madhya Pradesh Public Service Commission -- State government agency
Wikipedia - Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Madhyapurisvarar Temple, Paranjervazhi -- Temple in India
Wikipedia - Madhyattus -- Genus of jumping spiders
Wikipedia - Mahendra Solanki -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism and Communication -- Public university in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Manabendra Bandyopadhyay -- Indian writer
Wikipedia - Manabi Bandyopadhyay -- LGBT people in India
Wikipedia - Mandana Paintings -- Painting in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Mandla Plant Fossils National Park -- National park in Dindori district, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Mandsaur railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Mandsour (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Manglia Gaon railway station -- railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Manik Bagh -- Palace in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Manik Bandopadhyay
Wikipedia - Manik Upadhyay -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Matana Buzurg railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Mayuri Upadhya -- Indian choreographer, dancer (born 1979)
Wikipedia - Meena Upadhyaya -- Indian-born Welsh medical geneticist
Wikipedia - Mera Madhya Pradesh -- State song of Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - MM-EM-+lamadhyamakakarika -- Foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana philosophy
Wikipedia - Mohammed bin Hashim al-Awadhy -- Qatari militant
Wikipedia - Monu Mukhopadhyay -- Indian Bengali film and television actor (1930-2020)
Wikipedia - Mukhopadhyaya theorem -- One of several closely related theorems about the number of vertices of a curve
Wikipedia - Mukhtiara Balwada railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Mulamadhyamakakarika
Wikipedia - Nagda Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Nagmoti -- 1983 film by Gautam Chattopadhyay
Wikipedia - Naikheri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Naranjipur railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Narayan Patel (Madhya Pradesh politician) -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - National Highway 46 (India) -- National highway in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - National Institute of Design, Madhya Pradesh -- Design school, located in Bhopal, India.
Wikipedia - Nayagaon, Madhya Pradesh -- Human settlement in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Neelam Upadhyaya -- Indian actress
Wikipedia - Neemuch railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Nimai Mukhopadhyay -- American Physicist
Wikipedia - Nimar Kheri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Omkareshwar Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Omkareshwar Temple -- Hindu temple in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Paari (1966 film) -- 1966 Bengali film directed by Jagannath Chattopadhyaya
Wikipedia - Padma Bandopadhyay -- First woman Air Marshal of the Indian Air Force
Wikipedia - Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya Institute of Archaeology -- Archaeological research institute in India
Wikipedia - Patalpani railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Patan (Madhya Pradesh) (Vidhan Sabha constituency) -- Vidhan Sabha constituency
Wikipedia - Pench National Park -- National Park in India (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra)
Wikipedia - Pingleshwar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Piya Chattopadhyay -- Canadian broadcaster
Wikipedia - Posham Pa -- 2019 Indian psychological crime drama thriller television film directed by Suman Mukhopadhyay
Wikipedia - Prabhat Kumar Mukhopadhyaya
Wikipedia - Pradhyumansinh Mahipatsinh Jadeja -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Pratap Rajadhyaksha -- American bridge player
Wikipedia - Rabindra Nath Upadhyay
Wikipedia - Ragini Upadhyaya -- Nepalese painting artist
Wikipedia - Rajadhyaksha
Wikipedia - Rajendra Nagar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Rajgarh (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay
Wikipedia - Ramakant Bhargava -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Ramveer Upadhyay -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Ratlam Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Ratlam -- City in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Rau railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Rewa Ultra Mega Solar -- Solar park in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Ruthiyai Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Ruxmaniben Deepchand Gardi Medical College -- Indian medical school in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Sagar (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Saibal Chattopadhyay -- Indian academic and management professor
Wikipedia - Saifee Nagar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Sailesh Kumar Bandopadhyay -- Indian activist
Wikipedia - Sanawad railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Sanchi -- Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Sandipan Chattopadhyay -- Indian Bengali language writer (1933-2005)
Wikipedia - Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay (actress) -- Indian film actress
Wikipedia - Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay
Wikipedia - Sangita Mukhopadhyay -- Indian molecular biologist
Wikipedia - Sarah T. Stewart-Mukhopadhyay -- American planetary scientist
Wikipedia - Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay -- Indian Bengali writer (1879 - 1938)
Wikipedia - Sarat Chandra Kuthi -- House of Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay in Samta, Howrah district
Wikipedia - Sarwaniya Maharaj -- Human settlement in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Satya Bandyopadhyay -- Indian actor
Wikipedia - Satyadhyana Tirtha -- Hindu guru
Wikipedia - Satyajit Padhye -- Ventriloquist, Puppeteer and Puppet Maker from India
Wikipedia - Sehore railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Shailendra Kumar Upadhyay -- Nepali politician
Wikipedia - Shakti Chattopadhyay -- Bengali poet and writer
Wikipedia - Shamgarh railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay -- Indian writer
Wikipedia - Shiv Dutt Upadhyaya
Wikipedia - Shivpura railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Shivpuri railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Shri Vaishnav Vidyapeeth Vishwavidyalaya -- Private university in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Shujalpur railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Sri Viswa Viznana Vidya Adhyatmika Peetham
Wikipedia - Subhankar Chattopadhyay -- Indian director and producer
Wikipedia - Subhash Mukhopadhyay (physician)
Wikipedia - Subhash Mukhopadhyay (poet)
Wikipedia - Subhro Bandopadhyay -- Indian poet
Wikipedia - Sudip Bandyopadhyay -- Indian politician (born 1952)
Wikipedia - Sujan Mukhopadhyay -- Indian actor
Wikipedia - Suman Mukhopadhyay
Wikipedia - Swadhyaya Movement
Wikipedia - Swami Vivekanand University, Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Swapan Chattopadhyay
Wikipedia - Tamal Bandyopadhyay -- Indian business journalist
Wikipedia - Tarana (Madhya Pradesh) -- Town in Ujjain district, Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Tarana Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Tatya Tope Nagar Sports Complex -- A multi-purposed stadium in Madhya Pradesh.
Wikipedia - Teen Bhubaner Pare -- 1969 film directed by Ashutosh Bandyopadhyay
Wikipedia - Thakurpura -- Village in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Thandla Road railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Tihi railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Tikamgarh district -- District of Madhya Pradesh in India
Wikipedia - Tikamgarh -- City in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Tiki-Taka (film) -- 2020 Indian sports drama comedy film directed by Parambrata Chattopadhyay
Wikipedia - Tikla -- Archeological site and cave in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Tridib Kumar Chattopadhyay -- Bengali writer and editor
Wikipedia - Tritiya Adhyay -- 2019 Bengali language romantic thriller film
Wikipedia - Udayagiri Caves -- Early 5th century Hindu cave temples in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Uday Pratap Singh (Madhya Pradesh politician) -- Indian politician
Wikipedia - Ujjain Junction railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Ujjain (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Umaria railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Undasa Madhopur railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - University Teaching Department Ground -- Multi purpose stadium in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Upadhyay -- Surname used in the Indian subcontinent
Wikipedia - Uttaradhyayana -- SvM-DM-^Stambara text
Wikipedia - Valliddari Madhya -- Indian Telugu-language film by [[V. N. Aditya]]
Wikipedia - Vidisha (Lok Sabha constituency) -- Lok Sabha Constituency in Madhya Pradesh, India
Wikipedia - Vikramnagar railway station -- Railway station in Madhya Pradesh
Wikipedia - Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
Wikipedia - Vivek Shejwalkar -- Politician from Madhya Pradesh, India
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay ::: Born: September 15, 1876; Died: January 16, 1938; Occupation: Novelist;
Sunil Gangopadhyaya ::: Born: September 7, 1934; Died: October 23, 2012; Occupation: Poet;
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https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/217260.Samrat_Upadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/257813.Sharadindu_Bandyopadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/4282780.Taradas_Bandyopadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/4400410.Samhita_Mukhopadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/4401668.Tarashankar_Bandyopadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/6093739.Bibhutibhushan_Bandyopadhyay
https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/6541821.Ranjan_Bandyopadhyay
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https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/7456864.Troilokyanath_Mukhopadhyay
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Goodreads author - Sarat_Chandra_Chattopadhyay
Goodreads author - Manik_Bandopadhyay
Goodreads author - Shirshendu_Mukhopadhyay
Goodreads author - Bankim_Chandra_Chattopadhyay
Goodreads author - Samrat_Upadhyay
Goodreads author - Sharadindu_Bandyopadhyay
Goodreads author - Tarashankar_Bandyopadhyay
Goodreads author - Bibhutibhushan_Bandyopadhyay
Goodreads author - Tamal_Bandyopadhyay
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Category:Madhyamaka
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Madhyam
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Madhyamak
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Madhyamaka
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Middle_way#Madhyamaka
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Ragasvarupa_Pashadhya
https://religion.wikia.org/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine#Madhyamaka
selforum - dp chattopadhyaya emphasises professed
wiki.auroville - Sadhyadeva
Dharmapedia - Bankim_Chandra_Chattopadhyay
Dharmapedia - Bibhutibhushan_Bandyopadhyay
Dharmapedia - Deendayal_Upadhyaya
Dharmapedia - Madhyapara_massacre
Dharmapedia - Madhya_Pradesh
Dharmapedia - Sarat_Chandra_Chattopadhyay
Dharmapedia - Swadhyay_Parivar
Psychology Wiki - Madhyamaka
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - madhyamaka
https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/ComicBook/TadhyaExordium
https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chattopadhyay
https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Chabilal_Upadhyaya
https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Deendayal_Upadhyaya
https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Totaram_Sanadhya
https://logos.fandom.com/wiki/News18_Madhya_Pradesh/Chhattisgarh
https://logos.fandom.com/wiki/Zee_Madhya_Pradesh/Chhattisgarh
https://tardis.fandom.com/wiki/Madhya_Province
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jain_temples_in_Madhya_Pradesh
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Madhya_Pradesh
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_painting_on_the_walls_of_cave_in_Bhimbetka_rock_shelter,_Madhya_Pradesh.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samosa_-_Homemade,_Jabalpur_-_Madhya_Pradesh_-_IMG_20210406_201834.jpg
2013 Madhya Pradesh stampede
32aam Adhyayam 23aam Vaakyam
Aadhyamayi
Aadhya Paadam
Aadhyathe Katha
Abhik Mukhopadhyay
Addalaichenai Madhya Maha Vidyalayam
Adhya Educational Society
Adhyaksa Dault
Adhyan
Adhyapak Abdul Majid College
Adhyapak Jyotish Chandra Ghosh Balika Vidyalaya
Adhyapika
Adhysa
Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu
Adhyatma Ramayana
Adhyatmik Ishwariya Vishwa Vidyalaya
Adhyavasya
Adhyperforin
Adimadhyantham
Ajit Bandyopadhyay
Ajitesh Bandopadhyay
Alampur, Madhya Pradesh
Alipura (Madhya Pradesh)
Amla, Madhya Pradesh
Aniket Chattopadhyay
A.N. Upadhye
Aradhya Malhotra
Ashutosh Mukhopadhyay
Ayodhya Prasad Upadhyay
Baidyanath Mukhopadhyay
Balai Chand Mukhopadhyay
Balaram Mukhopadhyay
Baldev Upadhyaya
Bappaditya Bandopadhyay
Barman, Madhya Pradesh
Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh
Betul, Madhya Pradesh
Bhanu Bandopadhyay
Bhaswar Chattopadhyay
Bhubaneswar Central (Madhya)
Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay
Bilpura, Madhya Pradesh
Bishwonath Upadhyaya
Board of Secondary Education, Madhya Pradesh
Brahmabandhav Upadhyay
Bratati Bandyopadhyay
Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh
Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh (Vidhan Sabha constituency)
Chinmoy Chattopadhyay
Chintan Upadhyay
Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh
Chobilal Upadhyaya
COVID-19 pandemic in Madhya Pradesh
Darbha, Madhya Pradesh
Darshan Upadhyaya
Debendranath Bandyopadhyay
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya
Deendayal Upadhyaya
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Antyodaya Yojana
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana
Deendayal Upadhyaya Institute for the Physically Handicapped
Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University
Deendyal Upadhyay
Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh
Dhangar, Madhya Pradesh
Diocese of Madhya Kerala of the Church of South India
D. P. Chattopadhyaya
Draft:Ajay Upadhyay
Draft:Tamal Bandyopadhyay (novelist)
Dwijen Bandyopadhyay
Dwijen Mukhopadhyay
Elar Char Adhyay
Emblem of Madhya Pradesh
Flora and fauna of Madhya Pradesh
Gangesha Upadhyaya
Gautam Chattopadhyay
Gopal Chandra Mukhopadhyay
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